plagiat merupakan tindakan tidak terpuji - core.ac.uk · review of jamaica and papua socio...

i

Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective SongLyrics as a Counter Power Domination

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree of Magister Humaniora

in English Language Studies

by

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom116332007

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGESTUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITYYOGYAKARTA

2015

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJIPLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons)., Ph.DThesis Advisor


iii

A THESIS


by

Iriano Yedijah Petrus AwomStudent Number 116332007

was defended in front of the Thesis Committeeand declared acceptable

Thesis Committee

Chairperson : Sri Mulyani, M.A., Ph.D. ____________

Secretary : Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A (Hons)., Ph.D ____________

Member : Paulus Sarwoto, M.A., Ph.D. ____________

Member : Mutiara Andalas, S.J., S.TD. ____________

Yogyakarta, 23 Februari 2015

The Graduate Program DirectorSanata Dharma University

Prof. Dr. Augustinus Supratiknya


iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise

stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands

the full consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else's

idea, phrase, or sentence without proper reference.

Yogyakarta, 23 Februari 2015

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom


v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAHUNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom

Nomor mahasiswa : 116332007

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada PerpustakaanUniversitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:


Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikankepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalandata, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet ataumedia lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari sayamaupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama sayasebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Pada tanggal: 23 February 2015



vi

ACKNOWLEDMENTS

My first very deep gratitude goes to The Almighty and The Most High,

Jesus Christ who has allowed me to go this far. My next great gratitude goes to all

lecturers in the English Language Studies Department, especially Dr. Novita Dewi,

M.S., M.A. (Hons)., Romo Patricius Mutiara Andalas, S.J., S.TD. and the late

Prof. Dr. Bakdi Soemanto for their professional support throughout my study.

My special love goes to my dearest family: Kamam who supported me

spiritually and financially; my Awin who stared at me from heaven above, I love

you mom; also to my dearest wife, Silva and my lovely son, David for your

patience and love; to my three dearest sisters, Rina, Frida and Samy, I love you so

much.

I would also thank my friends Rosemary Kesauly and Andrew Thren for

supporting me with discussion and ideas, God bless.

Kasumasa nabor,



vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE............................................................................................................ iAPPROVAL PAGE ................................................................................................. iiACCEPTANCE PAGE........................................................................................... iiiSTATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY........................................................................ ivLEMBAR PERNYATAAN PUBLIKASI .................................................................... vACKNOWLEDMENTS ........................................................................................ viTABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... viiABSTRACT........................................................................................................... ixABSTRAK .............................................................................................................. x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................. 7

1. Review of Related Studies .............................................................................. 72. Review of Jamaica and Papua Socio Political History ................................. 12

2.1. The Jamaican Socio-Political History................................................. 122.2. The Papuan Socio-political History ....................................................... 16

3. Theoretical Concepts..................................................................................... 243.1. Cognitive Poetics ................................................................................... 243.2. Conceptual Metaphor ............................................................................. 263.3. Hidden Transcript................................................................................... 313.4. Memoria Passionis ................................................................................. 34

4. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 34

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW INTO THE REALM OF BOB MARLEY AND THEBLACK BROTHERS’ CRAFTS - CONTENT ANALYSIS ................................ 38

1. Bob Marley's Music ...................................................................................... 391.1. Theme in Bob Marley's songs ................................................................ 421.2. Bob Marley's Lyrical Style..................................................................... 46

1.2.1. Rasta Language ............................................................................... 471.2.2. Jamaican Grounded Metaphor ........................................................ 491.2.3. Spiritual Grounded Metaphor (Rasta and Biblical Reference) ....... 54

1.3. Bob Marley's Lyrical Form .................................................................... 592. The Black Brothers' Music............................................................................ 61

2.1. Theme in The Black Brothers’ songs ..................................................... 642.2. The Black Brothers' Lyrical Style .......................................................... 68

2.2.1. Romantic Grounded Metaphors ...................................................... 692.2.2. Papua Grounded Metaphor ............................................................. 74

2.3. The Black Brothers' Lyrical Forms ........................................................ 773. The Sense of Affinity between Bob Marley and The Black Brothers........... 78


viii

CHAPTER 4: THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT IN BOB MARLEY’S AND THEBLACK BROTHERS’ SONGS ............................................................................ 82

1. The Socio-Political Context of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Songs 832. Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Music and Song as Counter-DominantPower Alternative.............................................................................................. 843. Bob Marley and The Black Black Brothers’ Songs as the Language ofResistance.......................................................................................................... 874. The Analysis of Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers'Songs ................................................................................................................. 91

4.1. The First Element of Hidden Transcript: Metaphor ............................... 924.1.1. Metaphoric Depiction of Poverty in Bob Marley's and The BlackBrothers' Songs ......................................................................................... 944.1.2. Metaphoric Depiction of Racism in Bob Marley and The BlackBrothers' Songs ....................................................................................... 1024.1.3. Metaphoric Depiction of Violence in Bob Marley and The BlackBrothers' Songs ....................................................................................... 1044.1.4. Metaphoric Depiction of Prison in Bob Marley's and The BlackBrothers' Songs ....................................................................................... 109

4.2. The Second Element of Hidden Transcript: Anonymity .......................1134.2.1. The Sender Anonymity ..................................................................1144.2.2. The Receiver Anonymity ...............................................................1154.2.3. The Relationship Anonymity ........................................................ 121

4.3. The Third Element of Hidden Transcript: Euphemism........................ 1234.3.1. Euphemism as Sweet Talking ....................................................... 1254.3.2. Euphemism as Deception.............................................................. 129

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION............................................................................ 134

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................... 142

APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 146

APPENDIX 1 List of Bob Marley's and the Black Brothers’ Albums and Songs......................................................................................................................... 146APPENDIX 2 Bob Marley's Songs Selected for Analysis.............................. 152APPENDIX 3 The Black Brothers' Songs Selected for Analysis ................... 153


ix

ABSTRACT

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom (2015). Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's andThe Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata DharmaUniversity.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers are the embodiment of popularmusic icons and the symbol of pride, dignity and freedom for their respectivesocial groups. Their songs promote, advocate, and motivate their fellow brothersand sisters who have been marginalized in the hegemonic world under powerdomination. In order to penetrate this hegemonic public sphere where many timesrejection and even harsh treatment are the consequences, they had to play safe inthe subversive mode through the so-called hidden transcript. This study views thatin resisting the tyranny, Bob Marley and Black Brothers employ their music andsongs as their vehicle to carry their protests. However, as their music tend to beconsumed for leisure and pleasure, people start to loose the cognitive part of itwhich is to grasp the meaning and to intellectualize the message that its lyriccarries.

This study uses cognitive poetic in making an in-depth analysis of BobMarley's and The Black Brothers' songs. In attempt to unveil the hidden messagein the song, this study employs James Scott's concept of hidden transcript whichconsists of elements which become the rhetoric in Bob Marley's and The BlackBrothers' lyrics.

This study shows that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers tend to usemetaphoric expression which is the main point in cognitive poetic analysis. Thisstudy also points out that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers make use of thatelements of hidden transcript as a form of passive resistance. Their effort aims todiagnose problems, offer problem solution and call for action.

Understanding Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' hidden transcript isconsidered important since they contain significant message into which peoplecan see and understand the phenomenon of their socio-political history. BobMarley's and The Black Brothers' peaceful resistance is a good example and maygive a spirit that can bring salvation and freedom to their respective people. Theunderstanding of hidden transcript in Bob Marley and The Black Brother can alsoraise people's awareness to stand up for the truth and for their right, regardless ofthe circumstances. Hopefully this study will enrich literary study and triggerfurther research on Bob Marley's and, especially The Black Brothers' songs.


x

ABSTRAK

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom (2015). Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's andThe Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.Yogyakarta: Magister Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, UniversitasSanata Dharma.

Baik Bob Marley dan Black Brothers merupakan perpaduan dari ikonpopular musik dan simbol kebanggaan, harkat, dan kebebasan bagi kelompokmasyarakatnya. Lagu-lagu mereka memperkenalkan, mengadvokasi, danmemotivasi saudara-saudari mereka yang termarginalkan dalam dunia hegemonidi bawah dominasi kekuasaan. Agar bisa menembus dunia hegemoni tersebut dimana seringkali terjadi penolakan dan bahkan penindasan sebagai konsekuensinya,mereka harus berlaku hati-hati dalam bentuk subversif melalui apa yaang disebuttranskip tersembunti (hidden transript). Studi ini melihat bahwa dalam menentangtirani, baik Bob Marley dan Black Brothers menggunakan musik dan lagu sebagaikendaraan dalam memuat protes dan kritik. Namun, sebagaimana musik lebihcenderung dikonsumsi untuk tujuan mengisi waktu luang dan bersenang-senangsemata, maka orang mulai kehilangan sisi kognitif untuk dapat memahami arti danmengintelektualisasikan pesan yang dibawa dalam lirik-liriknya.

Studi ini menggunakan analisa kognisi puitis dalam membuat analisa yangmendalam terhadap lagu-lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers. Dalam usahauntuk mengungkap pesan-pesan tersembunyi di dalam lagu-lagu itu, studi inimenggunakan konsep dari James Scott yang mencakup elemen-elemen yangmenjadi retorika dalam lirik-lirik lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers.

Studi ini menunjukkan bahwa Bob Marley dan Black Brothers cenderungmenggunakan ekspresi-ekspresi metaporis yang menjadi poin utama dalam analisacognisi sastra. Studi ini juga menunjukkan bahwa Bob Marley dan Black Brothersmenggunakan elemen-elemen transkrip tersembunyi sebagai bentuk perlawananpasif. Usaha mereka bertujuan mendiagnosa permasalahan, menawarkan solusi,dan meyerukan aksi.

Memahami transkip-transkrip tersembunyi dari Bob Marley dan BlackBrothers dianggap hal yang penting karena mereka memuat pesan-pesansignifikan dalam mana orang dapat melihat dan memahami fenomena sejarahsosio-politik mereka. Perlawanan damai Bob Marley dan Black Brothersmerupakan suatu contoh baik dan dapat memberi motivasi yang membawapenyelamatan dan kebebasan bagi masyarakatnya. Memahami transkrip-transkriptersembunyi dalam lagu-lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers dapat jugamembangkitkan kesadaran bahwa apapun kondisinya, orang harus bisa berdirimenyuarakan kebenaran dan haknya. Diharapkan studi ini dapat memperkayakajian sastra dan memicu penelitian lebih jauh terhadap lagu-lagu Bob Marley,terutama Black Brothers.


1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In Papua there is a music community named "KORK" (Komunitas Rasta

Kribo) which is mainly inspired by the two most influencial popular music icons,

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers. The community reflects the passion of the

youth in the island to favor reggae music which was popularized by the legendary

Jamaican artist Bob Marley and preserves the legacy of the island's legendary pop

band The Black Brothers. Emerging from the spirit of the Black power

movements, Bob Marley gives a sense of affinity and engagement to the people of

Papua especially the youth that his music and message represent the spirit of

freedom and resistance against injustice that have been experienced by them for

so long. The Papuan youth began to equate Bob Marley to Black Brothers, as they

are both claimed as the representation of the existence of Papuans who have been

marginalized among their Indonesian brothers and sisters. The community gives a

picture of how Bob Marley and Black Brothers, who happened to equally emerge

from the marginalized Black society and shared similar ideology, have become

their main patrons for dignity and pride among the people.

Bob Marley, a third world superstar has rocked the world with Jamaican

new distinctive genre of music, called "reggae." His music merges with the

socio-religious movement of Rastafarianism, a religion that sprung up in Jamaica

in 1930s which believe Ethiopian Emperor, Haile Selassie I or Rastafari

Makonnen as the true messiah. This helped to boost the post-colonial spirit that

emerged in the late 1960s. Coming from the slums of Kingston, Jamaica, reggae


2

was a form of response to the environment the residents lived. Reggae became the

music of the "sufferah" (sufferer). In this way it becomes a music of protest which

also deals with nature and the universe.

Reggae became known worldwide mostly through Bob Marley, despite the

fact that there were some other Jamaican artists and bands who had come before

him like Desmond Dekker, Jimmy Cliff, Toots and Maytals, and Skatalites. Under

the label of Island Records owned by a British Jamaican producer Chris Blackwell,

Bob Marley managed to penetrate the international audience in the 1970s. Gaining

his superstardom did not block Marley from singing about his Rastafarian beliefs,

Jamaica's economic and social problems which became the common themes in

reggae. It is through reggae that Bob Marley became the most prominent musician

in voicing those problems.

As his popularity grows, his music and messages began to influence other

artists and bands such as Erick Clapton, Mick Jagger, UB 40, Black Uhuru, Steel

Pulse, and Burning Spear. Reggae also influenced other kinds of music including

Top Forty, Punk Rock and Rap.1 Many people in other countries especially the

Third World and Black countries have recognized their own trouble in the

expression of this loudest voice and have identified the suffering with music. Bob

Marley's 7th album, "Survival" is covered with all flags of Black nations in the

world including Papua New Guinea (PNG), the neighbor country of West Papua.

Nowadays, people worldwide see Bob Marley as the symbol of freedom. His

1 Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, Unpublished thesis, Texas: TexasTech University, 1995, p. 3. Web. 18 January. 2014.<https://repositories.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/18392/31295009462697.pdf?sequence=1>.


3

music and song are his vehicle to transmit a message of redemption.2

The Black Brothers, a popular band from Papua, the eastern most province

of Indonesia, was once appeared to be one of the forefront and greatest bands in

the nation in the 1970s and became the epitome of Papua popular music. Their

music is the combination of traditional folksongs and popular music. They play

various genres of music like rock, rock n roll, disco, slow pop, jazz, keroncong,

and even reggae. The Black Brothers is known by its slow, mellow mood and

romantic songs. However, there are also some songs addressing social problems.

To some Papuans The Black Brothers is not only a popular band, but also a

symbol of dignity and pride. Appeared from the eastern most part of the

archipelago, The Black Brothers came to break the stigmatization of

backwardness, primitivity, and alienation of its people.

Despite geographically they are separated thousand miles away with

distinctive socio-cultural background but there seems to be a close affinity in

terms of Black power movement to survive in their marginalized status and

oppressive circumstances. Bob Marley has an international significance to the

struggle of the oppressed, especially in Third World countries and Black nations

as shown in aforementioned album's "Survival." The album is covered with the

flags of all independent Black nations in the world, including Papua New Guinea

(PNG), the neighboring country of Indonesia, just across the border of Papua. The

title of the album “Survival” may suggest that they are bound together in unity to

survive. The Black Brothers were among those who raised political consciousness

through music with their fellow brothers and sisters in PNG, New Caledonia, and

2 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley. (Westport: Praeger, 2007), p 132.


4

Vanuatu. Meanwhile, to most of their fellow Indonesians outside the island, The

Black Brothers simply wanted to show their Papuans' existence, uniqueness and

distinctiveness.

When political situation disallowed artists to freely express themselves,

subversive action then looms large. Therefore, this study would like to see how

Bob Marley and especially The Black Brothers managed to penetrate the

hegemonic and even oppressive public sphere through their music and songs.

Jamaicans and Papuans in this case are to be seen as the subordinate groups who

are marginalized by the dominant power. In avoiding direct confrontation with the

ruling power the subordinate groups tend to play safe ground through cultural and

artistic products including music and song.

Generally, this study is an analysis of the artistic musical response of Bob

Marley toward socio-political conditions in post-colonial Jamaica, and The Black

Brothers in the still colonized Papua in Indonesia. The impression of internal

colonialism in Papua is shown through investigations by International Crisis

Group and through testimonies by the locals, Papuan leaders, and activist

literatures.3 Particularly, the study is intended to investigate to what extent and

how Bob Marley and The Black Brothers used their music and songs as a form of

resistance against hegemonic and oppressive power domination.

In understanding the objects of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers'

artistic resistance, this study portrays the socio-political background where the

two icons emerged to illuminate the structural conditions behind the critiques or

protests. These distinctive socio-political conditions determine the methods they

3 Smith, Anthony L. Papua: Moving Beyond Internal Colonialism?, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies4.2, December, 2002, pp 90-114. Web. January 20, 2015.<http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec02/Smith-Ng.pdf>


5

would use in addressing their protests. Here the method used was passive

resistance through musical performance. Therefore, this thesis applies James

Scott's4 concept of hidden transcript by focusing on two basic questions: (1) What

are the differences and similarities shown by Bob Marley and The Black Brothers

in using music and songs as hidden transcript to voice their resistance? (2) How

does each artist use music, specifically song lyrics to show resistance?

This present study attempts to examine popular music as a

multidisciplinary mosaic by linking it to literary study, in order to create a niche in

English Literature studies using music as a text. The essence of song is an equality

of music and text,5 in other words, song is a bridge that connects music and text

that can enable a message to be clearly delivered. Music and words coexist

through song lyric with which people will have the opportunity to study language

as an art just like in poetry or in prose.6 Here, the literary analysis of song lyrics

can be intertwined with musical, performative and social contexts of the popular

music studied.7 Specifically, the room for literary researchers in popular music

study would be called the verbal space where the words go side by side with

musical tone. It seems quite likely that popular music depends on the words. They

provide people with a means of communication to articulate a response to the

song.8 It is no doubt that song lyric is a media to give a voice of individual and

social phenomenon. Therefore, understanding the lyric would be an essential thing.

It is an integral part of the musical experience. They connect the listeners by

4 Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, (Michigan: Yale University Press, 1990).5 Stein, Deborah and Spillman, Robert. Poetry Into Song. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 20.6 Stein, Deborah and Spillman, Robert. Poetry Into Song, p. 20.7 Steinholt, Yngvar B. "Coognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A new approach to songlyrics?" Web. 9 May 2014. <http://www.hum.uit.no/a/steinholt/cog_poe.pdf>.

8 Moore, Allan F. Analyzing Popular Music. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 40.


6

enhancing the possibilities to be identified with the song.

However, the listeners or audience often do not pay attention and

anticipate the persuasion that a song carries through its lyric. As a result, they do

not decode the message that a singer intends to communicate. Another reason is

that music tends to affect people more physically and emotionally than cognitively.

In affecting people physically, music can contribute to socialization through dance.

While emotionally and cognitively, music affects people by inviting them to relate

to the themes of its lyrics to personal experience as a part of the act of processing

the message of a song.9 Furthermore, the language of a song sometimes happens

in the second semiotical order where the words have connotations through

symbolism and metaphorical expression that allow a song to produce layers of

meaning. Hence, it would require a precise approach to grasp the message.

As such, this study would conduct an in-depth analysis by using cognitive

poetic analysis which encompasses the three nature of literary study namely text,

reader, and context. Cognitive poetic analysis does not treat a literary text merely

as an object for leisure and pleasure but intellectualizing it. Bob Marley and The

Black Brothers' music and songs are not to be consumed for entertainment alone

but also for their ideological, political, and social movement purposes. It is in this

way that people will have a good understanding of the artistical power in music

and songs as a way to stimulate social consciousness and, possibly, mobilize the

listeners.

9 Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, postgraduate thesis, Texas TechUniversity, 1995, p. 47. Web. 18 January. 2014.<https://repositories.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/18392/31295009462697.pdf?sequence=1>.


7

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Review of Related Studies

Music is not only for entertainment, but also a means to communicate. As

a contemporary popular art, music is always accompanied by song lyrics. It is an

artistic expression and reference to convey ideas, thought, and emotional feelings.

In this way song can be considered as oral verbal arts. In every song, the lyrics

and music coexist harmoniously. The literary aspects of song lyrics can be studied

closely as in poetry and prose. A representation to explain how popular music gets

into literary study is conducted by Steinholt.1 In his article, Steinholt proposed a

new approach to song lyrics through literary study using Peter Stockwell's

cognitive poetic. Cognitive poetic in his sense is to engage in close analysis of the

text, but also recognize that context has an important role in the creation of

meaning. Popular music is a multidisciplinary domain. A literary analysis of song

lyrics can be embedded in the musical, performative and social context of the

popular music. Cognitive poetic is an entry point that can help improve the

analysis. Furthermore, he explained about how listeners identify the texts by

imagining bodies that inhabit them, be it in a written poem or a song lyrics. The

task of literature science in popular music study is therefore to shed light on the

interrelationship between the body constructed in the lyrics and its surrounding

environment.

Steinholt argues that lyrics are an integral part of the musical experience,

1 Steinholt, Yngvar B. Cognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A new approach to song lyric?Bergen University. Web. 12 December. 2013. <http://www.hum.uit.no/a/steinholt/cog_poe.pdf>.


8

and they enhance the possibilities for the listener to be identified with the song. As

listeners, we identify texts (musical and lyrical) by imagining bodies inhabiting

them. However a text might be abstract, therefore in order to negotiate meaning in

a text we also project certain sides of ourselves onto an outer body, which we are

prepared to send negotiations with the imagined body in the text. This successful

negotiation and dialogue between default body and imagined one will bring new

experiences, new insights and can activate new thoughts and emotions. It can be

said that in cognitive poetics' nature there is a synergy between readers, text and

context to gain a better understanding over an explicit and implicit body of a

poem or a song. In popular music studies, the primary object of study for the

science of literature can center on the body or bodies which reside in the lyrics.

This body does not exist in isolation from any other bodies involved.

While there are several studies done on Bob Marley, only one study is thus

far found on The Black Brothers by Sonfor Wambrauw.2 Most studies on Bob

Marley focus on sociological and pedagogical values of his music and songs like

what have been studied by Edward Skopal,3 Manisha Nordine,4 and Mervin

Stoddart.5 One example that is closely related to literary analysis and this present

2 Wambrauw, Sonfor W. An Analysis of Theme and Tone in Six Selected Songs of Black Brothers (BaladaPramuria, Cinta dan Pramuria, Kisah Seorang Pramuria, Pramuria Tapi Biarawati, Untukmu Pramuria, andDoa Pramuria), unpublished undergraduate thesis, Manokwari: State University of Papua, 2014.3 Skopal, W. Edward, Jr. "Hear Dem Cryin" Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music, postgraduatethesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2005. Web. January 18. 2014.<http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-06142005-091954/unrestricted/03edskopal_ThesisBody.pdf>.4 Nordine, Manisha. Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in Bob Marley's "Jah-Public," adissertation, University of Minnesota, 2007. Web. January 18. 2014.<http://books.google.co.id/books?id=7A5R1UUCzsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=traditional+song+as+resistance&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bgUaUdmeNMitiAe544DABA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=traditional%20song%20as%20resistance&f=false>.5 Stoddart, Mervin. Bob Marley's Lyrics: Understanding and Explaining Their Pedagogical Value, adissertation, Capella University, 2007. Web. 18 January. 2014.<http://books.google.co.id/books?id=_N4fvbkPYL0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=analisis+lirik+bob+marley&hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false>.


9

study is research conducted by David Steven Worth.6 In his study, Worth focused

on analyzing metaphors used in Bob Marley's lyrics. The conceptual base for the

study is to treat music as communication.

To start with the only work on The Black Brothers, Sonfor analyses the

tone and theme in The Black Brothers' selected songs about "pramuria"

(prostitute).7 Sonfor considers The Black Brothers' song as oral poetry based on

the assumption by Flanagan that poetry is a literary work, written or orally used to

express the thought and feeling of the author. Using structuralism approach he

then divides and interpretatively analyzes the theme based on Waluyo's

categorization (humanity, social justice, sovereignty, and divinity). Next, he

analyzes the tone based on Meyer's categorization (sad, serious, public,

affectionate, bitter, and optimist).

Although Sonfor's study on The Black Brothers is useful, the treatment of

song exactly as a poem needs to be reconsidered. His analysis structurally divides,

translates, and analyzes the song per stanza and line. Changing the structure of the

song would raise a contradiction, given that a song has its own characteristics and

structure.

Worth’s research provides a good basic understanding in analyzing Bob

Marley’s lyrics. He is using Lackoff and Johnson’s theory which states that the

actual structure of the human conceptual system is metaphorical. Analyzing the

songs in the eight albums of Bob Marley, Worth assumes that a great deal of the

lyrics in those songs are often misunderstood by most people, especially

6 Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, Unpublished Thesis: Texas TechUniversity, 1995, p. 3. Web. 18 January. 2014.<https://repositories.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/18392/31295009462697.pdf?sequence=1>.7 Wambrauw, Sonfor W. An Analysis of Theme and Tone in Six Selected Songs of Black Brothers (BaladaPramuria, Cinta dan Pramuria, Kisah Seorang Pramuria, Pramuria Tapi Biarawati, Untukmu Pramuria, andDoa Pramuria), unpublished undergraduate thesis, Manokwari: State University of Papua, 2014.


10

non-Jamaican, not only due to their pronunciation but also because of the

metaphors which are mostly related to Jamaica and Rastafari in particular.

Jamaican language is an extension of Jamaican Creole or Patois, that is a language

which has consciously developed based on philosophical reasons. Jamaican

language, says Worth is not a mere means of communication but more than that, it

is a holy tool which has inherent power to evoke and to be the thing meant.8 It

means that words are the source of power for the Rasta, which can change and

adapt accordingly to their philosophy and goals. Bob Marley uses and infuses this

kind of language into most of his songs, therefore without a proper knowledge,

Worth claims that many of the lyrics would seem meaningless, or be severely

misunderstood. He makes a clear division of patterns in relation to the structures

of Bob Marley's metaphorical expression which he views as a form of Bob

Marley's rhetorics in addressing protest and critics.

Worth's study reveals several trends in Bob Marley's metaphorical usage

based on his spiritual beliefs of Rastafarianism, Jamaican rural and urban proverbs

or wisdoms. There are eight metaphoric categories being discussed: light/dark,

up/down, nature, journey, Babylon, free/slave, poverty, and metaphors from

Rastafarian language.9 His discussion is quite helpful since it provides the basic

explanation on language and expression commonly found in Bob Marley's songs

which many times create confusion among his audience.

A more in-depth analysis on Bob Marley’s metaphorical language can be

found in the books of Dawes (Lyrical Genius) and Moskowitz (The Words and

Music of Bob Marley). Dawes analyzes all songs in Bob Marley's nine albums

8 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 27.9 Ibid, p. 67.


11

produced or co-produced by Island Records. His work is also quite helpful since

Dawes, as a Jamaican writer, puts light onto Bob Marley’s works through the

perspective of Jamaican context. Social, political, and cultural nuance of Jamaica

and Rasta are strongly embedded in Bob Marley's songs. The writer could see that

these two books are complementary to each other. Dawes discusses in details of

every Bob Marley’s songs album started from the first “Catch a fire” to

posthumous release of “Confrontation.” He addresses Bob Marley’s genius

through metaphorical expression, witty pun and euphemism to juxtapose social

and political realms with musical creativity. Just like what Dawes did, Moskowitz

also reveals the story behind Bob Marley’s songs and biographical review starting

from the early beginnings of the birth of Bob Marley until after his death. It is a

biography as well as discography completed with stories behind almost every

song and event.

Unlike the previous studies above, which mainly focus on each artist this

present study would attempt to investigate the works of Marley and the Black

Brothers in figuring the possible link between the two artists that their songs

possess elements of hidden transcript as a form of resistance against hegemony

and oppression by the power domination toward their respective social groups.

This study also would attempt to link the disciplines of popular music study and

literary study through the analysis of lyrics as a text. Despite of these facts, this

study would be in debt for those previous studies on related topic especially like

what has been done by Worth. He lays the ground as the stepping stone for this

present study. His metaphoric categories of Bob Marley’s songs open the way for

this present study. The writer uses his works as the blue print or guidance in doing


12

the analysis. However, if there is any unjust of this present study, the writer would

open to any criticism that will encourage further study of Bob Marley's and The

Black Brothers' works.

2. Review of Jamaica and Papua Socio Political History

Review of relevant literature on the social and political contexts in which

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers's music emerged is necessary to understand

the condition which illuminate message in songs of Bob Marley and the Black

Brothers. Following is the depiction of socio-political climate in Jamaica and

Papua in arround 1960s to 1980s. This ill-fated hegemonic and repressive

condition somehow affects the method Bob Marley and The Black Brothers used

in their critique.

2.1. The Jamaican Socio-Political History

Jamaican history is painted with an explicit panorama of resistance, revolts,

insurrections, up-risings, and riots starting from the early days of slavery.10

Jamaica had contact with the European when Christopher Colombus first landed

on the Discovery Bay on May, 4th 1494. He brutally killed the indigenous people

on the island, Taino, who resited to claim the invented land for Spain. Within

approximately twenty five years, almost the entire Taino population (several

hundred thousands) vanished due to combination of forced labor,

under-nourishment, and disease.11 Lack of available laborers the Spanish then

began to import African slaves by relatively limited numbers to work on

10 Wright, Colin. Badiou in Jamaica, The Politics of Conflict. (Australia: Colin Wright and re.press, 2013), p.227.11 Ibid, p. 228.


13

plantation to crop bananas, tobacco, cocoa, and sugar. Spanish ruled over the land

for three hundred years before English forced them to flee on May 1655. Jamaica

was officially handed over to England under a treaty in Madrid, Spain in 1670. As

the Spanish fled to the mainland of America and Cuba, the abandoned slaves

escaped to form jungle based escapees who later named the Maroons (from

Spanish for runaway, cimaroon). The Maroons play a significant role in Jamaica

future struggles against slavery. There were several revolts took place: in 1760 a

rebellion led by Tacky, an adherent of Mayal, a religious system that specialized

in encountering the hex of evil people, resulting in the killings of many whites and

destruction of plantation.12 In 1832, Sam Sharpe, a deacon in Native Baptist

church, also led a rebellion but ended in defeat. One of the well known was

Morant Bay rebellion which piloted by Paul Bogle, a Baptist deacon. Triggered by

poverty, injustice, and lack of public confidence in the central authority, he led a

protest march to Morant Bay courthouse on October 11th, 1865. The long march

turned to be a violent confrontation which cause nearly five hundred people were

killed. He was captured and hanged a few days later. However, his effort brought a

change in official attitude toward the people. Another significant social movement

was United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) led by Marcus Mosiah

Garvey. He sought the unification of all Blacks and spoke out against economic

exploitation and cultural denigration. He was also the man behind the

socio-religious movement, Rastafarianism which emerged in 1930’s. In 1927 he

prophesied that a King will be crowned in Africa to redeem all Blacks. This

prophecy was not taken lightly by his followers that they claimed it to be real as in

12 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley, Lyrical Genius, p. 25.


14

1930 Prince Ras Tafari was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I in Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia. Ever since, in Jamaica many began to consult their Bibles in search of

scriptures which mentioned about this event. They discovered many passages

offered in support of Garvey’s prophecy. Among others are Revelation 5:2-5, in

which a descendant of David is described as able to loose the seven seals; Ezekiel

37:22-25, in which a descendant of David is prophesied to be ruler of the world;

Isiah 43:1-15, 65:9, in which descendant of Jacob is prophesied to be the ruler of

the world (Nicholas, 1979 in Worth).13 Using these passages they started to

preach that Selassie was the living God, he was actually the Messiah returned.

Apart from this spiritual awaits of a redeemer that came true, at last the day of

redemption arrived that on August 6, 1962 Jamaica got its political independence

from British colonial rule. However this was just a new beginning, the journey to

a full freedom still far from what being expected.

It was just like “jumping out the frying pan into the fire,” after the end of

the white colonial power, Jamaica faces a new problem. The history of Jamaica

modern politics was largely insinuated by the story of the two warring parties,

Jamaican Labor Party (JLP) and People National Party (PNP). The rivalry started

at the early formation of the parties by their founders Alexander Bustamante (JLP)

and Norman Washington Manley (PNP). Violence became institutionalized in

modern Jamaican politics. Political process was destabilized by corrosive

influence of partisan politics, whereby party loyalists dependent on political

patronage were encouraged by the parties to defend local constituencies and

participate in political conflicts.14 These conflicts kept on its trail until 1960’s

13 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 15.14 Williams, Kareen Felicia. The Evolution of Political Violence in Jamaica 1940-1980, a dissertation,


15

under Edward Seaga (JLP) and Michael Manley (PNP). Jamaica society was

divided into two poles which involved in war of party loyal supporters. Inner-city

neighborhoods were divided into certain sections according to political

allegiance.15 Political parties and their leaders mobilized grassroots supporters

through ideology, demagoguery, inter-party conflicts, political patronage, and

utilized the rhetoric of political campaign speeches to incite acts of aggression in

an effort to defeat their rivals.16

The times leading to each election were so terrifying. Acts of violence

directed at innocent people, such as shooting and arson, created fear and panic.17

The number of violence kept on increasing in each election 1972, 1976, and

reached its peak in 1980. The total number of murders reported in 1980 was

889.538, a number which attributed primarily to politically motivated violence

due to constituencies where the murders occurred and the people who were killed.

On December 3, 1976 Bob Marley, his wife, Rita, manager Don Taylor were

gunned in Bob Marley’s house at 56 Hope Road. Luckily they were all survived.

The attack was a few days before Bob Marley about to perform on "Smile

Jamaica" concert to ease the political tension before the election. There could be

some reasons behind the shooting, but one of them was because of the resentment

by the JLP of Bob Marley’s close relation to Michael Manley from PNP .18

Despite this devastating political race between politicians to take charge in

bringing the people to a brighter future, Jamaican governments both JLP and PNP

Columbia University, 2011, p. 3. Web. April 1st, 2014.<http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/.../Williams_columbia_0054D_10107.pdf>.15 Leslie, Glaister. Confronting the Don: The Political Economy of Gang Violence in Jamaica. (Geneva:Small Arms Survey, 2010), p. 12.16 Williams, K.F. The Evolution of Political Violence in Jamaica 1940-1980, p. 8.17 Ibid, p. 264.18 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 73.


16

failed to reform the economy. This was mainly due to the lack of necessary

manufactories and infrastructure for agriculture to develop local industry.19 This

problem led to the country’s dependency on foreign capital and loans from IMF

and World Bank. Although IMF loans did generate short-term economic growth

but its long term effects was so devastating. Higher cost of living expense, and

firing thousands of civil servants increased unemployment. Jamaica was once

again implicitly colonized through the mechanism of debt. “Jamaica’s colonial

past has become an IMF structural present.”20

As what Bob Marley sings "No chains around my feet but I'm not free/ I

know I'm bound here in captivity," he is telling the people that a new form of

enslavement has entrapped new free Jamaica. Social and political phenomenon

has degraded people's humanity. This is what Bob Marley was struggling for, and

that he wants the people to know as he sings "emancipate yourself from mental

slavery/ 'cause none but ourselves can free our mind/ so won't you help me to sing

another song of freedom."

2.2. The Papuan Socio-political History

“A land of disputes” is perhaps the most fitting term to describe the

socio-political condition embedded to Papua, the world’s second largest island. It

was once a mysterious and an abandoned land. The first contact with outsiders

was when in 1545 a Spanish sailor Ortiz Retez landed on the island on his way to

Panama. He claimed the island for the King of Spain and named it “Nueva

Guinea” (New Guinea). The naming was due to the similarities of the population

19 Williams, K.F. The Evolution of Political Violence in Jamaica 1940-1980, pp. 258-265.20 Skopal, Edward, Jr. Hear Them Crying (Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music), p. 10.


17

with those in Guinea, Africa. The Spanish left afterwards and never returned, the

modern name of the land only legalization to them.21 In 1605 a Dutch man,

Willem Janz, landed on the land. However some of his crews were slayed by the

locals which forced them to flee. Another colonial European who landed on the

land was the British troops. The Captain, John Hayes, proclaimed it as “New

Albion” in 1793. They set up a wooden fortress in Dore Gulf, Manokwari and

name it Fort Coronation. However due to diseases and conflicts with other

European competitors, the English withdrew. The Dutch then took their place and

claimed the island in 1828, mainly because of their East Indies authority. Despite

of their claim the Dutch did not set up administrative institutions on the island

instead appointed Sultan of Tidore to administer the territory.22 It was in 1907 that

they began to open the land for its natural resources. The Dutch oil company

started to tap into the region. This was followed by the mining corporation

between Netherland and America after the wealth of resources available (cooper

and gold) became increasingly apparent.

Regardless of the affinity between the two sides of New Guinea, a border

was drawn down the middle by European colonialists in 1895 and 1910 which

officially divided them. The Dutch claimed the western half while the eastern part

went to British and Germans. The first revolt against the European colonial power

was recorded in 1930s under a Messianic movement, "Koreri" around Schouten

Islands where Biak is the biggest one among them.23 Kamma, a Dutch missionary,

21 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat.(Yogyakarta: ELSAM dan Putaka Pelajar Yogyakarta, 2001), p. 14.22 Brundige, Elizabeth, et all. "Indonesian Human Right Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law ofGenocide to the History of Indonesian Control," a paper by Yale Law School, 2004, p. 10. Web. May 1st. 2014.<http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/West_Papua_final_report.pdf>23 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat, p.21.


18

claimed that "Koreri" is more like a cultural and nationalism consciousness than a

religious movement. The "Koreri" movement was led by a woman named

“Angganita Manufandu” who was entitled “the Virgin of Judah.” She claimed that

the Dutch missionaries who happened to be colonialists had stollen and corrupted

the Bible before it was given to the locals and changed it with the teachings that

benefited the Dutch in gaining material matters and power.24 Despite of this

anti-white colonial power, West New Guinea increasingly became tenser when the

independence of Indonesia took place in 1945.25

On July 1945, a month before Hiroshima and Nagazaki were bombed, two

meetings were held by BPKI (Badan Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia), a

committee sponsored by Japan to prepare Indonesia independence, discussing

territory borders. The result of the voting was thirty nine voices for Indonesia

territory which consist of ex-Netherland East Indies including New Guinea, north

Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah, Malay, Portuguese Timor, and nearby

islands. Soekarno and Mohamad Yamin, were among this group. Nineteen went to

favor only ex-Netherland East Indies including New Guinea. While only six chose

only ex-Netherland East Indies, without New Guinea. Mohamad Hatta was among

this minority group. According to him the Papuans are Melanesian and that they

deserve to decide their own destiny as a free nation.26 Despite victory of the

majority in the voting, on the proclamation day of the Indonesia independence,

Soekarno made no mention of New Guinea to be part of the new nation. The

territory lies from the western most island in Sumatra to the eastern most island in

24 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,p.23.25 Saltford, John. The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,1962-1969. (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), p. 1.26 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,p.28.


19

Mollucas. However, the disputes have continued to date.

On July 1946, a conference was held in Malino, Southern Sulawesi for

representations from eastern parts of the archipelago to discuss the possibility of

Indonesia federation which consist of four full autonomous states. Most of the

delegations favored to form Republic of Indonesia. However, a delegation of New

Guinea, Franz Kaisepo, refused to join and that the Papuans required a self

determination. He even proposed a new name for the island “Iryan.” It comes

from Biak which in a simple translation means “fog.” This is to describe the

uprising of the island like fog coming up from the sea. Despite of this

philosophical name, later Indonesia adopted it and made it became IRIAN, a

political acronym of “Ikut Republic Indonesia Anti Netherlands.”27 This new

apolitical name of Irian Barat (West Irian) was used by Soekarno when he issued

Tri Komando Rakyat (the Peoples' Triple Commands) to free Papua from the

Dutch's occupation. It is later in 1973 under Soeharto's administration that the

name changed to Irian Jaya.

From August 23 to November 2, 1949 another conference known as

Konferensi Meja Bundar (Round Table Conference) was held in Hague between

Indonesia and Netherlands. Both sides agreed to establish Republik Indonesia

Serikat (United States of Indonesia) with the Dutch Queen as the head and

Soekarno as the President. The Netherlands also agreed to cede sovereignty of

East Indies to Indonesia but kept Papua as its final foothold in Southeast Asia.

They both agreed that the status of West New Guinea will be decided in further

talks within a year which later proven to be fail.

27 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat, p.31.


20

The Dutch promised to bring West New Guinea into a better future by

educating and training the local indigenous people to govern their own country

before they leave. They started the process of nation building of Papua in 1950’s.

By 1957, they had created several positions for Papuan in government services. In

February 1961 the Dutch launched West New Guinea Council, a representative

body intended to encourage the establishment of a Papuan political elite that

would eventually govern the region after Dutch withdrawal.28 The working time

period was ten years where they can declare an independent when the people

agree.29 On December 1, 1961 the WNG Council voted to rename the territory

"West Papua" with a national anthem, "Hai Tanahku Papua" (O My Land Papua),

and a national flag, "Bintang Kejora" (The Morning Star). This was enough to

pull the trigger. Soekarno got very furious and the tense grew hotter. On

December 19, 1961 in Yogyakarta, Soekarno issued Tri Komando Rakyat (the

People’s Triple Command) calling for total mobilization of Indonesians to liberate

Irian Barat (West Irian).

Indonesian government began to embark on military tactics against

Netherlands in West Papua. Paratroops were launched on the island and forced the

Dutch to withdraw. Both of them were engaged in battle contacts along the West

Papua shores. In the assistance to feed his eagerness in winning the battle of West

New Guinea, Soekarno turned to Soviet Bloc to support his diplomatic pressure

and massive military expenditure.30 His visit to Moscow in 1956 resulted in the

granting of US$100 million credit. By 1962 Indonesia was the largest

28 Brundige, Elizabeth, et all. "Indonesian Human Right Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law ofGenocide to the History of Indonesian Control," p. 13.29 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat, p.54.30 Saltford, John. The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,1962-1969, p. 7.


21

non-communist recipient of Soviet Bloc aid with credits exceeding US$1.5 billion.

Between 1962 and 1963, his government spent approximately US$2 billion on

military equipment. It can be seen that almost all of Indonesian naval vessels that

sunk during the battles were Russian-built.

With this threat, Washington took a position asserting that giving

Indonesian the control of the territory seemed to be the only solution to avoid

Indonesia being driven into Soviet Bloc.31 U.S. President John F. Kennedy played

a role in setting a negotiation between the Dutch and the Indonesians. On August

15, 1962 the two warring nations signed the New York Agreement under the

patronage of the United Nations. In this agreement there was not any single

representative of indigenous West Papuan whose land being disputed took part.

Under its terms, the Netherlands had to transfer its authority to United Nations

Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) on October 1, and the U.N.

administration would hand over the territory to Indonesia on or after May 1, 1963.

Further in the agreement, sometimes after the take over Indonesia must make a

referendum under U.N. supervision to allow the West Papuans to decide their own

fate, whether or not to join Indonesia. On May 4, 1963 Soekarno arrived in West

New Guinea (West Irian) for a visit. He appointed Eliezer Bonay as Governor and

banned all existing Papuan political parties and unofficial political activities.

There were about 1500 Indonesian commandos remain in the territory to assist the

local police. However, they were involved in harsh tactics to restrain Papuan

nationalist sentiment. Ever since armed struggle began between Indonesian

military and pro-independence Papuan resistance movement known as OPM

31 Saltford, John. The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,1962-1969, p. 11.


22

(Organisasi Papua Merdeka) which was founded the same year after UNTEA

pulled out. Sporadic rebellions began to spread around the territory particularly in

the Bird’s Head region. One of well known revolts was “Arfai Assaults” who was

led by Sergeant Permenas Awom, an ex-PVK (Papua Volunteer Korps) in Dutch

time. Together with several OPM guerrillas they killed several Indonesian soldiers

and took their guns and ammunitions. Indonesian military responded by targeting

civilians as well as OPM fighters. Killings, disappearances, torture, and rape of

Papuans deliberately carried out by Indonesian military forces as a form of

explicit power domination. In addition to that, the Indonesian government

organized mass migrations from Java to West Papua under transmigration

program, a political driven agenda to equalize the number of local inhabitants.

This was an implicit form of the power domination.

Like fishing in the murky pond by neglecting the political unrest in the

territory, U.S.-based multinational mining corporation, Freeport, signed its

contract with the Indonesian government under its new appointed president,

Soeharto. Freeport was given a power over the local population and resources,

including the right to take land, and to resettle the local inhabitants without proper

compensation. This situation even worsened the situation leading to the

referendum. The people felt like they were going to be robed to nothing under

Indonesian authority.

1969 was a time of the biggest scam in all of Papuans’ history just like

‘9/11’ to the Americans.32 1969 provokes an historical monologue. It is the time

when the “Act of Free Choice” or “Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat (PEPERA) was

32 Glazebrook, Diana. "Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea), p. 22.


23

held. Under the terms of New York Agreement in accordance with international

practice, all eligible adults have the right to vote. However, instead of one man

one vote, Indonesian government arranged 1.025 selective representatives out of

approximately 700.000 populations from eight assemblies. Most of those selected

representatives were not eligible since many of them were old men who could not

read and write. They were put in a solitary where they were intimidated,

brainwashed and bribed. They could not speak to people outside. Soldiers guarded

the entrance and they were accompanied wherever they went. They were also fed

well and given gifts of teapots, plates, Sanyo radios, bicycles, and Honda

motorcycles, things which are considered to be fancy in that time for Papuans.

Some even were given Javanese women.33 All of these things make it clear that

1969 “Act of Free Choice” or “PEPERA” was a form of mockery to Papuans. Its

implementation is bare: tactical selection, concealment, bribery, and seduction by

objects associated to pleasure. To Papuans it was a fraudulent while to Indonesian

government it was an unanimous victory. Planes scattered pamphlets on Papuan

sky proclaiming the victory.

Discontent with the condition OPM began to intensify its sporadic

rebellions. The clash with Indonesian militar broke in several places, Manokwari,

Enarotali, Byak, and Jayapura.34 As a response Indonesian government began its

military operations to infiltrate the island from any form of Papuan national

sentiment.35 The Indonesian militar targeted not only OPM freedom fighters but

also civilians. Any forms of social, religious, cultural activities were put under

33 Glazebrook, Diana. "Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea), p. 23.34 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat, pp.91-99.35 Ibid, p. 310.


24

suspicion by Indonesian government. People were intimidated and lived in terror.

Some were forced to flee across the border of Indonesian and Papua New Guinea

and lived in exile.36

The annexation and mal-administration by Indonesian government has

fostered Papuan nationalism. West Papuan experience of Indonesian

colonialization has caused the raising of what is called by Johanes Baptist Metz as

"memoria passionis" or collective memories of suffering that they long for

freedom. It is estimated that over ninety per cent of the West Papuans in that time

wanted independence.37

3. Theoretical Concepts

This section discusses several concepts that are considered important in

the analysis of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers’ lyrics in relation to each

respective's socio-political sphere. These are the entry points into the journey to

understand the wit of literary work in criticizing hegemonic and oppressive power

domination.

3.1. Cognitive Poetics

Steinholt38 uses the concept of cognitive poetics to link up the relation

between the disciplines of literature and music through the study of words in song

lyrics. Since communication in music happen lyrically, examination of the lyric is

36 Glazebrook, Diana. "Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea), p. 5.37 Saltford, John. The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,1962-1969, p. 78.38 Steinholt, Yngvar B. Cognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A new approach to song lyric?Bergen University. Web. 12 December. 2013. <http://www.hum.uit.no/a/steinholt/cog_poe.pdf>.


25

necessary. One way to accomplish it is through cognitive poetic analysis.

He uses Peter Stockwell's cognitive poetics concept, namely reading which

involves mental process and poetics concern on the craft of literature. It is a

reading which not only focuses on the text itself but also the context that also

plays an important role in constructing the meaning. In short, cognitive poetic is

an approach to a literary work through a close analysis of both text and context.

Cognitive poetics is all about reading literature since cognition is to do with

mental process in reading, while poetics concerns with the literary crafts. Reading

literary texts is not just an ordinary type of reading and should be treated in a

certain way. Ordinary types of reading is when people just read for themselves

and feel happy about it without bothering too much for discussing it,

intellectualize it, let alone fitting their understanding into theoretical framework.

Most readers have the tendency to treat literary texts as merely objects of fun and

pleasure. However, cognitive poetics does not allow reading literature for leisure

and pleasure, but instead reading to understand it, reflect on it, and

intellectualizing it. It is in this sense that this present study is to read the works of

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' lyrics.

Furthermore, reading itself is not meant to come to an abstract end.

Reading is not to arrive at an absolute end of information we intend to get. Instead,

we need to take into account that very often the discovery of reading involves a

great deal of messy and perhaps contradictory facts of what we have thought

before. Therefore, what is important in reading a piece of literary work is the

detail to unveil all the interest and fascination behind a particular literary work.

When one reads a certain literary text, the questions that normally arise are as


26

follows: What is it about? What does it mean? What does it mean for me? What

do I understand by it? All of these questions are to do with context and are a

crucial notion in cognitive poetics.

Furthermore, the key to have a better understanding literary values and

meanings lies in the ability to have clear view of its text and context. Cognitive

poetics provides us with it. It encompasses both social and personal circumstances

as it has the power to combine both individual and communal effects of language

and experience. Response to the questions might be personal and communal based

on the context. What we do with a piece of literary work depends very much on

the context in which we find ourself with the text. There are as many meanings as

there are different contexts for different readings. According to Stockwell, it is

important to recognize that readings have status not objectively but relative to

their circumstances. Therefore, when this particular study asks what do Bob

Marley’s and The Black Brothers’ songs mean? It is really asking what those

songs do, what are they being used for. Meaning is what literature does. Meaning

is use.39

3.2. Conceptual Metaphor

One of the main points of cognitive poetic analysis is the conceptual

metaphor, an idea popularized by George Lakoff which functions as a tool for

analyzing text.40 This metaphorical analysis then can provide a window into the

39 Stockwell, Peter. Cognitive Poetics. (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 4.40 Lakoff, George. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. (Cambridge University Press: 1992). Web.January 18. 2014. <http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~israel/lakoff-ConTheorMetaphor.pdf>.


27

conceptual system, or worldview, of a rhetor (speaker).41 Metaphor can be found

in many forms of communication, including spoken and written discourse.

Despite the fact that it is viewed as a literary device used for extraordinary or

poetic utterances, it also can serve as an ordinary and conventional forms of

communication. It is confirmed by researchers that metaphor is commonly used in

literature as in poetry, prose and song lyric. Like most songs, the lyrics in Bob

Marley and The Black Brothers' songs make a significant use of metaphor and

personification.

Leff in Worth (p.56) concludes that metaphor consists of a juxtaposition of

two terms normally regarded as belonging to different classes of experiences. The

same is true with personification in that the juxtaposition is specifically between

animate and inanimate; how the quality of animate is equated to inanimate.

Therefore the writer assumes that Leff's concept of metaphor is applicable to

personification as well. The two terms of comparison define the principle subject

of the metaphor and personification and the frame into which it is placed.

Richards in Worth (p.56) named these terms "tenor" and "vehicle" where widely

used and have provided a basic terminology for the study of metaphor in rhetoric.

An example is "man is wolf." In the example man is the tenor, the subject of the

metaphor and wolf is the vehicle, the frame into which man has been placed. The

attributes of a wolf is given to the man. A wolf is a predatory animal, a hunter,

often despised in history and regarded as a bad animal. Thus, the man is being

described as an undesirable, predatory, and animal-like person.42

Other examples are taken from Bob Marley and The Black Brothers. In

41 Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 54.

42 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, pp. 55&56.


28

"Wake up and live" Bob Marley equates life to a journey on a big road. "Life is

one big road with lots of signs/ so when you driving through the road don’t you

complicate your mind/ Flee from hate/ mischief, and jealousy." Here life is tenor,

subject of the metaphor, and big road with lot of signs is vehicle, the frame into

which life has been placed. Big road is a hectic place where people travel on.

Therefore, one needs to be careful in driving and paying attention to the signs.

Life is a journey that people need to stay in focus so that they will notice the signs

and not to get lost and to avoid accident. Hates, mischief, and jealousy make

people lose focus and that can be fatal both for themselves and others.

In "Melati Plastik" (Plastic Jasmine), The Black Brothers equates a girl to

a plastic jasmine, a handmade flower. The fake flower can look beautiful and last

forever but it does not have natural scent which is the essence of a true flower.

"Kau melati plastik/ dikau melati palsu" (You the plastic Jasmine/you are fake like

camouflage). You is the tenor, and plastic jasmine is the vehicle, the frame into

which you has been placed. The attributes of the plastic jasmine is given to you (a

girl).

Here we can see that the meaning emerges from the interaction of the two

terms. Jordan and Adams in Worth identified three functions of tenor and vehicle:

their interaction; the similarity or comparison on which that interaction is based;

and the dependency upon context of the meaning which emerges from the

interaction. The terms are juxtaposed and the juxtaposition leads to a pattern of

associations by the vehicle.

Based on Osborn and Ehninger in Worth (p.57), the role of context in the

metaphoric process consists of four level, which they call "qualifiers" that play an


29

important role in affecting the meaning of a metaphor.43 The first deals with the

immediate textual or situational context within which the metaphor is used, the

second deals with social knowledge as discussed above, and the last deals with

associations provided by the individual listeners. Contextual qualifiers refer to the

context of a discourse in terms of its actual text and the situation in which it is

used. It is a social knowledge that bound to a particular audience at a particular

time. The writer would figure out an example, i.e. hostes. Originally this English

term means a waitress which does not have negative connotation at all. But when

it was adopted to be used in Indonesia during 1970s to 1980s the term has a

negative connotation similar to a prostitute.

The second level is called communal qualifiers. This level extends beyond

the text or audience but is culturally bound, relying on culturally-based social

knowledge. It directs the meaning of the metaphor by drawing from the funded

knowledge-the common experiences traditions, or folkways-of the public to

whom the stimulus is directed. The interpretation has been approved and stamped

upon them by authority. It means that the meaning of the metaphor has been

sticked and inherited and accepted by the folks. As an example is the color of red

and white. Red stands for the braveness of the martyrs who shed their blood and

white stands for the holiness.

The third level is called Archetypal qualifier. These qualifiers are not

temporally or culturally bound. They supply meaning based on "experiences

common to men of many races and ages-experiences relieved by each generation

anew." It means that the meaning of the metaphor or the symbol is already

43 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 57.


30

accepted and understood by many people and not exclusively oriented to one

culture. As an example is dove which symbolizes peace and heart for love.

The last level is private qualifier. This kind of context affects the meaning

assigned by a listener through personal or subjective associations. This qualifier is

important because even when contextual, communal, and archetypal qualifiers

share a "high degree of commonality" in a metaphor, it provides an interpretation

which is unique to the particular listener.44 As an example is taken from Bob

Marley's song "Burnin' and lootin'" "How many rivers do we have to cross/before

we can talk to the boss." The term river is commonly found in Negro spiritual45

songs which symbolizes trials and tribulation, but also can mean freedom, hope

and purification as in baptism. The term boss might refer to master slave or the

divinity of God. In the circumstance of crisis boss is the one to deal with if things

are to improve. Israelites got their freedom after they come to meet Pharaoh, their

slave master, begging for mercy through the guidance and will of their God. It is

in this sense that Marley would seem to employ these symbols.

There is a two-way connection between thought and language, language is

metaphoric in nature, therefore thought affects, and is affected by, metaphor. The

relationship between thought, language, metaphor, and social knowledge

eventuates into a position positing that metaphor provides a framework for reality.

All experience is shaped metaphorically. This shaping is called framing by

Mumby and Spitzack. They regard metaphor as providing frames through which

the public views, and forms opinions of, specific social issues.46 It is through this

44 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 58.45 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley: Lyrical Genius, (London, United Kingdom: Sanctuary Publishing Limited,2002), p. 86.46 Ibid, p. 59.


31

sense that the writer assumes that the metaphoric expressions in Bob Marley and

The Black Brothers' songs can provide frame into which people can see specific

social and political issues based on the qualifiers above.

3.3. Hidden Transcript

I tremble to speak the words of freedom before the tyrant

--CORYPHAEUS, in Euripedes, The Baccae

In his book, "Domination and the Arts of Resistance," James Scott

highlights his view upon power and resistance of the subordinate groups.

Influenced by Antonio Gramsci’s concepts of hegemony, Scott identified hidden

transcript of expression manifesting this resistance behind the official story of

hegemonic public transcripts.47 It is about how the resistance of subordinates

toward domination is disguised, muted, and veiled for safety’s sake. In order to

avoid direct confrontation with the ruling power, the subordinate groups manifold

strategies to insinuate their resistance in disguised form into the public transcript.

While public transcript is the official script of the domination which ties both the

oppressor and the oppressed into modes of acceptable behaviour,48 the hidden

transcript is what occurs below the surface.

The works of Erving Goffman may give a good insight to Scott's theory of

hidden transcript. Goffman's main focus is to analyze daily interaction to see the

power relation between the powerful and the powerless through what he

47 Barnard, Eben. Cultural resistance: Can such practices ever have a meaningful political impact? CriticalSocial Thinking:Policy and Practice, Vol.3 (2011), p.114. Web. December 12. 2013.<http://www.ucc.ie/en/appsoc/researchconference/conf/cstj/cstjournalvolume32011/ebenbernard/EbenBarnard.pdf>.48 Nordine, Manisha. Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in Bob Marley's "Jah-Public," p.122.


32

postulated as "theatrical performance." According to Goffman, individuals can

participate as both as performers and as audience. When on stage as performers,

individuals try to present themselves in a certain way in order to show the

preferred definition of the situation, while as audience they try to accommodate

the projected images of others to facilitate interaction rituals.49 As it is, the

interaction is not genuine and only a false pretense to maintain working

relationship. Scott even made it clearer that according to him appearances can be

deceiving. The offstage life is a completely different story. The powerless tend to

create their own stories than to accept the official stories of the dominant. In his

book, "Domination and the Art of Resistance: Hidden Transcript,"50 Scott defined

discourses and practices onstage as public transcript while hidden transcript as

offstage scenes that take place behind the suspicious eyes of the dominant. The

powerless only show their hidden feelings to families, friends, and colleagues.

Scott further states that the hidden transcript can be the act of passive

resistance which is deeply inscribed into everyday practices. This takes many

forms including cultural production such as music, jokes, rumors, and folklore.

The subordinate as the vulnerable groups not only have to control their anger but

have to conduct what amounts to veil the discourse of their dignity and

self-assertion within the public transcript.

The undeclared ideological guerrilla war that rages in this political spacerequires that we enter the world of rumor, gossip, disguises, linguistictricks, metaphors, euphemisms, folktales, ritual gestures, anonymity. Forgood reason, nothing is entirely straightforward here; the realities of powerfor subordinate groups mean that much of their political action requires

49 Joo, Hyung-min. “Hidden Transcripts...Shared?: Passive Resistance in The Soviet Case.” The KoreanJournal of International Studies, Korea University. Vol 8. No.2. 2010, pp. 227-298. Web. October 7. 2014.<http://www.kaisnet.or.kr/resource/down/8_2_04.pdf>50 Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance (Michigan: Yale University Press, 1990).


33

interpretation precisely because it is intended to be cryptic and opaque.51

The voice of the subordinate groups tend to penetrate the public sphere within the

public transcript through the world of rumor, gossip, disguises, linguistic tricks,

metaphors, euphemisms, folktales, ritual gestures, and anonymity. Therefore, one

has to read carefully to unveil the intended message behind those disguises.

If we wish to hear this side of the dialogue we shall have to learn itsdialect and codes. Above all, recovering this discourse requires a grasp ofthe arts of political disguise.52

It is through this sense that the writer assumes the works of Bob Marley and

especially The Black Brothers are the arts of political disguise.

Although Scott developed his concept of hidden transcript twenty four

years ago based on the life of the remote Malaysian village of Sedaka, the writer

of this thesis assumes that it is still applicable nowadays. It would seem that there

are not many disputes over the theory since it is still relevant and beneficial for

other researchers on power relation, especially in developing countries in Asia. As

far as the writer concern there is one article by Hyung-min Joo from Korea

University which has challenged the exclusivity of Scott's theory. Hidden

transcripts tend to be hidden tightly to Scott. In an analog, a slave cannot share his

hidden transcript with his master. The sharing is only with his families, friends,

and other slaves. Somehow these hidden transcripts can also be shared with the

master according to Hyung-min Joo.53 As an empirical support he uses evidence

in Soviet's social and political life where the sharing of hidden transcript between

the powerful and the powerless can possibly occur as a social phenomenon. This

51 Ibid, p. 137.52 Ibid, p. 138.53 Joo, Hyung-min. “Hidden Transcripts...Shared?: Passive Resistance in The Soviet Case.”


34

new point of view does not change the basic tenets of Scot's theory but enriching

it.

3.4. Memoria Passionis

The concept of memoria passionis was proposed by German theologian,

Johannes Baptist Metz.54 There are two types of memory: static memory which is

only the recall of the past without any action and dynamic memory which the

recall of the past springs to the present and the future. Memoria passionis is a

dynamic memory. It is a collective memory of sufferings in the past ready to

explode in the present or near future. Metz theorized memoria passionist to be

manifested in a political consciousness and political action in the memory of

people's suffering. They are inscribed through social memory and flows incisively

and clearly from the mouths of ordinary people. It is through this sense that the

writer assumes Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs function.

4. Theoretical Framework

Under the scene of popular music atmosphere, the mass production and

commercialization make music impact people more on the physical and emotional

levels. This in turn will lead them to use music merely as pleasure and leisure. The

works of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers, however go beyond music being a

means of entertainment. Their works, this thesis shall argue, are the embodiment

of musical creativity and resistance. In order to understand it that way, one needs

54 Glazebrook, Diana. "Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea), p. 27.


35

to focus more on the cognitive level. This only can be done if a person can reflect

and intellectualize music through cognitive poetic analysis. Stockwell's cognitive

poetics offers a good way to analyze the work of Bob Marley and The Black

Brothers, how to understand, reflect, and intellectualize their music through a

thorough reading of text and context.

Cognitive poetic analysis basically encompasses three main focuses in

literary study, reader, text, and context which cover the intrinsic and extrinsic

approaches. The intrinsic approaches including point of view, style, imagery or

metaphoric expression. While the extrinsic approaches including biography,

economy, politic, society, history, and psychology.

Like poetry and prose, the language in song's lyrics tend to happen in

second semiotical order where metaphoric expression loom large. Therefore

Lakoff's concept of metaphoric analysis plays an important role in this study. It is

an important tool to analyze the language used in Bob Marley and The Black

Brothers' lyrics which make a significant use of metaphor and personification.

Scott's postulation of the hidden transcript posits literary elements

(metaphor, euphemism, anonymity, linguistic tricks) which can be investigated

using Stockwell's cognitive poetics and Lackoff's metaphoric analysis. Those

elements in hidden transcript are the bullets or the style and rhetoric of the

subordinate groups in firing the ruling power. Bob Marley and The Black

Brothers' lyric would employ some of these elements.

The resistance in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' protest songs can

be seen as a culmination of a long term sufferings. They are the voice and the

wailing of the sufferers as what Metz would theorize in his memoria passionis.


36

The folks' stories manifested into songs that have power of redemption.

Generally in research, the problem determines the method. This present

study is a deductive project that moves from general issue of socio-politics and

popular music to the specific relationship between hegemonic and oppressive

power and song lyrics. It is a qualitative oriented study which focuses on

constructing meaning through descriptive and interpretative analysis.

In doing the descriptive and interpretative analysis, there are some stages

of procedures taken. First, the writer takes all songs by Bob Marley under Island

Records and The Black Brothers under PT. Irama Tara Records to study the

general patterns, forms, and themes. The selection of songs under the two labels is

very reasonable and purposively. Both of them were major labels in their time and

place that embodied the establishment and success. It is also to see the

commitment in the content of their music and lyrics as they entered into the main

stream of popular music scene. Music production plays an important role in the

direction of final musical product. Second, the writer purposively takes songs

which are assumed to have hidden transcript when read or analyzed based on the

characteristic or elements that they posses (metaphor, euphemism, anonymity,

linguistic tricks). This concept would be very much in line to the spirit of

resistance by Bob Marley and The Black Brothers. This study intends to figure out

the wit and genius of both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers by uncovering

their intended message behind their poetical and rhetorical lyrics. Third, all the

data are interpreted, including the translation of some lyrics from Indonesian into

English by the writer. Mostly the translation version is a free verse for the sake of

interpretation and not meant to be performed. And the last is to draw a conclusion


37

of the analysis.

The writer also uses library research as well as online interviews through

Facebook with members and relatives of The Black Brothers. The analysis of the

data relies on the materials which strengthen and support the hypothesis of

discussion. Most of the data are taken from private and public library be it e-book

or printed book.


38

CHAPTER 3

OVERVIEW INTO THE REALM OF BOB MARLEY AND THE BLACKBROTHERS’ CRAFTS - CONTENT ANALYSIS

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers are the embodiment of popular music

and resistance. Popular in a simple way means appealing to the people. As an

adjective it indicates that something be it a person, a product, a practice, or a

belief is commonly liked or approved of by a large audience or the general

public.1 Furthermore it also has a strong relationship with mass media. The mass

media refers to the press, publishing, radio, television, film, video, and recording

industry as a medium of production and dissemination. Therefore popular music is

a type of music that is mostly exposed in the mass media and appeals to a large

audience besides being economically and commercially profitable. Popular music

has always been a great mainstream in these area, among others are like jazz,

ragtime, blues, rhythm and blues (R&B), country, rock (rock 'n' roll and

rockabilly), pub rock, punk rock, acid rock, heavy metal, bubblegum, and reggae.2

Bob Marley's musical genre is reggae. He is even one of the main figures in the

emerging of this distinctive Jamaican sound. Meanwhile, The Black Brothers

employ more than just one genre; they played jazz, slow pop, slow rock, punk

rock, rock 'n' roll, disco, "keroncong," and even reggae.

Besides as an entertainment Bob Marley and The Black Brothers also use

their music to communicate a politically-charged message about important social

issues. Their music contains some protest songs which are intended to criticize

perceived problems in society like injustice, racial discrimination, war, social

1 Shuker, Roy. Understanding Popular Music. New York: Routledge, 1994, p. 2.2 Ibid, p. 4.


39

inequalities, and oppression. Protest songs are commonly associated with folk

music, but in recent times they have come from all genres of music, including the

main stream popular music like reggae and rock. Such songs become popular

during times of social disruption and among social groups and their supporters.

In order to give a framework of both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers'

characteristics and styles this chapter specifically focuses on the content and form

of their music and songs which include a glimpse of biographical review of the

artists, structure, general and specific themes, tones, and metaphorical expression.

They serve as the main data of which possibility of bearing hidden transcript

which are analyzed further in chapter four.

1. Bob Marley's Music

Bob Marley was a talented and determined man in pursuing his dreams of

becoming a singer. To realize and materialize this, Bob Marley persuaded his step

brother, Bunny Livingstone, to join him. Then, in order to get more improvements

he needed someone to teach him the rudiments of music and to harmonize it with

his vocal technique. It was Joe Higgs who provided him with what he was needed

as the musical mentor as well as his spiritual teacher. Higgs plays an important

role in Bob Marley's life and musical career. He was a devoted Rastafarian and

had been part of the success of pre-ska singing artists who had made their

recording in 1960s. Higgs made an outdoor class to teach music to the ghetto

youths in Trench Town. There they would mingle with some talented young

Jamaican musicians, one of them is Peter McIntosh. With the union of Bob Marley,

Bunny Livingstone, and Peter Tosh, they formed a vocal group called "The


40

Teenager." The group also included two female singers (Beverly Kelso and Cherry

Smith), and another talented boy named Junior Braithwaite.3 At first the group

sang cover version of American popular artists, among others like Ray Charles,

Frankie Lymon, and Stevie Wonder. Higgs not only taught Bob Marley's singing

vocalization, he also showed him how to play guitar and write three main parts of

a popular song: the chorus, the verse, and the bridge. Bob Marley then started to

write his own songs.

As the other members of the Teenagers left, there were only three of them,

Bob Marley, Bunny, and Peter. Eventually later Peter and Bunny also left Bob

Marley for their own solo career. Bob Marley then selected some new members to

form a new band. There came in the Barret brothers (Charlton and Aston), Marvin

Junior, Alvin Seecco Peterson, Tyrown Downy, Al Anderson, and the female

backing vocals (Rita Anderson, Judy Mowatt, and Marcia Griffith). The group's

name was changed several times: the Wailing Rude Boys, the Wailing Wailers,

and then Bob Marley and the Wailers. The name wailers suggests that they were

not just singing, in fact they were wailing. The group was wailing because they

had to experience unfairness in their life. They voiced what they experienced,

witnessed, and heard all around them.

As Jamaica obtained its political independence from British Empire in

1962, there was an intention to break with the colonial past. An effort to find a

new form of identity soon spread across the island especially among the youth.

The spirit even got stronger with the revival of socio-religious movement of

Rastafari which had sprung in Jamaica around 1930s and the advent of Jamaican

3 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley. (Westport: Praeger, 2007), p. 8.


41

distinctive popular music (ska, rocksteady and reggae). The origin of

Rastafarianism can be traced to Jamaican nationalist Marcus Moziah Garvey who

was convinced that blacks must unite to overcome oppression. He established the

United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica and United States of

America. One of his ideas was that the African diaspora must go back to Africa as

their place of origin. This repatriation is accompanied by his prophesy that African

diaspora must look to the first African King for their salvation. In 1930, Haile

Selassie I was crowned emperor of Ethiopia. The followers of Garvey took it as a

sign and begun to consult the Bible to relate it with this event. This is how

Rastafarianism was born. Basically the core tenets of Rastafarianism are 1) Haile

Selassie I or Rastafari Makonenn is literally God on earth; 2) Ethiopia is literally

heaven on earth; 3) The goal of the African diaspora is to return to Africa

(Ethiopia); 4) Marijuana is used as sacrament.4 Rastas claim that marijuana is the

weed of wisdom that was found growing on the grave of King Solomon and that

smoking it will enlighten them spiritually. Despite the fact that many people view

Rastas as drug users, yet in their defense, they believe that it brings a person

closer to himself or herself and allows for a deeper self-discovery. They even cited

a biblical reverence to it, i.e. Psalms 104:14 to claim its sacramental properties:

"He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man, that

he may bring forth food out of the earth."5

In musical industry the early music producers in Jamaica who had

established recording companies previously in the late 1950s decided to stop

4 Peterson, David J. "Get Up Stand Up." English 100 (2008), p. 7.5 Haner, Mark. “Bob Marley’s Spiritual Rhetoric, the Spread of Jamaican Culture and Rastafarianism,” aseminar paper. West Oregon University, 2007, p. 9. Web. January 22. 2014.<https://www.wou.edu/las/socsci/history/senior_seminar_papers/2007/thesis 07/Mark Haner.pdf>


42

imitating the sounds of America in the early 1960s. They wanted to launch a truly

Jamaican sound. It made the young talented musicians began experimenting in

studios. As a result, came Jamaica distinctive popular music (ska, rocksteady and

reggae) to exist. Ska was a mixture of Jamaica indigenous musical form,

American Jazz, and Rhythm and Blues.6 It is a meeting and blending of two or

more older traditions and new genre as an elaboration of form. Jazz influenced

ska's horn sound, R&B and Mento influenced the guitar style, while blues and

African elements influenced the call and response vocal.7 Rocksteady is the next

development of ska. It is characterized by the emergence of more emotional

vocals. It also emphasizes vocal harmonies and slower rhythms like American

soul music. Rocksteady signed that the people no longer wanted to dance as

recklessly as they had before in ska time. Reggae music is perhaps the

masterpiece or the jewel of Jamaican popular music. It signals the maturity of the

long term process. Like rocksteady, reggae rhythm is slowed down to allow the

increasingly social and political messages to be heard.

1.1. Theme in Bob Marley's songs

There was a thematic shift in the development process of Jamaican

popular music. Starting from the ska period in around early 1960s to rock steady

in the mid-1960s until reggae's advent in the late 1960s. Early ska songs were

primarily love songs. The lyrics tend to be light and were generally about love and

love making. However to some people, ska also can be deceptive. It might have

6 King. Stephen A. Reggae, Rastafari, and the Rhetoric of Social Control. (Mississippi: University Press ofMississippi, 2002), p. 4.7 King. S.A. Reggae, Rastafari, and the Rhetoric of Social Control, p. 19.


43

sounded happy but it also expressed the social and political conditions in Jamaica.

Some even claimed that ska actually represented the first form of a popular protest

music, a typical mild protest. As an example is Bob Marley's ska hits "Simmer

Down." It was then inherited to rocksteady and reggae where the protest was

molded and getting even stronger.

For young talented musicians who mostly are devoted Rastafarians, the

advent of Jamaican popular music (ska, rocksteady, and reggae) brings a new way

to disseminate the beliefs instead of traditional forms such as street preaching,

church sermon and pamphlets. Lyrically those three genres promoted Rastafarian

ideologies and tenets. However it is reggae which increasingly asserts more

aggressive social and political protests. Generally reggae artists would sing issues

like Rastafari as the living God, African glory, marijuana, injustice and oppression

by the police or government and personal pain of living in poverty.8

By non-probability sampling there are seventy eight songs from eight

albums that are taken from Bob Marley under the label of Island Records: Catch a

Fire (1973); Burnin’ (1973); Natty Dread (1974); Rastaman Vibration (1976);

Exodus (1977); Kaya (1978); Survival (1979); Uprising (1980). The selection of

songs under this label is done with a specific reason and purpose. They are the

epitome of Bob Marley's establishment and success. Under the genius owner of

Island Records, Chris Blackwell, Bob Marley and the Wailers successfully

introduce Jamaican new distinctive sound of reggae to the world. In order to

penetrate the international market and audience Bob Marley and his band was

presented as a black rock band.

8 King. S.A. Reggae, Rastafari, and the Rhetoric of Social Control, p. 55.


44

Despite some new musical arrangements to meet the market and mass

demands, Bob Marley kept on insisting to not change the basic original style and

the message that he was trying to deliver. The true spirits of reggae would dwell

on the style and message. Generally Bob Marley’s songs consist of two types of

theme, i.e. 1) social, political, and religious or a mixture of the three; 2) love

songs or dance tunes without a political or religious message9 (see table 2 in

appendix 1). Like other reggae artists, Bob Marley's lyrics would deal on things

about Rastafarian tenets like Jah (Haile Selassie I or Rastafari), repatriation to and

glorification of Africa as the Black's motherland, and the use of Marijuana, as well

as social and political phenomenon such as Jamaican history, violence,

government's hypocrisy, and poverty.

Developing what has been found by DeCosmo and Skopal,10 the writer

classifies theme in Bob Marley’s songs into five categories: Babylon;

Rastafarianism; Pan-Africanism; Livity; and Romance. The theme of Babylon

illustrates all types of oppression. It covers colonialism, slavery, racism,

capitalism, corrupt government, hypocrite politicians, society and all other type of

human degradation. The theme of Rastafarianism deals with religious and spiritual

beliefs. It encompasses Jamaican and African mysticism with Christianity under

the issue of the divinity of Selassie as the black Christ using titles like God, Lion,

King of Kings, Father, Lord, and the natural world over man-made world. The

theme of Pan-Africanism designates Africa as heaven on earth under the term of

Zion, Father Land, Ethiopia, and also it deals with repatriation to Africa as Marcus

9 DeCosmo, Jan. Religion and Revolution in the Lyrics of Bob Marley. Working copy of an article inCaribbean Studies Assn. Conference, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico (1994), p. 2. Web. January 12. 2014.<http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/01/62/00001/PDF.pdf>.10 Skopal, Edward, Jr. Hear Them Crying (Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music), pp. 52&52.


45

Garvey prophesied. The theme of "livity" depicts the Rasta life style, and a

collective vision of the good under the issue of unity, peace, love, freedom,

education, ganja, understanding, self-reliance, and "ital" (specific Rasta diets).11

The theme of romance deals with love between man and woman under the issues

of falling in love, breaking up, searching for love, and love-making.

As it is figured out, there are two most dominant themes in Bob Marley’s

songs, they are the central theme of "livity" and Babylon with the significant

number of thirty three and twenty six out of total seventy eight songs (see table 3

in appendix 1). They signify and emphasize Bob Marley’s militancy as a social

and political commentator. His songs are his prophetic pronouncements and

advocacy for the oppressed. While the central theme of romance shows Bob

Marley’s sophistication as true lovable and gentle romantic individual out of his

mean and scornful look. Growing up in the ghetto street of Kingston, Bob Marley

was known as one of the rude boys with a nick name "tuff gong." Despite of

having this rebellious and aggressive quality Bob Marley offered a more subtle

and peaceful way in dealing with the oppressive system. This can be seen in the

central theme of Rastafarianism. Bob Marley employs his spiritual beliefs and

mysticism to face the problems. Although first appeared as a social movement

against colonialism and imperialism Rasta then became a religious based

movement which combines Christianity and African and Jamaican mysticism.

Bob Marley knows for sure that at the time of tribulation where the hopeless and

powerless have no place to lean on, religion or spirituality is a way of other than

political action that can possibly turn to be effective means for salvation and

11 Skopal, Edward, Jr. Hear Them Crying (Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music), p. 53.


46

liberation.12 The central theme of Pan-Africanism shows Bob Marley’s African

heredity affirmation and pride of self identity in relation to his respective beliefs

of African glory.

1.2. Bob Marley's Lyrical Style

Kwame Dawes in his book “Lyrical Genius” portrays Bob Marley’s genius

capability in composing music and writing sophisticated lyrics. His lyrics are a

mixture of Jamaican folk wisdoms, mysticism, biblical psalms and ghetto life’s

struggles. The lines in most of his songs are stunningly poetical. It shows his

technical capacity as a song writer.

Reggae music is strongly embedded with Rastafarianism and Jamaican

rural and urban wisdom. They are both developed out of a tradition of oppression,

Christianity, African and popular culture. As what has been stated before,

Rastafarianism first emerged in around 1930’s but it took about three decades for

this socio-religious movement to gain more power with the advent of reggae in

1960s. Both reggae music and Rastafarianism revival are the forms of

post-colonial spirit. The sense to break with the colonial past makes Jamaican

society began to develop new identities through many cultural products including

reggae music.13

There are several source of influence to illuminate the characteristics of

Bob Marley's songs namely Rasta language, Jamaican urban and rural wisdoms,

and spiritual and mysticism. Bob Marley grew and spent most of his life time in

the center of the peasants where he would get in touch daily. Therefore much of

12 DeCosmo, Jan. Religion and Revolution in the Lyrics of Bob Marley, p. 3.13 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 20.


47

his songs are sung in their language which is deeply rooted in their culture and

life.

1.2.1. Rasta Language

Before one enters into the realm of Bob Marley’s works it is very

significant to take a look into the general pattern in his lyrics. This is a guidance to

have a better understanding especially about the language used. Bob Marley’s

lyrics are a mixture of local folk wisdoms, Rastafarianism, Biblical psalms and

ghetto life’s struggles. The lines in most of the lyrics are stunningly poetical.

When associated with Rastafarianism, reggae often infuses social, political,

and religious critical lyrics and become music of resistance. Most reggae lyrics

would employ Rasta language, an extension of Jamaican creole or Patois, a typical

broken English that developed during the time of slavery among the slaves.14

This heavy metaphoric Jamaican language often misunderstood by the

non-Jamaicans.

There are two scholars who set the categories of Rasta talk, Pollard and

Roberts.15 Pollard divided Rasta talks into four categories: First, words which

taken on new meaning. The words assign a new meaning to fit into Rasta

philosophy; Second, words which bear the weight of their phonological

implications. The words are changed to reduce incompatibility and arbitrariness

between linguistic sign and the meaning; third, the category of I words. For the

Rasta I is considered to be the most sacred and significant letter in the alphabet. I

is tied up with the concept of sight because I is homophone to eye which is the

14 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 27.15 Ibid, pp. 27-33.


48

organ of sight; fourth, words with the most extensive changes. The examples of

Pollard’s first category are baldhead and Babylon. This can be found in Bob

Marley’s "Crazy Baldhead" and "Babylon System." Baldhead is used to refer to

non-Rasta or unbelievers. The absence of dreadlock, a distinctive Rasta uncombed

hair, is viewed as a baldhead. Babylon is taken from the Bible which is used by

Rasta to refer to all oppressive system. The examples of second category are

downpress and overstand that can be found in Bob Marley’s "Guiltiness" and "Get

Up Stand Up." The word oppress homophones or sounds like up-press. Up is

identified with goodness, and oppression is clearly not a good thing, therefore it is

changed to downpress. The word overstand has been changed from the word

understand. For the Rasta when people see truth, they do not stand under it,

instead over it and control it. The examples of third category are I and I and inite

and imanity. This can be found in some of Bob Marley’s lyrics, like "So Jah Seh"

and "Jamming." I and I can be used for first person plural like "we" or first person

singular "I". In this way it means I and Jah to indicate that Rastas are bound

together with Jah, who exists all the time within themselves. Other I-words are

made by simply replacing the first syllable of the word with I. Inite and imanity

come from the words unite and humanity. The examples of the fourth category are

hardly found in Bob Marley’s songs but the writer took Pollard’s examples i.e.

"satta" which means relax or have a seat comes from the word sit.

Roberts makes Rasta talk even clearer in his categories. He divided Rasta

talk into four categories. First is biblical or apocalyptic speech. Rasta speech is

influenced by King James Version of the Bible. They always dichotomize

concepts according to good and bad. Second, words which are related to Africa.


49

Rasta views Africa as a sacred and significant place, therefore reference to it

frequently occur in their speech. Third is a pun or play on words. The

manipulation of language is one of the primary elements in Rasta talk. Playing on

sound and words’ structure is viewed as an attempt to make them more logical or

more consistent with progressive thinking. While the fourth is I-words as what has

been discussed before. The examples of first category are the concepts of Babylon

and Zion as can be seen in Bob Marley’s "Babylon System" and "Jammin.'" The

examples of second category are Rastafari, the original name of Ethiopian

Emperror, Haile Selassie. The term Jah is a shortened name of Jehovah which

comes from the Hebrew word for God, Yahweh. The examples of the third and

fourth category are downpress and I and I which have been discussed previously.

Bob Marley lyrics are purposefully composed based on the concept Rasta

and reggae philosophy. The careful and conscious words choice facilitates Bob

Marley’s poetics and rhetorics in giving his commentary upon social and political

injustice.

1.2.2. Jamaican Grounded Metaphor

Bob Marley’s lyrics are always quite literary than just spontaneous and

impressionistic. They are filled with careful literary style mainly metaphor and

personification. Through this literariness the lyrics talk about daily life and the

forces of political life. Bob Marley tends to sing and explore more in Jamaican

dialect than official Standard English. This might because of the idea that the

richness of the wisdom dwells in the center of the peasants where the oral

tradition is embraced.


50

This thesis focuses on the songs that contain the Jamaican grounded

metaphors (patois or street language and local wisdom) and spiritual grounded

metaphors (Rastafarianism, Bible, and mysticism). Jamaican grounded metaphors

deals with a number of Bob Marley’s songs which are built around metaphors that

are derived from Jamaican social life. Among others that the writer assumes to be

firmly grounded are: "Stir It Up,""I Shot The Sheriff," "Duppy Conqueror,"

"Them Belly Full (But We Hungry)," "Who The Cap Fit," "The Heathen," "Kaya,"

"Ride Natty Ride," and "Bad Card."

"Stir It Up" is a seductive song which richly contains metaphorical

reverences to love making, like in the second verse, “I’ll push the wood (stir it,

stir it, stir it together)/ then I bless ya fire.” The wood is often referred as man’s

genital in Jamaica. While the pot as in the second verse “When you show and stir

your pot” is referred as woman’s genital. The action verb of love making is to stir

it together. Its equality to cooking makes the sexual dimensions quite appetizing,

“Your recipe is, darlin,’ is so tasty.” Here Bob Marley makes a daily reference to

cooking activities.

In "I shot the sheriff" Bob Marley sings a line which is quite unfamiliar to

average non-Jamaican audience, “Everyday the bucket a go a well/ One day the

bottom a go drop out.” This is a Jamaican metaphoric expression means that every

time you mess up with me, one day you are going to get it. Here he warns those

who are attacking the underprivileged that at some point they will not take it

anymore and will just explode. He is not commanding for arm physical violence

but instead giving a prophesy of doom to the evildoers.

In “Duppy Conqueror” Bob Marley is singing about Jamaican mystic lore.


51

Duppy in a simple translation is a ghost. It is a restless spirit that haunts the living

to do harm. Duppy is also used by Jamaican to refer to the whites because of their

light-skinned complexion. It implies the whites as a colonial authority. In its

metaphorical sense it refers to everything that constitutes evil forces like corrupt

government, politicians, and policemen. Bob Marley proclaims himself as the

duppy conqueror that will bring down this kind of oppressive manifestation.

Another song "Them Belly Full (But We Hungry)" draws our attention to

the contrasting experiences between the rich and the poor. Here Bob Marley sings

lines that rely on Jamaican proverb, “A rain a-fall but the dutty tuff/ a pot to cook

but d’ yood no’nough.” It means that despite of the rain is falling, the dirt remains

hard and unresponsive. And the second line goes “a pot to cook but the food not

enough.” The rain and dirt refer to farming metaphor as Bob Marley would

expose to this when he grew up in the hills side back in the St. Ann.16

A pot on the fire constitutes the communal pot of the ghetto in the

government yard of Trench town as he would also sing in “No Woman No Cry.”

“I remember/ when we used to sit /in the government yard in Trench town”.../log

woods burning through the night/ and we would cook corn meal porridge.” The

message is obvious that despite of the positive observation, i.e. them belly full,

rain a-fall, and a pot to cook, the negativity still happens in reality, i.e. hungry,

dutty tuff, and food no-nough. From these hardship, Bob Marley then calls the

audience to response with dance, as he sings, “we’re gonna dance to Jah music/

dance/ forget your troubles and dance.” Dance here is not an escape instead it is a

way to deal with it. It is not a secular act, but a deeply spiritual one, as the dance

16 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 125.


52

is to Jah music. The dancer is worshiping Jah as he or she faces the hardships of

life. It is through the worship that one can redirect pain and anger. It gives the

poor or the underprivileged hope.

In "Who the Cap Fit" Bob Marley employs rural Jamaican proverb that is

incomprehensible to most non-Jamaican listener. Here he sings lines like, “I throw

me corn/ me no call no fowl/ I saying cook-cook-cook/ cluk-cluk-cluk.” Literally

the lines mean: I throw my corn, but I will not call the fowls to eat the corn.17 The

onomatopoeia cook-cook-cook, cluk-cluk-cluk is an attempt to simulate the

calling of chickens. In other words it can be translated as “Don’t call yourself a

chicken just because you eat my feed; I never said I was endeavoring to feed

chickens.” That is, “You are who you show yourself to be, not who you might say

you are.” 18 Basically it is a sinical song to the hypocrites and parasites as he

would sing in the second verse, “hypocrites and parasites will come up and take

the bite.”

Bob Marley wants to educate the people that duplicacy always happens in

politic which cynically refers to as "politrics." Hypocrite politicians will do so

much good for the poor only to win election. They live on false pretense and

would likely exploit friendships and relationships to achieve their own goals.19 In

the second verse Bob Marley applies another Jamaican expression su-su in lines

“some will eat and drink with you/ then behind them su-su ‘pon you.” The sound

su-su is meant to mimic sound of whispering. So it means whispering behind

someone’s back, gossiping or speaking ill.20 Here Marley makes a Biblical

17 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 167.18 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 67.19 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 168.20 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 68.


53

reference where Jesus was betrayed by Judas on the table when he calmly stated

someone would betray him. Basically it is in this manner that Bob Marley

intended to address his witty sarcasm”Who the cap fit, let them wear it” which

simply means that who feels it knows it. He does not specifically mention anyone

but there is an implication to be about specific people.

In "The Heathen" Jamaican creole shows in the chorus “de heathen back

dey ‘pon the wall.” Heatens are those who do not know the truth or who will not

accept the truth. All people who seek to do ill to the righteous are the heathens.21

So when translated it goes “Jah put the heathen’s back against the wall.” It is a

statement of faith that despite the bad things happened to him Jah still guides and

protects him.22 This song is pointing to the gun men who fired him at his home in

Hope road. It is the resurrection of Bob Marley to rise again from his wounded

situation and live to fight another day as he sings in the first verse “Rise up fallen

fighters/ rise and take your stance again/ This he who fight and run away/ Live to

fight another day.”

In"Kaya," Bob Marley is singing about marijuana. Kaya in Jamaican

patois means ganja. It is used for spiritual purposes for the Rasta. It is a sacrament

and part of Bob Marley’s and most Rasta's daily routine. During Rasta gathering

they usually sing, dance, read and discuss Bible while sharing chalice or ganja

pipe. For Rastas, smoking weed or marijuana will make them feel closer to Jah

(God). It is used as a sacrament. However, in this particular song he is talking

about smoking ganja as relaxation as he would describe it in patois “feelin irie,”

which means feeling good and peace. There seem to be no significance in the song

21 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 201.22 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 79.


54

but here Marley is glorifying one of the basic tenets in Rasta teaching about

marijuana as God's creation to be enjoyed in the motion of freedom.

In "Ride Natty Ride" Bob Marley opens the verse with a line, “dready got

a job to do.” Dread and natty are words that have taken a new meaning in

Jamaican creole which refer to the Rasta. The song is about the task of the Rasta

to fulfill Jah mission in destroying evil system as well as a faithful affirmation of

Jah's guidance. Riding natty may not be a cowboy, instead a righteous force of

apocalypse to destroy the wickedness.23 Here he would infuse some biblical

references. One of them is final judgment day with apocalypse source of power

(fire). Another Jamaican expression is “go deh” which literally means to go there,

and to do the punishment.

"Bad Cards" is a song specifically aims at and to condemn Bob Marley’s

ex-manager, Don Taylor, who cheated and betrayed him.24 Taylor had to show his

bad card which is his true self.

1.2.3. Spiritual Grounded Metaphor (Rasta and Biblical Reference)

As his involvement in Rastafarianism grew stronger Bob Marley started to

infuse biblical reverences into his lyrics. His strong devotion made him studied

the Bible with the intensity of a priest.25 The same is true to his political

awareness.They become the source of inspiration to write songs.

Bob Marley’s lyrics are deeply rooted in Rastafarianism. They are really

dense with word play, wit, and deep philosophy of language. Rastafarianism is a

23 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 276.24 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 106.25 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 18.


55

syncretic religion which combines beliefs and practices from many religions.26

However, the writer can see that the dominant influence comes from Christianity.

It can be clearly seen as the Rastas would make a lot biblical reference in their

speech and chant.

Spirituality usually dichotomizes its concept between good and bad,

between positive and negative. Therefore Bob Marley’s metaphoric expression

mainly built based on this concept. Worth in his thesis divided eight metaphoric

categories in Marley’s songs: Light/Dark, Up/Down, Nature, Journey, Babylon,

Free/Slave, Poverty, and metaphors from Rastafarian language. However, writer

will only divide it into three categories: Light/Dark, Up/Down, and Biblical

reference.

For Bob Marley Jah is light. People who are in the light will be able to see

the truth about the state in which they live. Those who walk in the dark endanger

themselves because of the minimum visuality. They are not able to see without the

guidance of sight. This Light/Dark category can be seen in the metaphoric terms

such as light, day, bright, morning, night, sun, moon, new day, and darkness.

In "Concrete Jungle" Bob Marley opens with “No sun will shine in my day

today (No sun will shine)/ The high yellow moon won’t come out to play/

Darkness has covered my light/ and has changed my day into night.” These lines

depict the underprivileged living in the ghetto among the concrete buildings

where the sun and moon cannot expose their light unto the people. Despite their

poor condition Bob Marley assures the people that Jah will prevail over the

darkness.



56

He also emphasizes the same message in "Could You Be Loved" and in

"Get Up Stand Up." In the first, he sings“in the darkness there must come out the

light.” Jah as the light is the source of hope for the people in the tribulation. While

in the later he sings “Now you see the light/ and stand up for your rights.” Bob

Marley claims that the people have much long been fooled under the hegemonic

power that once they see the light of truth they must stand up against it.

In “Talkin’ Blues” he criticizes the church as many Rasta distrust

Christianity and view it as a symbol of religious oppression. Here he sings “I’m

gonna stare in the sun, Let the rays shine in my eyes.” Meaning that he wants to

look deep into Jah light and let His shine of wisdom comes upon him. The

mission of a true believer is not to follow other believers but to follow Jah as the

source of truth.

Bob Marley sings more about the shadow of oppression in "Revolution."

The lyrics are as follows, “Can’t trust the shadow of the dark/ so my friend I wish

you could see.” Living in the dark is scary and full of terror that people cannot

move freely but once the sun comes in they are free to move even dancing.

In “Sun is Shining” Bob Marley sings “Sun is shining/ the weather is

sweet,” that it “make you want to move your dancing feet.” Through out more of

other Bob Marley’s songs we will still find this Light/Dark metaphoric pattern.

They basically explain about understanding and living in the truth and goodness

of Jah will lead people to a physical and spiritual freedom.

Other than the light/dark symbol, Bob Marley also uses the Up/Down

contradiction to describe about Jah (God). Jah is also associated with the upward

direction while the wickedness is downward. In seeking for Jah’s wisdom, people


57

are urged to direct their effort upward.27 This Up/Down category can be seen in

metaphorical expression like Zion, higher, lift, up, above, and sky.

Zion is taken from the Bible. It’s King David’s dwelling palace which was

on top of a hill. Up is associated with dwelling place of Jah. It is also a hierarchy

status of Jah who is above humans and that He is superior. It can be seen in

"Jammin'" when Bob Marley proclaims “Holly Mount Zion/ Jah sitteth in Mount

Zion and rules all creation.” In "No More Trouble" Bob Marley sings “If you hope

good down from above.” The hope for goodness comes from Jah that will make

you strong and be able to help the weak as he adds in the next line “Help the weak

if you are strong.”

The confession of Jah protection and superiority is shown by Bob Marley

in "Ambush in the Night," as he sings “Through the power of the Most High/ we

keep on surviving.” It is a song addressed to Bob Marley attackers in his house at

fifty six Hope Road where he was gun shot but eventually survived because of Jah

protection.

The word “up” is also a metaphor to show the people's effort to reach the

righteousness of Jah as it is shown in "Get Up Stand Up". Once people know the

truth they must stand up and not to bow down. The emphasis on people's

relentless efforts to beat oppression by relying in Jah's help can also be seen in

"Jamming'" “no bullet can stop us now we neither beg nor we won’t bow." Then

also in "Survival", in which he sings "We’ve gotta live up/ ‘cause the Father’s

time has come.”

The word “up” is contrasted with negative qualities i.e. “down”. This



58

expression can be seen in “Concrete Jungle” as he sings “I’ve got to pick myself

up from the ground.” He has to get up from the state of being on the ground to

reach his freedom. Down metaphoric expression is very significant in Rastafarian

language. The word downpress means oppression. The word oppression

phonologically sounds like up-press, therefore it is changed to down-press to

match its negative connotation. It can be seen in "Exodus" as he sings “Jah come

to break downpression,” and in "Guiltiness" “Woe to the downpression.” Basically

Up/Down category describes the holiness and righteousness of Jah and its

contradiction to the wickedness of Babylon or oppression. It is about Bob

Marley’s rhetoric upon positive and negative quality. Jah and Zion are described

as being up, while Babylon or oppression is described as being down.

It can be observed that Bob Marley’s lyrics are also very biblical. Directly

or indirectly he uses the Bible as a reference in most of his songs. Bible is an

essential text for the Rasta. Bob Marley's exposure to the routine practice of Bible

reading affects many of his songs.

Direct biblical reference can be seen in "Hallelujah." Here Bob Marley

uses biblical terms such as hallelujah, and sheep. Hallelujah means praising God

while sheep usually refers to Jesus' followers, while Jesus Himself is the shepherd.

The song contains affirmation of Jah's guidance and hymn of praise by Jah

children.

In another song called "Survival" Bob Marley glorifies Jah's protection as

he equates the Black survival out of the oppression to the story of Daniel and his

friends Shadrach, Michach, and Abednego to defy the hubris of King

Nebuchadnezzar when he sings “We’re the survivors/ like Daniel out of the lions’


59

den” and “We’re the survivors/ like Shadrach, Michach, and Abednego thrown in

the fire, but a-never get burn.”

Meanwhile in "So Much Things To Say" Bob Marley recalls the story of

betrayal in Jesus' crucifiction as he sings “I’ll never forget no way/ they crucified

Jesus Christ.” While in "Exodus" he equates the repatriation to Africa to the

biblical account of Moses and Israelites as they were led out of Egypt28 when he

sings “Send us another brother Moses, from across the Red Sea.”

In another song, "Johnny Was" Bob Marley paraphrases the book of

Romans 6:23 when he sings “Now she knows that the wages of sin is death/ gift

of Jah is life.” In "Small Axe" Bob Marley quotes the Bible as he opens the verse

with Proverbs 22:8 in line “You’re working iniquity to achieve vanity” And in the

second verse he paraphrases the book of Psalm 7:15 and Proverbs 26:27 in the

line “And whosoever diggeth a pit, shall fall in it.” Basically the inclusion of

biblical reference is to show the affirmation of Bob Marley’s devotion to Jah

(God).

1.3. Bob Marley's Lyrical Form

Bob Marley proves himself as a real craftsman and a poet. He would

employ a great deal of rhymes. It is part of the grace of his songs. The way the

songs unfold rhythmically through the use of rhyme scheme makes they become a

wonderful shaping lines which are filled with musicality even when they are

spoken.29 Alliteration and assonance can be found in many of his songs to

28 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 79.29 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 48.


60

establish a musicality in the lines.30 It is his typical construction to play with

sounds through a spoken phrase and sweet tunes.

A clear example on the use of rhymes can be seen in "Concrete Jungle."

Here he employs a great deal of rhyme scheme. In the opening verse of the song

there is an echo line of assonance, "in my day to day." While in the second verse

he plays with a rhyme that is magnificent. Happiness is/sweet caress is,

around/bound, and ground/found. Bob Marley was really care and conscious in

word diction to construct most of his lyrics to make them sound astonishing and

"Concrete Jungle" is only an example.

Other examples of good rhyme can be seen in "Bend Down Low,"

"Revolution," "Jamming," "Waiting in Vain," "Easy Skanking," "Is This Love,"

"She's Gone," "Crisis," "Ride Natty Ride," "Bad Card," "Pimpers' Paradise,"

"Could You Be Loved," and "Forever Loving Jah."

Other than as a means to construct a good sound pattern, word diction

somehow also designates the tone or implicit attitude of the author or singer. Bob

Marley's intention to employ vernacular Jamaican patois might suggest many

things and one of them would be to boost a distinctive identity as a form of

resistance to the oppressive system. This in turn reveals that the tone in most of

his songs would be cynical, ironic, sarcasm and serious. Bob Marley tends to be

not openly aggressive in addressing a protest. They sound more subtle and

restrained yet they are very ironic and cynical. Like in "Concrete Jungle" he sings

"No chain around my feet but I'm not free." In "Get Up Stand Up" he sings "We

sick and tired of you ism-skism game/Dying and go to heaven in Jesus name

30 Ibid, p. 49.


61

Lord." In "Burnin' and Lootin'" he sings "How many rivers do we have to cross?/

Before we can talk to the boss?" In "Small Axe" he sings "if you are a big three/

we are the small axe." Bob Marley made a good harmonious and subtle song to be

catchy even to the ears of those he was protesting. It is his poetics and rhetorics to

launch a non-violence protest and promoting peace and harmony. On or off the

stage and live or in studio Bob Marley was fighting a war. Out of the sweet and

harmonious tunes and lyrics there is a serious rage against the oppressive Babylon

system.

2. The Black Brothers' Music

Music and song have long been part of Papuan culture. It is a way to

preserve its culture and identity. Despite the fact that Papua is part of Indonesia,

Papuan musicians tend to associate themselves with Melanesian culture from

other Pacific islands. They share a typical dance, musical instruments like

ukuleles, tifa (snake skin drum), and sing in four part harmonies.31

The emergence of Papuan popular music started around 1950s to 1960s

when there were a lot of Hawaiian groups spread in almost big towns in Papua.

Among others which was quite famous and outstanding is Gagak Hitam (Black

Raven) from Jayapura. The band played Hawaiian music at wedding parties, and

other local formal and informal gigs. As there was a stagnancy of Hawaiian music

in 1960s the youth starting to shift direction. The group formed a full band and

changed its name to Blue Boys. They began to play various genre of music like

31 Moksha, Clara. Violence and oppression against musicians in forgotten conflict. Music Freedom Report no.4: West Papua (March 2012). Web. 1 May. 2014.<http://musicfreedomday.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/MusicFreedomReport_WestPapua.pdf>.


62

rock and roll, hard rock, rock, jazz, blues, pop, and even keroncong covering

western, Latin and Indonesia popular hits.32 The band then again changed its

name several times from Blue Boys to Sombar Hitam (Black Shadow), Aitumeri

(name of a stone in Manokwari), and Lost Iriantos Primitif.

The history of early Papua popular music almost mainly focuses on one

name, Mimi Fatahan. He is like Papuan version of Jamaican Joe Higgs who

mentoring music and harmonies to local youths and the man behind those early

groups and bands in Jayapura including The Black Brothers. He is also a close

relative to Andy Ayamiseba, The Black Brothers' manager. Despite of his

mysterious disappearance on 12 September 1978, he had shown a path and good

spirit for the upcoming musicians in Papua.

The Black Brothers was formed by Andy Ayamiseba in mid 1970s in

Jayapura. He selected best musicians from three local bands in Papua. Benny

Bettay (Bassist), Stevie Mambor (Drummer) and Musa Fakdawer (Vocalist) from

P dan K band, Jochie Patipeiluhu (Keyboardist) from Patilapa brothers in Jayapura,

and the last is Hengky Mironthoneng (Lead Guitar) from The Hops band in

Biak.33 Being convinced that Jakarta offer the best opportunity to pursue their

musical career, Andy then brought them there. Demanding horn session players to

add a distinctive color to the band, Andy brought in Amry Kahar (Trumpet player)

from Sorong and Abdullah Junus (Saxophonist) from Yogyakarta. The early

formation was fixed. In Jakarta The Black Brothers made a weekly performance at

local bar, Ankerage. They played various genre of music like rock, rock and roll,

jazz, blues, reggae and keroncong. They tend to play western rock hits from band

32 Al Qatiri, Igir M, Menelusuri Jejak Langkah Sang Legenda, p. 22.33 Al Qatiri, Igir M, Menelusuri Jejak Langkah Sang Legenda, p. 29.


63

like Deep Purple, Grand Funk Rail Road, and Led Zeppelin, and Indonesia pop

melancholic songs from artist like Rinto Harahap and Charles Hutagalung (The

Mercys).34 They also played several numbers of their own songs which attracted

Nyong Ben Seng, a music producer of PT. Irama Tara, to sign them a contract. On

June 1976 The Black Brothers launched their first album entitled "Irian Jaya"

which rocked Indonesian popular music scene and got a positive response from

large Indonesian audience. When on a road tour they attracted around 50.000

people, hence they only performed in big stadium which somehow even could not

hold the eager fans.35

Although their success does not last long (1976-1979), they had several

achievements. Their second album "Derita Tiada Akhir" (Endless Sufferings) was

the most successful album with 300.000 copies sold.36 Some of their best songs

are successfully covered by other artist like "Kisah Seorang Pramuria" (Story of a

prostitute) by Charles Hutagalung (The Mercys) and Indonesian famous rock band,

Boomerang. The most recent one is the reggae cover version of "Hari Kiamat"

(The End of The Day) by international reggae artist Quino (Big Mountain). In

1977, the band had a golden record award, and became one of the most expensive

bands for a show in Indonesia with other famous groups like God Bless and SAS.

Reportedly in 1982 when they were settled in Netherland, their disco version of

PNG (Papua New Guinea) song "Jalikoe" reached third place on a European disco

chart.37

The Black Brothers can be considered as a unique band because they blend

34 Ibid, p. 38.35 Al Qatiri, Igir M, Menelusuri Jejak Langkah Sang Legenda, p. 40.36 Ibid, p. 37.37 Whimp, Kathy. Protection of Intellectual, Biological and Cultural Property in Papua New Guinea. (ANU EPress, 2013), p.118. Web. 14 May 2014.


64

Papua traditional folk song with popular music taste. They succeeded in bringing

their culture and folk stories to the ears of other Indonesian fans. The audience

seemed to embrace them because of the way they do it musically. When on live

show they tend to play funk rock which creating waves in the crowd yet their

recordings are dominated by melancholic pop songs. It somehow shows their two

personalities or characteristics as a band.

2.1. Theme in The Black Brothers’ songs

Following the main stream themes in popular music, The Black Brothers

also sing about love (falling in love, breaking up, and searching for love), leisure

and pleasure (party and dance). However, they would also inserted some social

criticism, folks and cultural pride, and friendship. Since the The Black Brothers

can be associated to Black power movement, it is believed that their supposedly

love themes are actually political in some sense.

It can be argued that The Black Brothers sees that music is the opportunity

to break the negative prejudice of the media that Papua is a backward area with

backward people. The band aims to promote their remote island to the rest of the

country. This can be seen in their physical style on live performance (big loose

curly hair, and traditional costumes) and be heard in their lyrics which voicing out

the pride of their self identity and their homeland. Although many of their songs

are sung in bahasa Indonesia, there are several songs sung in their natives

language. Mainly those natives’ songs are about the beauty of the nature, love and

friendships.

There are sixty six songs out of eight albums produced by PT. Irama Tara


65

Jakarta: "Irian Jaya 1" (1976); "Derita Tiada Akhir" (Endless Sufferings, 1976);

"Lonceng Kematian" (Death Albatross,1977); "Kenangan November" (November

Memories, 1977); "Kaum Benalu" (The Parasite, 1978); "Misteri" (Mistery, 1978);

"Volume Perdana" (The Prime Volume, 1979); "Hening" (Silence, 1979) (see

table 5 in appendix 1). These albums might be the life time achievement since

until today The Black Brothers is the only band from Papua which successfully

signed and launched a professional albums in Indonesia. They are the symbol of

Papua popular music and one of Indonesia greatest bands.

Generally The Black Brothers' songs consist of three types of theme, i.e. 1)

social criticism; 2) cultural pride and identity; 3) romance and dance tunes (see

table 4 in appendix 1). Specifically the writer constructed the theme into five

categories: Irian Jaya or Papua; Romance; Social criticism; Pramuria (prostitute);

and other minor themes. The central theme of Irian Jaya or Papua designates self

pride under the geographical reference like Jayapura, Gunung Syclop (Mt.

Cyclop), Danau Sentani (Sentani Lake), Jalan Angkasa (Angkasa Street), Pasir 2

(sandy beach 2), physical appearance like hitam (black) and kribo (curly). The

inclusion of Irian or Papua native songs in almost every album is quite unique.

Apuse (1st); Huembello (2nd); Amapondo (3th); Samandoye (5th) and;

Mangge-mangge (6th), Ino mote ngori in 7th album is a Ternate song written by

Amry Kahar. The musical arrangement of those folk numbers is a combination of

traditional chant and tunes with popular music style like pop, rock, jazz, and

disco.

The central theme of romance deals with love between man and woman

under the issue of falling love, breaking up, and searching for love. The Black


66

Brothers' love stories mainly about sentiments of affection, sorrow, and romantic

longing. However as the writer could see the dominant one is mainly about sorrow.

The penchant for tearful sentimental wallowing in the longings and

disappointments of frustrated protagonist seems to be the main characteristic of

The Black Brothers’ love songs.

The central theme of social criticism designates protest to corrupt

government about corruption, poverty, and poor labor. Based on the short online

interview with Jochie Pattipeluhu, the keyboardist who composed most of The

Black Brothers materials said that social criticism is another important concern

that they should put into songs. These are the things that rarely done by most

bands and singers during that time. Specifically, The Black Brothers make their

commentary upon social and economical degradation happened in Indonesia as a

result of corrupt government and rich men wickedness. There are seven songs

addressing the issue: "Hari Kiamat" (The End of the Day); "Lonceng Kematian"

(Death Albatross); "Gundik-gundik latah" (Talkative Concubines); "Kaum

Benalu" (The Parasites); "Kuncup Putih" (White Buds); "Tangan Hampa" (Empty

Handed); "Tanah Dosa" (Land of Sinner).

The central theme of Pramuria (Prostitute) is a typical characteristic in

The Black Brothers song that it exists almost in every album under specific terms

beside Pramuria such as Juwita Malam (Night Angel), Kupu-kupu Malam (Night

Butterfly), and Melati Plastik (Plastic Jasmine). The persistent existence in every

album makes the writer puts it as one segmented theme though it can be included

into the central theme of romance. Written mostly by Hengky, the lead vocal, they

are said to be his autobiographical love story. He wrote six out of the total nine


67

songs addressing the issue, i.e. "Kisah Seorang Pramuria" (Story of a Prostitute),

"Cinta dan Pramuria" (Love and Prostitute), "Doa Pramuria" (The Prostitute's

Prayer), "Untukmu Pramuria" (To you, O prostitute), "Balada Pramuria"

('Ballads of a Prostitute), and "Pramuria tapi Biarawati" (Prostitute but Nun),

while the rest were written by Yochie Patipeluhu and Ian Antono, i.e. "Juwita

Malam" (Night Angle) and "Melati Plastik" (Plastic Jasmine). Hengky seems to

be a true lover who positions himself as a pro-feminist who treats the prostitute in

a more respectable way. He defies the tendency to use prostitute as merely sexual

object that dehumanize women. There is a distinctive difference when Hengky’s

"Pramuria tapi Biarawati" (Prostitute but Nun) and Ian Antono’s "Juwita Malam"

(Night Angel) are compared. Pramuria (a prostitute) who is normally considered

as a sinner can also have the pure and divine character of biarawati (a nun). In

“Juwita Malam” (Night Angle), Antono sees a prostitute as a mere symbol of

slick and sin as well as a sexual object to man’s satisfaction. In addition to that,

the segmentation of pramuria (prostitute) theme in The Black Brothers' songs also

to show another implication of reading. Pramuria (prostitute) in this new layer of

meaning can also symbolize the exploitation and degradation of Papua natural

resource or a mere object of government's satisfaction. Here lies the political

nuance which is discussed further in next chapter.

The minor theme covers the less dominant themes other than the majority.

It includes themes such as friendship or brotherhood, and the glory of God’s

creation, and number of dance tunes. The theme of friendship discusses

relationship between friends like in "Sahabatku Angie" (My best friend Angie).

Glory of God's creation contains the praising of God's blessings and grace like in


68

"Kurnia Ilahi" ('Divine Grace). The theme of dance tunes covers songs which are

written for leisure and pleasure which includes the issue of drinking, party, and

dancing like in "Musik Masa Kini" (Today's Music) and "Goyang Disco" (Disco

Dance).

Out of the five themes the two most dominant ones are romance and Irian

Jaya with the significant numbers of twenty one and sixteen out of the total sixty

six songs (see table 6 in appendix 1). This is to prove the band's real characteristic

as a typical popular band to sing of love song yet they might also lead to

something deeper than just a romantic in the perspective of cognitive poetics

which emphasize on the cognition of reading the lyric as a literary text by

considering the context.

2.2. The Black Brothers' Lyrical Style

The Black Brothers' lyrics are a mixture of Papuan folk chants with

popular music which have a nuance of wisdom and mystic beside poetic love

stories, and social critics. They are rich with imagery devices mainly metaphor

and personification. The lyrics tend to be spontaneous and impressionist. Despite

Papuan have their own daily dialect which is Papuan Malay, they prefer to use

standard Bahasa Indonesia as the lingua fanca, except some local folk numbers.

Carrying this spirit The Black Brothers’ songs resonate with the deep emotion of

the people. They can be summed up as resignation, honesty, and simplicity of

lifestyle. Their lyrics are rich with metaphors, however they are not as thick and

dense as Bob Marley’s Jamaican metaphors. Their metaphors and personifications


69

operate mainly on archetypal qualifier which tends to be general and easy to

understand. The source of their metaphoric expressions are love stories, nature,

social life and somehow mystic and spiritual in a certain way. However as the

writer assumes, The Black Brothers’ metaphors can be summed up into two main

categories: romantic grounded (love stories, nature) and Papuan grounded

(native’s language, geographical and physical reference).

2.2.1. Romantic Grounded Metaphors

The Black Brothers is a romantic band in a real sense. As one can see in

table of the dominant theme in their songs (table 6 in appendix 1), romantic love

song category has the highest percentage. This is to prove the claim by most of

their audience that The Black Brothers is a melancholic pop band. However,

romanticism does not only deal with the subject of love, the writer could see more

than that. Based on the history of the Romantic Movement in Europe, the early

association with romanticism in mid eighteen century is natural exotism,

adventure, terror, and mysticism. Romantic’s taste favors simplicity and

naturalness.38 The early spirit of romanticism is to go back to nature and against

rationalization by the enlightenment period. Romantic writers tend to value more

on tender sentiment of affection, sorrow, and longing. However out of all

emotions celebrated by romanticism, love is the most popular. Despite the fact

that great romantic works deal on terror or rage, the motive behind this passion is

mostly a relationship between a pair of lovers. In the classical world love had

been more or less associated with sex. Love used to be viewed as natural

38 Brown, Marshall. The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Volume 5, Romanticism. (CambridgeUniversity Press, 2008), p. 92.


70

birthright by the romantics. The shifting in thinking allows love to be equated to

romance that the two are now generally viewed as synonymous.

The Black Brothers have almost these qualities to be considered as

romantic. The writer can see that their songs consist of love stories, the exoticism

of nature, mysticism, and social criticism. Their love songs are mainly dominated

with sorrow, tearful sentimental wallowing in the longings of the heart and

disappointments. The songs in this category are as follows: "Terjalin Kembali"

(Getting Back Together), "Balada Dua Remaja" (The Ballads of Two Teenagers),

"Putus Ditengah Kerinduan" (Losing You In The Middle of Deep Longing),

"Kisah Seorang Pramuria" (Story of a Prostitute), "Derita Tiada Akhir" (Endless

Sufferings), "Hilang" (Gone), "Keroncong Kenangan" (Song of Memory), "Doa

Pramuria" (The Prostitute's Prayer), "Melati Di Tanah Gersang" (Jasmine on the

Barren Land), "Sahabatku Angie" (My best friend Angie), "Tragedy Awal

Agustus" (Tragedy on Early August), "Gadis Lembah Sunyi" (The Girl from the

Lonely Valley), "Kenangan November" (November Memory), "Tiada Senyum

Diakhir Senja" (No Smile When Dusk Ends) "Untukmu Pramuria" (To you, O

Prostitute), "Layu Diujung Senja" (Wilted at the End of Twilight), "Balada

Pramuria" (Ballads of Prostitute), "Lagu Yang Terpotong" (The Unfinished Song),

"Gerimis Dihati Gersang" (Drizzle on a Dry Heart), and "Hening" (Silence). The

pitiful circumstance of love is summoned to reinforce the emotions through

metaphoric expression. Love is viewed as a fragile object that can easily break. In

"Balada Dua Remaja" The Black Brothers sing "Kisah cinta hancur berderai"

(our love story falls apart) and in "Hilang" they sing "Bunga di hati layu sudah/

berguguran daun-daunnya" (flower in my heart goes whithered/ the leaves are


71

falling down). Love is full of pain and loneliness in the circumstances of being

cheated or left alone. This typical situation can be found in most of the lyrics of

the songs above. In "Hilang" they sing "Kini ku sendiri lagi/ melangkah dalam

kepedihan/ tiada penghibur hati/ tertelan dalam kesunyian" (Now I’m all alone/

walking with the pain/ no one to call on to/ being swollen into loneliness). In

"Keroncong Kenangan" they sing "Kini kusendiri mengenangkan/ semua kisah

indah bersamamu" (Now I’m alone/ reminiscing all wonderful stories with you).

In "Melati Di Tanah Gersang" they sing "Di wajahnya terukir goresan kesedihan"

(upon her face etched scratches of grief). In "Gadis Di Lembah Sunyi" they sing

"Kini ku sendiri tiada menemani/ gadis di lembah sunyi" (Now I’m on my own

with no company/ the girl in the valley of silence). In "Tiada Senyum Diakhir

senja" they sing "Hanyalah kesepian yang menemani di hati/ bersama bayangan

yang terlukis menyiksa diri" (only loneliness is the company to my heart/ with the

shadow painted torturing myself). In "Untukmu Pramuria" again they sing

"Hidupku dalam dunia ini/ penuh dengan derita" (My life in this world is full of

sorrow and pain). In "Hening" they sing "Hari-ke hari sunyi yang menemani"

(loneliness is my friend from day after day). In "Terjalin Kembali" they sing

"Hanya titik air mata/ mengiring mu pada dia yang pertama menyentuh

hatimu"(only a tear drop can lead you back to him who firstly touch your heart).

In "Hilang" they sing "Kini ku sendiri lagi/ melangkah dalam kepedihan" (Now

I’m all alone/ walking with the pain). In "Gerimis Di Hati Gersang" they sing "Di

simpang jalan ku menatapmu/ berlalu bersama kasihmu"(In the crossroads I saw

you passed by with your lover).

Jochie Patipeluhu as The Black Brothers' golden ink who wrote almost all


72

the lyrics is known to be very poetic. All of these pitiful love experiences are

made beautiful and moving by infusing the imagery devices mainly metaphor and

personification. This can be seen in lines such as "Bunga di hati layu sudah" (the

flower in my heart goes whithered), "Di wajahnya terukir goresan kesedihan" (on

her face there's a scarce of pain), "Terkenang sekeping hati terluka sudah/ dalam

danau air mata/ bagai sekuntum melati sayup melambai/ di tanah gersang selalu

gelisah" (remembering a broken heart/ in the lake of tears/like a jasmine waving

by/upon a barren land always uneasy) "malam hampir merapat pagi/ sinar lembut

menyentuh telaga/ unggas membisik nada sendu" (night almost comes to dawn/

shines gently touch the pond/birds singing blues) "biduk tua yang membisu" (an

old silent boat). These emotional expressions clearly seem to be exaggerated or

artificial but they could possibly build out of real individual experience that was

genuine.

Different from enlightenment period which favored reasoning and

rationality, romanticism like its early spirit strengthen the hold of religion and

mysticism. Though not explicitly seen, The Black Brothers' songs are built up out

of spirituality. As an example we can see the songs about prostitute that Hengky,

the lead vocal, wrote. Here implicitly Hengky inserts a biblical allusion in the way

a prostitute should be treated. For him a prostitute deserves to be honored and

loved and that we are all sinners and do not have right to judge others. This

attitude can be seen in the lyrics of songs such as "Kisah Seorang Pramuria"

(Story of a prostitute), "Cinta dan Pramuria" (Love and a prostitute), "Doa

Pramuria" (The prostitute's prayer), "Untukmu Pramuria" (To you, O prostitute),

"Balada Pramuria" (ballads of prostitute) and "Pramuria Tapi Biarawati"


73

(prostitute yet a nun).

There are several biblical allusion that can be found in those songs: First,

an allusion to John 8:7 in which Jesus Himself when asked by the scribes and

Pharisees about a woman taken in adultery who about to be stoned, he calmly

responded “He that is without sin among you, let him cast a stone at her.” Second,

an allusion to Luke 7:36-50 where a prostitute came to Jesus and washed his feet

with her tears, wiped them with her hair and kissed and anointed them with

ointment. Jesus then forgave her sins. It is in this effort and attitude that Hengky

puts in his song "Doa Pramuria" (the prostitutes prayer) where he inserted a

prayer of a prostitute "Oh Tuhan Engkau Maha Pengasih/ Engkau Maha

Penyayang/ Kiranya Engkau mau datang dengan kemurahan tanganMu/

mengampuni semua dosa-dosaku/ kuserahkan sisa hidupku/ didalam tanganMu

saja Oh Tuhanku/ amin" (O merciful and loving God/ I hope you would come

with your gratefulness hands to forgive all my sins/ into your hands I give the rest

of my life/ O my Lord /amen).

Another example of biblical allusion is also depicted in “Hari Kiamat”

(The End of the Day) about the condemnation and the doom of the evil doers. The

believe of judgement day is deeply based on the spiritual level. The main tenet of

Christianity and some other religions is that our present attitudes and deeds will

decide our fate in the next life. In this song, The Black Brothers depicts the real

situation of the poor and demands an action by the rich otherwise they will have a

serious consequence. The real situation is the poor keep begging for sympathy

from the ignorant rich. The demand of an action is that they shall help the poor.

The biblical allusion is based on Matthew 25: 31- 46 about the judgement day. In


74

verses 40-43 it is said: “And the King will answer and say to them, Assurdly, I say

to you, inasmuch as you did it to one of the least of these My brethren, you did it

to Me. Then He will also say to those on the left hand, Depart from me, you

cursed, into the everlasting fire prepared for the devil and his angels: for I was

hungry and you gave Me no food; I was thirsty and you gave Me no drink; I was a

stranger and you did not take Me in, naked and you did not clothe Me, sick and in

prison and you did not visit Me.” Those who help the poor are actually do it for

God, and that He will recognice them as the chosen ones who will survive His

rage at the judgement day.

Another biblical allusion to the song is on Luke 10:25-36 about the good

Samaritan. Here lie the basic teachings of Jesus when He said in verses 27 and 28:

“You shall love the Lord you God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all

your strength, and with all your mind, and your neighbor as yourself. And He said

to him, You have answered rightly; do this and you will live.”

2.2.2. Papua Grounded Metaphor

Papua grounded metaphor in The Black Brothers’ songs mainly consist of

folksongs and exoticism of Papua's nature. Despite the fact that folksong and

exoticism of nature are supposed to be put under romantic grounded metaphor,

they are more likely to be put in a separated category in order to show their

uniqueness. Different from other popular bands in 1970s except Koes Plus, The

Black Brothers includes folksongs into almost every album they released.

Just like any other folksong, Papuan folksongs mainly talk about its nature

and vegetation, its people, local wisdoms and mysticism. Papuan folksongs deal


75

with the surrounding where the people live with their daily circumstances and

tradition, as well as their mystical lores. Papuans who live in mountainous area

will sing about the exoticism of nature using terms such as mountains, hills, rivers,

birds, and lake. Meanwhile those who live in seashore will sing about nature using

terms such as sea, beach, waves, boat, fish, rocks, fishing, and fishermen. As an

example is “Ino Mote Ngori" in Ternate language which means “Come follow

me.” The song is about a fisherman calling for his friends to follow him to go

fishing. Another example is "Yawonde" in Ambai language, a tribe in Yapen Island

which means "I row my boat seashore." According to Peter Wamea, a relative of

The Black Brothers, the song is about triumphant tribal sailors.

When talking about its people they use terms such as black and curly. This

can be seen in song such as "Dewi Kribo" (Curly princess) Here they sing "Dewi

kribo Danau Sentani/ hitam manis menawan hati" (Curly princess of Sentani

Lake/ black sweet and appealing). This song challenges the normal and general

concept of beauty which is propagated by the hegemonic world.

There is one song which clearly deals with natural mystic. It is the famous

"Huembelo" which means the howling wolve or dog. It is a song from Moi/Klabra,

a tribe in Sorong, northern part of the island. The song is about the omen through

midnight lamentation of a dog. A howling dog designates the presence of a spirit

as a sign of terror and lamentation. The song is wildly performed by Abdullah

Yunus through the beat of punk rock music. The repetition of the lyric somehow

sounds like a spelling mantra adding the nuance of mysticism.

Another characteristic in The Black Brothers’ songs is the glorification of

nature. The Black Brothers share the exoticism of Papua nature through


76

picturesque expression and geographical reverences. In "Irian Jaya 1" they sing

"Hutan lebat yang meluas, sungai berliku-liku/ Irian Jayaku ku bangga akan

asalku...Indah nian alammu sejuk nyaman cuacamu"(Lush forest as far as you

could see/ winding rivers flowing by/ O My Irian Jaya/ I’m really proud of my

native...how lovely is your nature/ the weather is cool and cozy). In "Jayapura Di

Waktu Malam" The Black Brothers sing about the beauty of Jayapura city at night,

"Indahnya malam/ indahnya bukit/ bertaburan cahaya/ di malam hari"(How

lovely is the night/ how lovely are the hills/ the stars are brighly shine/ in an

appealing night). In "Kali Kemiri" The Black Brothers sing about the beauty of

Kemiri River which located in Sentani, Jayapura, "Indah tempatnya, jauh di atas

sana Kali Kemiri bersembunyi di balik pohon nan tinggi/ Kali Kemiri" (How

lovely is the place/ far between the montain/ Kali Kemiri/ hiding behind the giant

trees/ Kali Kemiri). In "Irian Jaya 2" they sing about the towns in Papua with

their uniqueness. They glorify its vegetation and natural resources as they sing in

the chorus, "Suburnya tanahku asalku Irian Jaya/ Kau kupuja slalu/ asalku Irian

Jaya/ banyak kekayaan yang masih terpendam di sana" (How fruitful is the soil/

my origin is Irian Jaya/ there are still multitude of wealth still buried underneath).

In "Keroncong Gunung Cyclop" they sing about the beauty of Mt. Cyclop in

Jayapura which is depicted as a King, Princess and fortress, "Bagai seorang raja/

dikelilingi ribuan bukitmu/ di kakimu terentang danau indah bagai

permaisuri...malam hari kau berubah bagai benteng terlupakan"(Like a powerful

King/ surrounded with thosand hills/ underneath your feet lies the lovely lake like

a princess...in the night you turn to be a forgotten fortress). In "Pantai Pasir Dua"

they sing about a wonderful Pasir Dua Beach, a beach in the suburb near Jayapura.


77

"Keroncong Irian Jaya" is an autobiograpical song of Stevie Mambor, the

drummer, who as a wanderer away from home is longing for his birth place, Irian

Jaya.

All these forms of nature glorification is aimed to break down the negative

image that comes to people's mind about Papua and its people. It is not a cannibal

island where its people are uncivilized. It is a land of milk and honey with its

friendly people. Ever since the two German missionaries, Ottow and Geissler

landed on the land in 1885, many Papuans have been baptized and converted into

Christians and being educated. That is why to some extend The Black Brothers

existed to tell that the people of Papua have come into the light and therefore they

are supposed to live triumphantly.

2.3. The Black Brothers' Lyrical Forms

Lyrically The Black Brothers is far away less rhythmical than Bob Marley.

Despite the lyrics consist of a lot of metaphoric expressions yet the lyrics do not

have significant rhyme patterns. It is also very rare to hear sound play like

alliteration and assonance. Most of The Black Brothers' songs are more like a

short story than a poem. They are narrative story using a combination of simple

language and metaphoric language. The diction in the lyrics is not meant for

rhythmical sound. As a example is "Keroncong Gunung Cyclop" (Song of Mt.

Cyclop) where they sing "Betapa agungnya/betapa megahnya/tinggi kau

menjulang/bagaikan seorang raja dikelilingi ribuan bukitmu/di kakimu terentang

danau indah bagai permaisuri" (How glorious is you/how great is you/stand firm


78

and strong/like a King surrounded by thousand hills/underneath you feet lies a

lake like a princess). The singer carefully chose those words in the lyric to

describe the exotic natural scene of the mountain by using poetic element of

personification. However if the lines are spoken or sung they do not sound

rhythmical since they do not rhyme and do not have alliteration and assonance.

This is the typical lyric in most of The Black Brothers' songs.

The theme of a song designates its tone. The Black Brothers songs are

mainly about romance and Irian Jaya/Papua. The typical love story in their song is

about the searching for love, breaking up and being left alone. However when

singing about their land, Irian Jaya/Papua, they are full of enthusiasm and

optimism. Then when addressing a criticism they are cynical and ironic. While

singing for leisure and pleasure they are joyful and happy.

3. The Sense of Affinity between Bob Marley and The Black Brothers

The existence of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers are the

representation of their respective social group who happened to be marginalized.

This notion can be seen and sensed through the naming of their bands, Bob

Marley and The Wailers and The Black Brothers. Here, it can be seen that they are

the wailers who wail and lament for the unfairness and hardships of their life yet

the experience abounds and unites them in the ties of brotherhood to fight through

music and song.

Song is a medium to communicate message and its lyric is a form of

rhetoric which posses an argumentative ideals. However, different from ordinary

conventional way, it has an aesthetic appeal that plays a significant persuasive role


79

in music besides tones and beats.39 The combination of language, performance

and music composition makes song a powerful form of communication.40 In

terms of language used, song lyric has a number of unique characteristics which

emphasizes aesthetic appeal of an argument.41 The poetic and rhetorical devices

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers infused into their songs to persuade the

audience are simple yet attractive in language, words, and sound.

Specifically both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs are rich with

imagery devices such as metaphor and personification. Their metaphor and

personification basically operate through the concept of tenor and vehicle. They

juxtapose two terms which normally regarded as belonging to different classes of

experiences.The two terms of comparison define the principle subject of the

metaphor and personification and the frame into which it is placed. Their meaning

emerges from the interaction of these two terms. The similarity on which the

interaction is based comes from the common aspects shared by the tenor and

vehicle to form a meaning which is called "ground." However, as the grounds for

constructing and interpreting metaphors and personifications are based in

commonly accepted notions as Leff suggested, the context which determines their

meaning may be immediate (bound to the audience or occasion) or it may be

social. Therefore, the pattern and structure of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers'

metaphor and personification can be clearly seen through the four levels of

39 Roberts, W Rhys. Rhetoric by Aristotle. An Electronic Classics Serries Publication. Pennsylvania StateUniversity, 2010-2013. Web. January 21. 2014.<http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/aristotl/Aristotle-Rhetoric.pdf>.40 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 53.41 Haner, Mark. "Bob Marley's Spiritual Rhetoric, the Spread of Jamaican Culture and Rastafarianism," aseminar paper. West Oregon University, 2007, p.3. Web. January 22. 2014.<http://www.wou.edu/las/socsci/history/senior_seminar_papers/2007/thesis07/Mark%20Haner.pdf>.


80

context proposed by Osborn and Ehninger.42 This context is called qualifiers 1)

Contextual qualifier which refers to the context of a discourse in terms of its

actual text and the situation in which it is used. This can be audience-bound social

knowledge in its most restrictive sense and social knowledge bound to a particular

audience at a particular time; 2) Communal qualifier which extends beyond the

text or audience but is culturally bound, relying on culturally-based social

knowledge. It directs meaning of the metaphor and personification by drawing

from the funded knowledge-the common experiences, traditions, or folkways-of

the public to whom the stimulus is directed. The interpretations somehow has

been stamped upon by authority; 3) Archetypal qualifier is not temporally or

culturally bound, instead it supplies meaning based on experiences common to

men of many races and ages-experiences relieved by each generation anew; and 4)

Private qualifier which refers to the meaning assigned by a listener through

personal or subjective associations. It has an interpretation which is unique to the

particular listener. And as the writer concludes, Bob Marley and The Black

Brothers' metaphors and personifications seem quite likely to operate based on

contextual, communal and archetypal qualifiers.

Besides imagery devices, there is also sound devices like rhyme,

alliteration and assonance. However it is Bob Marley who employs more

attractive and creative sound device in his lyrics than The Black Brothers.

By seeing all of these features of lyrical styles and forms in Bob Marley’s

and the Black Brothers’ songs, the writer argues that both of the artists would

likely to have intended purpose in using them as their method and a medium to



81

voice message about social and political unrest than a mere as an entertainment.

Artistical language use and sound pattern in the song is used to launch protest in a

much safer way against agressive authority. It has a nuance of what is theorized by

James Scott as hidden transcript. These forms of artistical language styles and

forms somehow possess elements of Scott’s hidden transcript. They show the

richness, creativity and witty pun of both Bob Marley and the Black Brothers as

the wistle blower among their respective social groups.

A much deeper insight into the song to see the hidden transcript is

discussed in the next chapter. In order to have a better understanding, the analysis

will include the extrinsic element which is the context of social and political

history to company the base intrinsict elements which have been shown in this

chapter. Imagery and sound devices in Bob Marley and the Black Brothers’ songs

are very significant poetic and rhetoric elements which are developed based on the

social and political background. In an attempt to resist the power domination they

can be considered to be voice under domination which posses ideological

resistance based on Scott's theory. They are passive resistance disguised through

literary artistic elements.


82

CHAPTER 4

THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT IN BOB MARLEY’S AND THE BLACKBROTHERS’ SONGS

In the previous chapter, the focus is on the content and structure of the

lyrics with respect to the subject matters in both Bob Marley’s and The Black

Brothers’ lyrics. The writer breaks down the content of the lyrics to see the

patterns and styles being used. It turns out that they are quite impressive and rich

with aesthetic and literary expressions. As it is, a closer look at the song is worth

doing in this study, given that a textual analysis alone will not be sufficient as to

reveal the relationship between an artist as an individual with his or her social,

cultural and political background in a certain place and time.

This chapter deals with the socio-political realities which become the

backdrops of each artist's songs. Specifically it deals with how Bob Marley and

The Black Brothers as popular artists who emerged from the marginalized society

under repressive power use their song lyrics to facilitate a consciousness of

resistance among members of their respective social groups. Mainly this study

focuses on the lyrics of two popular music icons whose songs have been situated

in what the writer would assume the legacy of Black protest music: reggae legend

Bob Marley and pop legend the Black Brothers. A comparative analysis on the

selective lyrics of each artist major-label studio albums is to explore the role of

music or song in the construction of hidden transcript in impoverished Black

communities in hegemonic post-colonial Jamaica and in “still colonized” Papua

society.


83

1. The Socio-Political Context of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Songs

Emerging from racially, culturally, economically, and politically

marginalized social conditions, Bob Marley and The Black Brothers used music or

song as a vehicle of critique. In other words, their songs are the evidence of a

collective effort by the marginalized social groups to coerce the consensus of the

hegemony by the dominant power. As what is stated by Antonio Gramsci on his

notion of the concept of hegemony, this form of coercion emerges from within the

life of the lower classes.1

The concept of hegemony is closely related to the dialectical unity

between leadership and domination which including moments of consensus and

coercion.2 This concept is strongly influenced by Gramsci’s question of power.3

When dealing with power, one would usually refer it to its explicit form that is,

authority or expertise. Here the processes are visible and deliberately carried out.

To the writer’s consideration the examples are like: slavery, detention, kidnapping,

torturing, impunity, exploitation, and corruption; while implicit power domination

takes place in a form of hegemony. Hegemonic power influences people’s

behaviour as effectively as explicit force of power can do. This can be in a form of

government laws and policies which are accepted as a consensus in a society. The

implementation of these two forms of power dominations are intended to

perpetuate or secure power control over the subordinate groups, and to repress the

political rivals and the possibility of people’s revolts.

In understanding the general circumstances of explicit and implicit power

1 Fontana, Benedetto. Hegemony and Power. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), p. 14.2 Fusaro, Lorenzo. Gramsci's concept of hegemony at the national and international level, King's CollegeLondon, 2010, p. 1. Web. March 29. 2014. <http://iippe.org/wiki/images/0/09/CONF_IPE_Fusaro.pdf>.3 Crehan, Kate. Gramsci, Culture and Anthropology. (London: Pluto Press, 2002), p. 6.


84

domination and the coercion and specific objects of Bob Marley and The Black

Brothers’ critiques a better understanding of social and political reality is

necessary. In order to understand why sounds and words of their lyrics have been

arranged in a certain way, we must understand the context within which their

composition seemed meaningful and urgent. Following is the analysis of the Bob

Marley and the Black Brothers lyrics to figure out the hidden transcript by also

seeing the context of socio-political background.

2. Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Music and Song asCounter-Dominant Power Alternative

Power domination may effectively suppress the subordinate or

underprivileged groups, but in reverse it may also foster the resistance among the

groups. Despite of the explicit and implicit domination of tyrant, the

counter-dominant power alternatives can and do exist.4 People began to raise both

arm physical revolts as well as non-physical rebellions. The Maroons (Jamaica)

and OPM guerrilla (Papua) are both a form of physical resistance. However, due

to the lack of military tactics and aids they were both shifted their method to

non-physical struggles. This can be seen in the emerge of movements which

emphasize on raising cultural and political awareness and mobilization of the

people such as United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), Rastafarianism in

Jamaica and Koreri in Papua, West New Guinea Council and OPM international

campaigns for Papua. In addition, the writer assumes that the shifting was strongly

influenced by the involvement of intellectuals or academicians, religious leaders

4 Jacobs, Steven. "Rebel Music from Trenchtown to Oaktown: The Lyrics of Bob Marley and Tupac Shakur asCounter-hegemonic Culture," post graduate thesis, University of Florida, 2009, p. 14.


85

and musicians who tend to favor a non-violence resistance. As what is intended by

this study, the writer will focus on the involvement of musicians in the struggles

against power domination through their music and songs.

In an effort to break with the colonial past or dealing with brutal

oppressive system music and song seem to be one of promising solutions. As what

is suggested by Metz on "memoria passionis” that the social memory of the

hardship flows through the mouths of the people. It is in this sense that the writer

assumes music and song can function as the language to voice it. Jamaica and

Papua culture are basically developed through oral tradition. The history is

preserved through folklores, folksongs, music and dance. In Jamaica these

traditions were preserved in many ways by the slaves.5 While in Papua they have

long been rooted deep in people's culture.6 Music and language are closely

affiliated possess considerable historical and geo-cultural depth.They resemble

myth, religious rituals, and facilitate movements or dance. They can serve as a

window into people’s history and perceived realities.7 As the global music grew,

in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the links between music and rhetoric were

frequently acknowledged.8 In popular music scene, the emphasis is on music as

culture and it function as the bearer of meanings.9 Therefore, language plays an

important role. Basically music and words coexist through song. Song is word

oriented where the effort is to apply verbal principles to music where words are

5 Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 6.6 Aditjondro, George Junus. Cahaya Bintang Kejora, pp. 115-120.7 Skopal, Edward, Jr. Hear Them Crying (Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music), p. 6.8 Agawu, Kofi. Music as Discourse: Semiotic Adventures in Romantic Music. (New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 2009), p. 15.9 Johnson, Bruce and Cloonan, Martin. Dark Side of the Tune: Popular Music and Violence. (USA: AshgatePublishing Limited, 2009), p. 13.


86

carefully chosen to accompany music.10 Most people define the meaning of a

song based on its lyrics. In the light of music as a rhetoric and discourse, it can be

conceptualized that music is a vehicle that carries words, making them memorable

through an appealing tune.11

In dealing with power domination or hegemony, music and song can have

political significance regarding their ability to influence people’s identity as well

as motivation and capacity to act. They provide a template for ethical social action

to those who truly listen to the music.12 Despite the fact that there is no empirical

evidence that lyrics of a song affect or reflect listeners' beliefs and values, yet they

can act as an avenue of expression that connect with and articulate a listener's own

feelings.13 Jamaica independent in 1962 was coincidently with the advent of

Jamaican distinctive popular musics (Ska, Rocksteady, and Reggae) which also

helped to promote Rastafarianism movement. The combination of popular music,

politics and social movements had become the force in shaping a collective

national consciousness.14 Through the birth of popular music and Rastafarianism,

they manifest as a language of protest and become the loudest voice against

oppressive system. While in Papua, the political scandals in 1963 and 1969 had

led to a long time disputes that had fostered the Papuan sentiment and nationalism.

The emerge of popular music and song had given the people means of voicing

their concern and criticism. In relation to Metz’ theory of memory passionis,

10 Agawu, Kofi. Music as Discourse: Semiotic Adventures in Romantic Music, p. 17.11 Jacobs, Steven. "Rebel Music from Trenchtown to Oaktown: The Lyrics of Bob Marley and Tupac Shakuras Counter-hegemonic Culture," p. 15.12 Skopal, Edward, Jr. Hear Them Crying (Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music), pp. 4&5.13 Jacobs, Steven. "Rebel Music from Trenchtown to Oaktown: The Lyrics of Bob Marley and Tupac Shakuras Counter-hegemonic Culture," p. 15.14 Freeland, Gregory. "Music and the Rise of Caribbean Nationalism: The Jamaican Case," a paper toDepartment of Political Science, California Lutheran University, p. 3. Web. May 2nd. 2014.<http://culturaldiplomacy.org/Music-and-the-Rise-of-Caribbean-Nationalism-Gregory-Freeland.pdf%e2%80%8e>.


87

music and song to Papuans are the voice and the language of long term memory

of the hardships. These forms of artistic resistance provide the opportunity for

discourse about alternative political realities, as well as to give emotive

articulation to them, and the importance of such expression cannot be

overstated.15

3. Bob Marley and The Black Black Brothers’ Songs as the Language ofResistance

Resistance is a broad and general concept, therefore it needs to be

narrowed down to avoid misconception in contemporary theories of resistance.

This can facilitate an understanding of the specific forms of resistance found in

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' actions, music, and specifically lyrics. Based

on Oxford English Dictionary resistance is defined as "the act, on the part of

persons, of resisting, opposing, or withstanding." It is said that from 1417 to 1874,

usage of the term begins with resistance to "enemies" and "Rights of Sovereignty"

and later shifts to "national resistance." The emphasis of the term has moved from

individual acts to collective processes, and so has the meaning. It is then defined

as "organized covert opposition to an occupying or ruling power." Since then, the

definitions are increasingly associated with political struggle and against political

institutions.16 Despites of this contemporary definition more upcoming problems

keep coming. Therefore one needs to position him/herself to a certain position to

see this phenomenon.

One can understand these concerns more through the post-colonial lense.

15 Jacobs, Steven. "Rebel Music from Trenchtown to Oaktown: The Lyrics of Bob Marley and Tupac Shakuras Counter-hegemonic Culture," p. 16.16 Nordine, Manisha. Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in Bob Marley's "Jah-Public, p. 17.


88

Here resistance action belongs to the context of struggles for independence from

colonial and imperial governmental, in addition to ideological and cultural

forces.17 To this we can add more specific forms of resistance ranging from

struggles for human rights to civil rights, labor rights and equal gender rights,

environmental sustainability and anti-war movements. It is through this point of

view that the writer sees Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' works.

As what has been explained previously that in the contemporary use,

resistance seems quite likely to be associated with politic. This general nuance of

political resistance can be narrowed down to three major modes of inquiry:

cultural resistance, structural resistance, and ideological resistance.18 Cultural

resistance is distinguished by a sense of action, movement, creation and

demonstrative challenge that proactively seeks alternative forms of being, living,

and critiquing. In this particular study, cultural resistance includes manipulation of

language and aesthetic. Structural resistance is distinguished by the challenge to

dominant and institutionalized networks of political and media processes. It

highlights alternative forms of political mobilization and information distribution

that is not readily recognized in formal structures. In this particular study it points

to how Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' music and songs are disseminated

and used as a tool of socio-political mobilization and information distribution.

Ideological resistance is defined as challenge to a system of beliefs and assertion

derived from colonial and neo-colonial constructs that organize social existence. It

is a direct challenge to the colonial discourse that functions as an instrument of

power articulated through assumptions and characteristics of modern society. The

17 Nordine, Manisha. Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in Bob Marley's "Jah-Public, p. 18.18 Ibid, p. 20.


89

clear example in this study is Bob Marley's message of unity, love and resistance

as opposed to colonial discourses that uphold racial, and national divisions, street

violence, and oppression, and Black Brothers' message of gender and labor

equality as opposed to common discourses that uphold labor and gender

discrimination and inequality to the subordinate groups by the government.

This particular section elaborates the function of language both verbal and

aesthetic as a form of cultural resistance. It explores the elements constructing an

aesthetic appeal that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers use in their lyrics. The

realm of their language of resistance can be understood in the context of Jamaican

and Papuan social and political history.

Based on the history of the oppressed or subordinate groups, the use of

artistic resistance always seems to be the option. The oppressed or subordinate

groups tend to use language, dance, and music to mock those in power, express

rage, and produce fantasies of subversion. "Dances, languages, and music provide

communal bases of knowledge about social conditions, communal interpretations

of them, and quite often serve as the cultural glue that fosters communal

resistance."19 These forms of artistic resistance to the writer's consideration can

be viewed to be filled with hidden transcript as what is suggested by James Scott.

The voice of the oppressed or subordinate groups tends to penetrate the public

sphere within the public transcript through artistic and cultural production such as

music, jokes, rumors, and folklores. In avoiding frontal confrontation with the

ruling power the oppressed or subordinate groups manifold strategies to disguise

their resistance into the public transcript where it is accepted to be something

19 Jacobs, Steven. "Rebel Music from Trenchtown to Oaktown: The Lyrics of Bob Marley and Tupac Shakuras Counter-hegemonic Culture," p. 16.


90

which is not harmful. This ideological resistance is disguised, muted, and veiled

for safety's sake. 20 Their vulnerability has caused them to avoid direct

confrontation. This gives them a typical reputation to be cunning and deceptive in

disguising their criticism and protest.21

When associated with social and political phenomenon, the music and

song are usually accompanied by socially, politically, and religiously critical lyrics

and function as a form of protest or resistance music. Emerging from racially,

economically, culturally, and politically marginalized society, the writer assumes

that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers as popular music artists would likely to

use their song lyrics to facilitate consciousness of resistance among the members

of their respective social groups. However, under social and especially political

conditions the frontal attacks on powerful groups can be strategically unwise or

even unsafe. These conditions affect the method Bob Marley and The Black

Brothers would use in resisting the power domination.

This research conceptualizes the music and songs of Bob Marley and The

Black Brothers to be contained with hidden transcript that manifested through

public sphere as a form of counter-power domination alternative and analyzes the

selective lyrics of each artist as a critique of each artist's respective social and

political order. The writer takes hidden and public transcript as the basic theory

and emphasizes song lyrics to allow the artist's voice to speak as their songs are

examined for critical messages of their social and political contexts during the

time when their music emerged.

Hidden transcript is manifested within public sphere for safety's sake

20 Scott, J.C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, p. 137.21 Ibid, p. 136.


91

through rumor, gossip, disguises, linguistic tricks, metaphors, euphemisms,

folktales, ritual gestures, and anonymity.22 It is through them that the writer

assumes song lyrics experience its affinity to literary realm.

The music and songs of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers were selected

as the focus in this study because of the abounding similarities and engagement

between the social and political contexts. Both of them emerged from Black

society who racially, economically, culturally and politically marginalized. The

parallel link between the two does exist in the acceptance of their context to be

analogous. Each of them explicitly and implicitly speaks against the hegemonic

and oppressive colonial power domination. Despite it happened apart in different

countries, both of them represent the social and political conflict in around the

same periods of time 1960's to 1970's. It was also the time of their musical career.

They represent Black power movement which employs popular music as a form

of social and political critique.

4. The Analysis of Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers'Songs

The hidden transcripts within Bob Marley and The Black Brothers’ songs

are revealed through the characteristics that they possess and social and political

context from which the music emerged. As what have been identified, basically

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers songs containing elements of hidden

transcript: metaphor, anonymity, euphemism, and linguistic tricks. Since these

elements have intention of not a straightforward expression, it requires an in-depth

22 Scott, J.C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, p. 137.


92

analysis. We must admit that not all interpretation could match as what is intended

by the writer or artist. However, by seeing the social and political background and

using the concept of cognitive poetics which emphasize critical reading, the writer

would try to interpret Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' song lyrics based on

the nuance of hidden transcript.

4.1. The First Element of Hidden Transcript: Metaphor

As what has been explained in the previous chapter, Bob Marley and The

Black Brothers songs are strongly embedded with metaphorical expressions. They

are a way to show the artistical and literary richness in their works. The words are

carefully chosen to mingle with the tunes and tones of the music. In relation to the

context of hegemonic power domination, metaphor can function as a method or a

way of resistance. Word’s diction in this occasion is used to suspend a protest or

criticism through metaphorical expression which contains an image, central theme,

or story line that is associated with socio-political entity, event, or issue being

described. The language of a song usually occurs in the second semiotical order

where it tends to have multiple meanings. In order to understand it we need to see

the context and do a close analysis to its text.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers provide us with the assertions of

metaphorical expressions which characterized or given a nuance of lived

experience in their respective marginalized social context. Their common explicit

songs of protest and resistance are generally about suffering and hardship which is

manifested in the issue of poverty. Other sufferings such as violence, racism, and


93

imprisonment are explicitly expressed in Bob Marley's songs, while in The Black

Brothers' songs not all of them are discussed and explicitly described, they tend to

be implicit and hidden. This might be due to the social and political condition in

Indonesia which strictly not allowed them to do so.

Generally both artists described that their life is filled with sufferings.

Such sufferings caused them to reflect on their lived experience individually and

communally within their respective marginalized society. Depiction of this

general suffering can be seen in Bob Marley's "So Much Troubles In The World":

"We the street people talkin'/ Yeah, we the people strugglin'/...so muchtrouble in the world..."

Here Bob Marley asserts himself as part of the people who suffer by using

person plural pronoun "we." In describing the suffering he experiences, he is not

just talking for himself but rather for his community.

The struggling in the street depicts the life of the poor who are homeless.

This is a typical urban life of the poor or the city life of the underprivileged people.

The street is where the struggle is tough, only the fittest of the fittest shall survive

as he would sing it in "Could You Be Loved." The street also specifically refers to

Trench Town ghettos, where Bob Marley grew up. The shanty town is notorious

for its reputation as a home to the poor and the criminals. Compare this lyric to

the first verse in The Black Brothers' "Untukmu Pramuria" (To you, O prostitute):

"Hidupku dalam dunia ini, penuh dengan derita" [My life in this world, isfull of suffering]

The song opens with a general statement of suffering before entering into a

more specific one. The line "full of suffering" gives a nuance of many kinds of

sufferings which can mean anything. One of them would be the social rejection


94

and alienation because of his relationship to his concubine as specifically depicted

in this song. The singer portrays himself as being unlucky and full of miseries

throughout his life. The use of first person singular "aku" (me) is to characterize

personal experience of suffering. Yet, whereas Bob Marley expresses ghetto life

suffering and portrays himself as a part of the community, The Black Brothers

express the suffering in a more personal and alienated way. This is the key point

that manifests throughout the lyrical analysis. Furthermore, both Bob Marley and

The Black Brothers depict specific manifestations of suffering in their lyrics.

There are several kinds of sufferings that they portray namely the sufferings

because of poverty, racism, violence, and imprisoned life.

4.1.1. Metaphoric Depiction of Poverty in Bob Marley's and The BlackBrothers' Songs

One common similarity between Bob Marley and The Black Brothers is

their concern about poverty. Bob Marley and The Black Brothers give a clear

depiction of poverty in their respective society. They portray it as a form and

obvious sign of suffering and as the consequence of their marginalization. There

are examples of illustrative lines in Bob Marley's songs which address this

specific matter, among others are: "Them Belly Full (But We Hugry)," "Talkin

Blues," and "One Drop":

"Them belly full, but we hungry/ A hungry mob is an angry mob/ A raina-fall, but the dutty tough/ A pot a-cook, but d' food no 'nough" (ThemBelly Full)

"Cold ground was my bad last night/ And rock was my pillow too" (Talkin'Blues)

"They made their world so hard/ Every day we got to keep on fighting/


95

They made their world so hard/ Every day the people are dying/ Fromhunger and starvation/ Lamentation" (One Drop)

They are a form of sarcasm to those in power using a rich metaphorical

expression. Here Bob Marley diagnoses the problems by identifying the suffering

of the people. The first song contains a very typical Jamaican proverb. It is a

communal qualifier since the metaphors rely heavily on culturally-based social

knowledge. Bob Marley who grew up in the country side of St. Ann and later in

Trench Town was very much exposed to this type of local wisdom. "Them belly

full but we hungry" is a sharp observation of the ghetto. Bob Marley is criticizing

the promise of Michael Manley's campaign of "better must come." It is clear to

Bob Marley that better has not come yet. What is clearer is that better has come

only for some.23 While the elitist rich live in the abundance, the poor must go to

bed with empty bellies.This circumstance sparks anger and tension that make the

hungry man becomes an angry mob, "a hungry man is an angry mob."

Unfortunately, despite of this condition, the government remains

unresponsive and turns a blind eye upon them. It is clearly depicted in "a rain

a-fall but the dutty tuff." Despite of the rain that is falling, the ground remains

hard and unresponsive.24 Here Bob Marley relies on farming metaphor, a thing

that he used to do in St.Ann before he moved to Kingston. "A pot a-cook, but

d'food no 'nough" portrays the image of a pot on the stove to cook meal but

unfortunately it is insufficient to feed the multitude. It shows a communal pot of

the ghetto where the poor usually cook meal outside in the yard and share it

together, as what Bob Marley also described in "No Woman No Cry," "I

remember when we used to sit/In the government yard in Trenchtown/And then

23 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 122.24 Ibid, p. 125.


96

Georgie would make the fire lights/logwood burnin' through the nights/Then we

would cook cornmeal porridge/Of which I'll share with you."

After fully recognizing the condition of the people, Bob Marley then

suggests solution and calls for action. It can be seen in the next lines "We're gonna

dance to Jah music, dance.../Forget your troubles and dance/Forget your weakness

and dance /We're gonna chuck to Jah music, we're chuckin.'" At a glance this

solution and action would be absurd and nonsense. People think it is a call to

escape from the realities of life and become consumed by false securities of

partying and dancing.25 In fact, it appears to rest on the fundamental contradiction.

It only can be comprehended when we understand the point of the dance in the

context of communal acts of worship. Bob Marley grew up in rural Jamaica where

he would be exposed to the value of the church and the communal act of worship.

Other than that, there were also the cult groups such as Kumina and Pocomania

that held ceremonies of worship, healing, and community affirmation in prayer

circles, dance circles, and song circles.26 Through this cultural point of view, we

can clearly see the dance that Bob Marley would have meant. Therefore, the call

to dance here is the call to be connected with a spiritual center.

Dance here can be seen as an act of transformation in the movement

towards healing. It is in the light of reading the dance in this way that we can see

the revolutionary quality of the song. The word "chuck" means to throw, to push,

or to walk or dance in a posture of defiance and aggression.27 In understanding

the revolutionary vision of Bob Marley it would be seen as an action to chuck

against oppressive system that cause all the problems in Jamaica. Here Bob

25 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 122.26 Ibid, p. 123.27 Ibid, p. 127.


97

Marley's call for the people to chuck to the music is in fact an aggression of

resistance to the oppression.

"The making of songs about poor people, the writing of the story of thepeople of Trench Town into history and time, was an act of defiance andresistance."28

Another problem for the poor besides the lack of food is the shelter.

"Talkin' blues" specifically talks about Bob Marley's rebellion sense and militancy.

It opens with a clear statement of Bob Marley's personal experience, "Cold ground

was my bad last night/and rock was my pillow too." Despite, it is a lore of Bob

Marley's experience in Nine Miles, St. Ann where he used to lay outside with his

head on rock, it can also be a figurative expression of the hardship in Trench

town.29 Trench town is an over-populated town in Kingston where government

built public housings for the poor. Some cannot afford to rent a house that they

have to share shelter. Bob Marley also was once given a room behind Coxone

Dodd's studio, as he had no place to stay. This typical experience of sharing

shelter also appear in his love song "Is This Love," "We'll share the shelter of my

single bed'/We'll share the same room/For Jah provide the bread."

The long life experienced of hardship has shaped Bob Marley's militancy

as he would sing it in the next lines "I've been down on the rock so long/I seem to

wear a permanent screw." Rock is a hard place but specifically it is a reference for

Jamaica. Therefore, basically the rock represents the hardship of living in Jamaica,

where one must be tough enough to survive as Bob Marley would sing in "Could

You Be Loved," "Only the fittest of the fittest shall survive." While "Screw face"

is a mimic of anger, an expression of an angry person. Therefore "the permanent

28 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 128.29 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 55.


98

screw" means the condition of being a sufferer and being angry at the world. It is

a mask of a sufferer who is constantly hurt by society. 30 Much of the

metaphorical expression in this song can be considered to happen in the level of

contextual and communal qualifiers since they refer to the context of the political

discourse or the situation in Jamaica.

"Talkin' Blues" moves from personal experience into the realm of larger

political arena by asserting explosive action. However, Bob Marley would use a

more vulnerable confession of blues lamentation to sooth the anger and explosive

militant voice. It is not a blues song, but a song that employs the blues.

Revolutionary instinct is covered through blues lamentation. So basically "Talkin'

Blues" means that Bob Marley is talking to them who threating him when he

writes songs about revolution and that what he is doing is only "talkin' blues"

which harmless.31

"One Drop" is an example of Bob Marley's wit and creativity. It is a song

about Bob Marley's reggae sound characteristic which emphasize one drop

drumming style. Yet, Bob Marley then infused street connotation of violence

which emphasize the spirit of resistance. Bob Marley who grew up in the street

would infuse much of the street slang and spirit into his songs. A one-drop person

is a person who is able to dispose an enemy with a single blow.32 Layer of

meanings is one characteristic in Bob Marley's songs. Here he is talking about his

music style, praise song to Jah, and revolution. The specific issue dealing with the

condition of poverty comes in the lines "They made the world so hard/Everyday

the people are dying/From hunger and starvation/Lamentation."



99

Hunger, starvation and lamentation are the starking characteristics that the

poor experienced. Bob Marley diagnoses the problems and lays the responsibility

on the hands of "them." And then he proposes solution and calls to action. Instead

of lamenting and falling into despair in the face of the hardships outline, Bob

Marley asks the people to look to the path of prophesy for redemption, "but read it

in revelation/You'll find your redemption." Music celebration becomes a

championing of the teachings of Rastafarianism. To get the message we need to

stop and listen to it, feel it and then find something of its transformative power,

"Feel it in a one drop/...we're making the one stop/...now feel this drumbeat/as it

beats within/playin' a riddim/resisting against ism and skism."

The pleasure of music is not the only aim, but a way to struggle and a way

to give a single blow to "them" who cause the problems. "Ism" here refers to

wickedness, cruelty, trickery, and acts of unfairness. The "skism" refers to the

divisions by the Babylon system, a Biblical nuance name which is used to refer to

Western society, the symbol of oppression.33 Both of them are Rastafarian terms.

In this particular song the metaphorical process happen in the two level

of metaphoric process: contextual and communal. Bob Marley employs contextual

term such as "one drop," and specific Rastafarian terms.

The Black Brothers' songs which specifically address the issue of poverty

are "Hari Kiamat" (The End of The Day) and "Lonceng Kematian" (Death

Albatross):

"Di tepi jalan/si miskin menjerit/hidup meminta dan menerima/yang kayatertawa/berpesta pora/hidup menumpang di kecurangan/sadarlahkau/cara hidupmu/yang hanya menelan korban yang lain/bintang jatuhhari kiamat/pengadilan yang penghabisan" - "Hari Kiamat"

33 Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 29.


100

[All along the street/all people suffering/and beg for every single thingthey need/Rich man's laughing/sucking the blood of the sufferers/hechoose to live a life of no repay/it's time for you to realize/they way youlive your life/which making people suffer everyday/cause stars will fallingdown/there's no way you can run/for the people they will be redeemedagain- The End Of The Day].

"Hey kau yang munafik/kapan akhir sandiwaramu/saling berlombamengjar kekayaan/tak kau bawa mati nanti/...kasihani mereka/hidupnyamelarat/suatu waktu kau kan jatuh/neraka tempatmu"- "LoncengKematian"

[Hey you the hypocrites/please end your silly game/racing on the ratrace/it won't be worth in your doom/...be mercy upon them/living a hardlife/one day for sure you shall fall down/hell will be your last doom -Death Albatross].

The metaphorical process in these two songs happen in the level of

archetypal and communal qualifier because although they do not employ too

much dense metaphorical expression, some parts of the song are directly related to

communal or social knowledge. At first glance they use terms which are common,

general and easy to be understood by all people. In "Hari Kiamat" (The End Of

The Day) The Black Brothers begin by portraying the social gap between the poor

and the rich. The poor are begging for the mercy from the rich who live a

hedonistic life. The beggars strolling with emptied bellies all along the street

while the rich men were laughing and partying. There is no doubt that this is the

clear picture of Jakarta, and The Black Brothers would have witnessed it

themselves. Boasting itself as the megapolitan city of Indonesia, Jakarta becomes

the main attraction for all kind of people. The big city life is the place of hardships

with all kinds of sufferings.

The typical individualistic life style of big city is likened to a concrete

jungle where only the fittest of the fittest shall survive. Seeing such condition, The


101

Black Brothers call on to action to evoke people's basic humanity to care for

others, "Sadarlah kau/cara hidupmu" (It's time for you to realize/the way you live

you life). They present a warning that unless such individualistic behaviour is

changed, one is going to suffer the consequences in the judgement day.

Meanwhile, the phrase"bintang jatuh" (the falling stars) can have two

possible meanings. First it prophesies that your wealthiness will not last forever

and that one day you will end up with nothing. Secondly it has a spiritual nuance

of Armageddon or the end of the day which is an absolute end to universe where

everything will be destroyed to ash. The final judgment is also the prophesy where

people will be judged based on their deeds in their life time.

"Lonceng Kematian" (Death Albatross) can be said to be the sequel of

"Hari Kiamat" (The End Of The Day). It is a condemnation to the rich who refuse

to do good for the poor. However, the metaphoric process in this song happen in

the level of communal qualifier since it uses expression which is culturally bound.

It can be seen that "Lonceng Kematian" (Death Albatross) is based on the

Christian values. The Black Brothers who mostly grew up in Christian tradition

might use it as their song title since it suggests a sense of dread and fear. For

Christians the church bell is a call for congregation especially on Sunday.

However, it also can be used as a sign or to send a message that someone has just

passed away. It is a common Christian tradition in Papua to ring the church bell to

announce the death of a person. They will ring the church bell a certain number of

times according to the age of the departed. So basically the song is a

condemnation towards the wicked people and serves as a warning for those who

live a greedy life.


102

4.1.2. Metaphoric Depiction of Racism in Bob Marley and The BlackBrothers' Songs

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers relate their suffering to their race. The

marginalization is not due to economic differences but racial differences as well.

Their lyrics explicitly and implicitly relate to the issue of race in the context of a

white and Asian dominated society. Bob Marley address the issue in "Burnin' and

Lootin'," "Duppy Conqueror," "Natty Dread," "War," "Zimbabwe," "Survival,"

"Africa Unite," and "Ride Natty Ride."

"Give the food and let me grow/ Let the Roots Man take a blow" (Burnin'and Lootin')

"I'm a duppy conqueror" (Duppy Conqueror)

"Dread, Natty Dread now/ Dreadlock Congo Bongo I/ Natty Dreadlock ina Babylon" (Natty Dread)

Until the philosophy which hold one race superior/and another isinferior/is finally and permanently/discredited/and abandoned/ everywhereis war.../until the color of a man's skin/is no more significant/than the colorof his eyes/me say war" (War)

Most of the metaphors in these songs are thickly charged with Jamaican

expression. In this way the metaphoric process happen in the level of contextual

and communal qualifier where the understanding is bound to a particular audience

at a particular time as well as relying on culturally-based social knowledge. Some

terms and expression would be out of context for a non-Jamaican audience.The

word "roots man" in Jamaica specifically relate to a Rasta or a black person.

Expressions like "how many rivers to cross/before we can talk to the boss" is

taken from the story of negro spirituals that embraced the crossing of rivers as a

symbol of freedom.34 It also has a sense of Biblical nuance where it borrows the



103

image from the story of the Israeli crossing the red sea.

Duppy is a Jamaican patois meaning a ghost. In this context it is used to

address white colonial power. The whites with their fair complexion are likened to

the pale look of ghost. Duppy was always depicted as a white-faced monstrosity.35

Whereas "Natty Dread" is the claiming of Black and Rastafarian cultural history

despite of the Whites captivity.36 Natty dread is specifically refers to the matted

hairstyle of most Rastas which also relate to the Black. "Natty dread in-a

Babylon/... Natty is twenty one thousand miles away from home" means that the

Black has been stolen away from Africa to live under the White oppressive system.

"Babylon" is the symbolic description of everything that has conspired to bring

about the downfall of the African.37

In all of those songs Bob Marley points out that there are several

causes of racism namely the system of slavery, the system of colonialism, the post

colonialist and neo-colonialist policies of Europe. All these system and

philosophy have destroyed the Black that Bob Marley tried to make the people

realize and stand up to fight to reach a triumphant victory. His message was

especially clear in "War." That until a man is judged by the color of his skin and

not by his deed the world will be in a war.

The Black Brothers sing about the nuance of racism is implicitly depicted

in "Dewi Kribo" (Curly Goddess).

"Dewi kribo danau Sentani/Hitam manis menawan hati" - "Dewi Kribo"

[Curly princes of Sentani Lake/Black and sweet appealing my heart -Curly Goddess].

35 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 92.36 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 54.37 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 141.


104

At a glance the song does not reflect anything about racism but if we take

a closer look, it is charged with deep concerns on the issue. By seeing it through

the lense of poetic analysis the metaphoric process can happen in contextual level

where the specific terms used are based on the social knowledge bound to a

particular audience at a particular time. It also can happen in the level of private

qualifier where the context affects the meaning assigned by a listener through

personal or subjective associations. The interpretation is unique to a particular

listener.

"Dewi Kribo" (Curly Goddess) gives a sense of pride upon an identity as a

black person. Dewi which means goddess is often associated to beauty and power.

Commonly a physical beauty is depicted in literature, advertisement, and market

as a lady with long blond hair and a light complexion. It is in this sense that the

image of “Dewi Kribo”(Curly Goddess) appears to be the opposite, beauty is

signified by a lady with curly hair and a dark complexion. It is a sort of counter

hegemonic paradigm that The Black Brothers wanted to show. The message of the

song is that "black is beautiful" as the famous slogan of the Black Power

movements of the 1960s would suggest. The tone of the song is happy and

positive. Being black does not mean Papuans are inferior, instead they must be

proud and that they are also forward despite of so many prejudices and negativity.

4.1.3. Metaphoric Depiction of Violence in Bob Marley and The BlackBrothers' Songs

Bob Marley clearly addresses the issue of violence in some of his songs.

Among others are "Slave Drivers," "I shot the sheriff," "Burnin' and Lootin',"

"Johnny Was," and "Ambush In The Night." They depict the violence in the


105

community as a consequence of the way society is structured and how it

influences everyday life.

"Everytime I hear the crack of a whip/my blood runs cold/I remember onthe slave ship/How they brutalized the very soul" (Slave Driver)

"I shot the Sheriff/But I swear it was a self-defence" (I Shot The Sheriff)

"This morning I woke up in a curfew/O God I was a prisoner too/Couldnot recognize the faces standing over me/They were all dressed inuniforms of brutality" (Burnin' and Lootin')

"Woman hold her head and cry/'Cause her son has been shot down in thestreet and died/From astray bullet" (Johnny Was)

"Ambush in the night/All guns aiming at me/Ambush in the night/Theyopened fore on me now/Ambush in the night/Protected by His Majesty"(Ambush In The Night)

The metaphoric expression used in those songs posses a sense of Jamaican

context therefore they tend to be based on contextual and communal qualifier. In

"Slave Drivers" Bob Marley opens the first verse with "The crack of a whip"

which provokes a historical monologue about slavery. Recalling the brutalized

ancestors in the past has caused his blood runs cold in anger that could possibly

lead to explosives respond. However in this song Bob Marley does not try to

provoke Jamaicans to do violence but instead to educate them about contemporary

oppression. Here Bob Marley tells the people that they are still in captivity. The

new forms of slavery are poverty, illiteracy, and economic juggernaut working to

exploit the poor.38 These new forms of slavery have long been entrapped people's

mentality. Therefore they have to realize and stand up to make a change.

While another song, "I Shot The Sheriff" is a typical cowboy movie story.

Here Bob Marley portrays a figurative battle between a Sheriff and a person who



106

shot the Sheriff. Sheriff represents the system while the person who shot the

Sheriff stands for ordinary people. Generally the song talks about the prosecution

upon the people by the unjust system. The shooting was a self defense. The song

is a warning of a possible explosion as it is shown in lines "Every day a bucket

a-go a-well/One day the bottom will drop out." It is a Jamaican expression which

means "every time you mess up with me, one day you are going to get it." Bob

Marley admitted that he actually wanted to sing "I shot the police," but he could

not because he said the government would not allow him to do that. Therefore in

avoiding direct conflicts with the authorities he makes a parable.39 The act of

rebellion is a stance against injustice.

"Burnin' and Lootin'" is based on Bob Marley's personal experience living

in the ghetto. The police came with guns to raid the area. Everyone living in

Trench Town was a fair game for their raids.40 The vivid description lies in line

"they were all dressed in uniform of brutality." In this single line Bob Marley

makes it clear that they are policemen. Their uniform is the symbol of brutality. In

this act of dreadful violation Bob Marley is asking "how many rivers do we have

to cross?" The crossing of rivers is a symbol of freedom. So basically Bob Marley

is wondering when all of this brutality will come to an end.

"Johnny Was" is a narrative song about a tragedy of the death of someone

who is innocent. He is the victim of the situation. Here Bob Marley gives a picture

to humanize those who were killed each day on the streets of Kingston.41 This is

a cynicism and irony because it is a typical story by the police when they shot

someone for no apparent reason. The song is a form of a condemnation upon the



107

cold-blooded killing of the innocent. Yet in the end Bob Marley still have hope

that despite of this tragedy Jah will never forget them.

"Ambush In The Night" is based on a personal story of Bob Marley. On

December 3rd, 1976 Bob Marley was shot by gunmen who broke into his house at

Hope Road. No one was killed but this was a serious threat. There were some

possible reasons, but it might because of political tension before the 1976 general

election. Here Bob Marley depicts a clear picture of envision from all direction

when he sings "all guns aiming at me now." However his faith of Jah guidance

made him survived the attempt. He claimed that he was being protected by "His

Majesty."

While Bob Marley clearly tell stories and condemn the violence, it seems

quite likely that The Black Brothers purposefully obliterate or hide the issue

because the possible cause could be the sensitivity of the issue in Indonesia during

the New Order regime of Soeharto. The censorship was so strict that no popular

artist nor band would discuss it openly. However, according to the writer there

seems to be one song which implicitly deals with the issue. It is The Black

Brothers' well known "Huembelo." Based on a short interview with the singer

who sang the song himself, the writer comes up with his own interpretation.

According to the private qualifier of metaphorical process, the interpretation can

be unique to a particular listener beside its communal aspect which is culturally

bounded.

"Huembello" is a folk song of Kalabra tribes in Sorong, Papua. The song is

wildly sang and performed in punk rock style by The Black Brothers. It has a

strong sense of mystic and mystery. The power of the song is not in the meaning


108

of its lyric but the effects that it causes. Just like mantra, the lyrics are orally

spoken without a clear script. Even until today no one can ever sing the song

better the original singer, Abdullah Yunus.

According to him the song talks about a howling dog like a wolf.

Generally and specifically in Papua context, the howling of a dog is a sign that

bad and restless spirits are ready to haunt and harm the living.42 In Papua this evil

spirit is known as "suanggi." Suanggi in a simple translation is a ghost, just like

"duppy" in Jamaica. A suanggi can be a living person who master the dark crafts

and tend to be viciously impetuous and quite devious. Thus in the implied sense

the suanggi is almost always the ghost of the oppressive and brutal authority.

Somehow, in a contemporary usage suanggi also specifically refers to the

policemen or military force who dressed in uniform of brutality just like what is

depicted in Bob Marley's "Burnin' and Lootin'."

Therefore "huembello" is a crying and hysteric panic that chaos is ready or

in the progress of happening. Police and military raid was a common scene in

Papua during 1960s to 1980s.43 The infiltration of OPM freedom fighters would

lead to numbers of innocent people missing, jailed, tortured and killed just like

what is depicted by Bob Marley in "Johnny Was." This political unrest situation

has caused thousands of refugees across the boarder of RI and PNG.44 They seek

for an asylum like The Black Brothers themself in 1979.

42 Nasution, Ikhwanuddin. "Sistem dan Kode Semiotika Dalam Sastra:Suatu proses komunikasi," LOGAT:Jurnal Ilmiah Bahasa dan Sastra, Universitas Sumatra Utara, Vol IV No 2 (2008), p. 111. Web. July 2. 2014.<http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/123456789/16736/1/log-okt2008-4%20(1).pdf>.43 Osborne, Robin. Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat, p.310.44 Glazebrook, Diana. "Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea), p. 120.


109

4.1.4. Metaphoric Depiction of Prison in Bob Marley's and The BlackBrothers' Songs

Bob Marley speaks of prison in a contemporary usage which emphasize

more on the mental captivity through hegemonic ideology than a mere physical

one. This metaphoric prison can be seen in songs like "Concrete Jungle," and

"Redemption Song."

"No chains around my feet but I'm not free/I know I'm bounded incaptivity" (Concrete Jungle)

"Emancipate yourselves from mental slavery/None but ourselves can freeour minds" (Redemption Song)

The lyrics in these songs are thick with metaphor and personification. They are

deeply poetic. The metaphoric expressions are based on communal sense which is

culturally bound and relied heavily on social knowledge. In "Concrete Jungle"

Bob Marley employs nature image of jungle to a physical place called the

ghetto.45 This concrete jungle of Trench Town in Jamaica is a physical place that

entrapped the Blacks who have been stolen from Africa, as Bob Marley would

sing it in "Natty Dread," "Natty is twenty thousand miles away from home."

Trench Town has been a place of hard living, poverty, illiteracy, and oppression.

All of these things entrap the people. Bob Marley uses language of slavery when

he sings "No chains around my feet but I'm not free." The actual physical slavery

has been discarded over a century before, yet there seems to be a larger

enslavement. No chains but no freedom; no slavery but no happiness. The

reflection of Trench Town makes Bob Marley considers the source of captivity is

poverty, illiteracy, and economic juggernaut of working to exploit the poor. The



110

lament of the ghetto is not a physical chain anymore.

In “Redemption Song” Bob Marley shows that there is a shift from

physical imprisonment imposed by other to mental imprisonment imposed by our

own selves. Although physical slavery has been abolished in Jamaica, the people

are still limited due to the internalization and structuralized of a colonized and

enslaved mentality of inferiority.

Although Papua has never been undergone physical enslavement like

Jamaica, but it seems quite likely that its people are mentally enslaved just like

what Bob Marley depicts in "Redemption Song." The long term negative

stereotype and stigmatization has penetrated the people's mentality to feel inferior

among their fellow Indonesian brothers and sisters. Therefore despite there is no

specific song of The Black Brothers addressing the issue, their existence in

Popular music scene in Indonesia was an effort to encounter this inferior mentality.

Standing on the behalf of Papuans, The Black Brothers want to show that they are

also forward in this generation. And that they also can boast a triumphant victory

on whatever they posses. The specific song which talks about triumphant victory

is "Persipura," the local football team of Jayapura which is well known in

Indonesia.

“Persipura” is not just a song about winning a game over an opponent in

the field, but more than that it contains spirit of triumphant not only as a sport

team but also as a human being in daily life. For most Papuans, sport culture

seems to be one of the ways besides music and dance culture to deal with the

hardship of their life. In Papua almost every aspects of life has been suppressed by

political prejudice where almost every activities are put under suspicion of


111

possible threat of nation integrity. Any social and cultural activities to voice their

concern toward injustice and to show their existence are strictly controlled by the

government. Therefore when the Black Brothers sing of Persipura, they want to

show to their fellow brothers and sisters in the country the very existence of

Papuan. They want to fight the mental inferiority of their respective people and to

show that they are also forward among other Indonesians. The figurative “mutiara

hitam” (black pearl) signifies a prescious posessions. Furthermore, the word

“black” signifies their proud of being black instead of negative stigmatisation

which attach to it by most people. Based on this point of view, the writer assumes

the song “Persipura” has a similar sense and purpose like Marley’s “Redemption

Song” to free people’s mental and thinking captivity to not feel inferior but

instead must live high and feel triumphant. Persipura is the answer to Bob

Marley's calling to help him singing another song of freedom in "Redemption

Song." Persipura is the redemption song that helps the people to emancipate

themselves from mental slavery of feeling inferior. This is to show that they are

also forward among their fellow Indonesians. Here The Black Brothers sing

"Orang tlah tau, semuapun tau/di lapangan hijau/ kini tlah muncul di ufuk

timur/mutiara hitam...bermain gemilang menerjang lawan/ dan selalu gemilang"

(People know, everyone knows/in the field/now come from the east/ the black

pearl...playing wonderfully attacking the opponent/and always win).

In conclusion both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' song lyrics are

rich with metaphoric expression of suffering. The metaphoric expression tend to

cover all the four level of the process: contextual, communal, archetypal, and

private. However it would seem that the dominant ones lie on the level of


112

contextual and communal. They characterize the specific and typical life of the

people in Jamaica and Indonesia, specifically Papua.

Bob Marley presents depictions of suffering explicitly with greater

frequency than The Black Brothers. It can be seen that not all types of suffering

are discussed by The Black Brothers implicitly except for the issue of poverty.

This is due to the socio-political condition. However, wittily The Black Brothers

covers their intended message through metaphorical expression by not

straightforwardly discussing those issues (racism, violence and prison).

Accordingly, Bob Marley is very specific and detail in describing the everyday

hardships and realities poetically through rich metaphorical expression. This is to

sooth the pain as to give pleasure by employing images and parables.

In most of his songs about suffering Bob Marley tends to diagnose the

condition first by identifying the problems, and then offer problem's resolution

and call for action. While The Black Brothers only use this pattern in some of

their songs about social criticism. However, their call for action again is implied

through a form of arising people's self worth and pride.

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers have one thing in common in that

they both connect the marginalized status of their social groups to race and cry

about the consequences of being poor and black in a country where reality is

defined and justified by the dominant race and hegemonic power. Thus, they

explicitly and implicitly discuss about suffering, how hunger is the manifestation

of poverty, and how violence, racism, and prison are the consequences of their

marginalized status.


113

4.2. The Second Element of Hidden Transcript: Anonymity

A lexical or dictionary definition based on Merriam-Webster's Dictionary

defines anonymity as the state of being anonymous. The adjective anonymous is

explained as not named or identified or of unknown authorship or origin or

lacking individuality, distinction, or recognizability. While based on the

synonym-definition, anonymity is namelessness. However, further consideration

needs to be made since the lack of name is not sufficient to be anonymous.

Therefore, another postulate adds that anonymity is the absence of a true identity.

Knowing someone's identity is more than just taking note of his/her name.

In the common parlance of communication traffic there are three things

that need to be considered: Sender (S), Message (M), and Receiver (R). Basically

there are three types of anonymity associated with network of communication that

may be of interest: Sender anonymity, where the adversary cannot tell which user

sent that message; Receiver anonymity, where the adversary cannot tell which

destination a specific message is sent to; and, Relationship anonymity, where the

adversary cannot tell which destination a user communicates with.46

According to James Scott, anonymity is one of techniques that serve to

shield the subordinate groups' identity while facilitating open criticism, threats,

and attacks.47 The prominent techniques to accomplish this purpose among others

include spirit possession, gossip, rumor, anonymous threats and violence, the

anonymous letter, and anonymous mass defiance. In addressing their criticism

through their songs, it seems quite likely that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers

also employ this method of anonymity.

46 Johnson, Aaron. "Design and Analysis of Efficient Anonymous-Communication Protocols," p. 14.47 Scott, J.C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, p. 140.


114

4.2.1. The Sender Anonymity

It is clear that many times a singer acts as the sender of a message in a

song that he sings. Therefore it is hard to hide his identity as the sender of the

message. However, in a certain case which relates to a sensitive matter, a singer

tends to position himself as an observer and create a unanimous lore to make it

seems like a rumor despite it can be based on a true event. Bob Marley who

clearly proclaimed himself to be a militant "soul rebel" somehow use a more

indirect criticism to avoid direct confrontation with the authority. One possible

example is the story of violence in "Johnny Was." The song uses a narrative

structure that tells a story that most people felt was based on true incidents.48 It is

a straight ballad that introduces a mystery for the person who has witnessed so

many tragedies in the ghetto. The emphasize is not on the person who report the

event but more on the incident which is anonymous. Questions like where, why

and when did it happen, and did Johnny really exist seem to be a rhetoric since the

answer is ambiguous. This open ended story becomes a lore that spread among the

people.

Here Bob Marley cleverly unveiled the face of violence and brutality

through anonymous lore about Johnny. The emphasize and warning is that even a

good man like Johnny can be the victim of an astray bullet. An astray bullet

generally symbolizes brutality and specifically relates to impunity. Unlike what

has been found in the story of Johnny, through a thorough investigation the writer

found out that this typical technique of sender anonymity is nil in The Black



115

Brothers' songs. The issue of violence is avoided. The possible cause might be the

high sensitivity and the risk of addressing the issue in the New Order Regime. As

far as the writer consider, during that time period in Indonesia people lived in

fright and terror. Thus the writer would argue that there seems to be not a single

popular artist or band would have a nerve to explicitly address criticism regarding

violence by the brutal authority. It was also due to the tight censorship of what can

and what cannot be put into song by the recording company.

4.2.2. The Receiver Anonymity

There is a common sense in popular music that a singer is reaching the

multitudes but pretends that he is reaching only you.49 But it also can be the other

way around, he is reaching the multitudes but in fact he aims at a specific person.

In the receiver anonymity the adversary cannot tell which destination a specific

message is sent to. Regarding specific issues or sensitive criticism, a singer tends

to conceal the target of criticism. He avoids direct naming of the person who is

being criticized. This technique is due to the fear of retaliation, that by doing it

much of the fear is dissipated.50 In its simple way much of the receiver anonymity

take form of personal pronoun like you, they, he/she, possessive pronoun like your,

their, and his/her, and reflective pronoun like himself/herself, and them selves.

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers like the other popular artists would employ

this technique in much of their songs. It seems quite likely that when it comes to

the addressee, they tend to play safe by not directly name it.

In Bob Marley songs we can see this pattern exist in almost every song.

49 Scott, J.C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, p. 109.50 Ibid, p. 140.


116

Bob Marley is a typical singer who is very straightforward in positioning himself

as a militant freedom fighter. Despite of the fact, he somehow indirectly name the

addressee or the target of the criticism. Many times he clearly declares the blame

directly to the rich, government and politician. However, some of the songs still

hide the real receiver of his criticisms. As examples we can see in "Get Up Stand

Up," "Them Belly Full (But we hungry)," "Want More," "Crisis," "Ambush In The

Night," and "Bad Card."

"We sick and tired of your ism-skism game/Dyin' and goin' to heaven inJesus name, Lord/We know when we understand/Almighty God is a livingman/You can fool some people sometimes/But you can't fool all the peopleall the time" (Get Up Stand Up)

"Them belly full but we hungry/an angry man is an angry mob" (ThemBelly Full)

"Now you get what you want/do you want more/...They stab you in theback/and they claim that you're not looking" (Want More)

"So much have been said/So little been done/They still killin' thepeople/and they having a lots of fun/They just want to be the leader/in thehouse of the rising sun" (Crisis)

"See them fighting for power/But they know not the hour/So they bribingwith their guns, spare parts and money/Trying to belittle our integritynow/They say what we know/Is just what they teach us/and we're soignorant/'cause everytime they can reach us/Through politicalstrategy/they keep us hungry/ and when you gonna get some food/yourbrother got to be your enemy" (Ambush in the night)

"Oh man it's just a big disgrace/The way you draw bad card" (Bad Card)

The anonymity in those songs above lies in the absence of direct naming and

destination. It is replaced and blurred by personal and possessive pronoun.

Generally "Get Up Stand Up" is a song about corrupt and oppressive political

systems. However, specifically Bob Marley is admonishing the preacher man

when he sings in the first verse "Preacher men don't tell me that heaven is under


117

the earth." Here lies his spiritual belief of Rastafarianism that heaven is located on

earth, that is in Africa. He is criticizing the church about false teaching regarding

metaphysic heaven. Therefore the second person plural "you" and possessive

pronoun "your" in the bridge of the song is pointed at the Pope and Catholic

Church.51 The line "almighty God is a living man" is a reference to Ethiopian

Emperor, Haile Selassie I. Hence, basically the song is an affirmation of Bob

Marley's Rastafarian beliefs as well as a criticism toward the Church. The Rastas

accuse the Church as a form of white hegemonic power that has distorted some of

the basic teachings about Black or African glory.

As what has been explained previously, 'Them Belly Full" is a song which

portrays a gap between the poor and the rich, between "we" and "them." While the

poor are strolling with empty bellies, the rich men are abundantly full. It is

obvious that "them" refers to the rich. However, specifically Bob Marley aims this

criticism toward Michael Manley's government. They made a promise in 1972's

election through the slogan of "Better must come." What is clearer to Bob Marley

is that better has come only for some who are rich.52

"Want More" is a song of social commentary that makes use of folk

wisdom. The basic criticism lies in the chorus through a sarcastic question, "Now

that you have gotten all you have wanted, do you still want more?" What seems to

be obvious is the greediness of "you." The "you" whether it is singular or plural

refers to the "backbiter" in the next lines. The figure of "you" is a figure who will

betray and stab you in the back.53 In this sense the figure can be the hypocrites

who specifically relate to the rich and corrupt politicians like what Bob Marley

51 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 41.52 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 122.53 Ibid, p. 165.


118

would also depict in "Them Belly Full." Those hypocrites would pretend to do so

much good to hide their true cruel intension like in "No Woman Nuh Cry,"

"Observing the hypocrites/Mingle with the good people we meet."

In "Crisis" Bob Marley opens it with a statement of what was going on in

Jamaica, "They say the sun shines for all/But in some people world it never shines

at all." The sun is a symbol of hope and optimism. Thus when Bob Marley sings it,

he is showing the hopelessness instead of what has been promised by the

government or politicians to bring hope and better changes. It is also a criticism

like what he would previously sing in "Them Belly Full" that the better has come

only for some. Specifically the song talks about the condition of Jamaica which

had just been through a bloody election where the guns had been injected into the

city to complicate the political warfare.54 The number of crime increased just

because of political opportunism. Therefore it seems quite likely that Bob Marley

would blame the politicians who intensionally implanted hatred to their fanatic

supporters in order to win the election through a warfare gang especially between

the youth. After the election, the politicians who had won the election had

naturally forgotten those who helped them win, and those who had lost incapable

of helping the people. The people only became the victim and a game for the

political race.

"Ambush In The Night" is again a depiction of the dreadful condition in

Jamaica in 1970s and specifically based on an assassination attempt at Bob

Marley. Here Marley blame the "Babylon" through the ubiquitous and ambiguous

"them." Babylon refers to all unjust system, the rich, the criminals, corrupt



119

government or politicians and even the police. In the sense of the song "them"

specifically may refer to the corrupt politicians who have managed to bribe,

coerce and implant those who could have been brothers with guns, spare parts,

and money to carry out the act of murder. This song has a strong relationship with

the previous song "Crisis."

Those who are unfamiliar with the biographical story of Bob Marley

would not have any idea that "Bad Card" is actually a song about Bob Marley's

manager, Don Taylor. The song is a condemnation and accusation to Don Taylor

who betrayed Bob Marley by stealing lots of money. The line of "the way you

draw bad cards" describes Bob Marley's feeling that Taylor had worked or played

him too long. Eventually, he had to show his card which is his true self.55

This pattern of receiver anonymity also appears in The Black Brothers

songs. They take similar form through the ubiquitous and ambiguous personal

pronouns. Specifically they appear in songs of social commentaries, among others

are like: "Hari Kiamat'' (The End Of The Day), "Lonceng Kematian" (Death

Albatross), and "Kaum Benalu" (The Parasites).

"Sadarlah kau cara hidupmu/Yang hanya menelan korban yang lain" -"Hari Kiamat"

[It's time for you to realize the way you live your life/which makingpeople suffer everyday - The End of The Day].

"Hey kau yang munafik/kapan akhir sandiwaramu/salingberlomba/mengejar kekayaan/tak kau bawa mati nanti" - "LoncengKematian"

[Hey you the hypocrites/please end your silly game/racing on the ratrace/it won't be worth in your doom - Death Albatross].

"Dia senyum di musim panen/mengikis habis hasil tanammu/tak hiraukan

55 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 106.


120

siapa dirinya" - "Kaum Benalu"

[He smiles in the harvest time/eat upon all your crops/don't care whohimself is - The parasites].

In these songs The Black Brothers show their empathy and sense of

affinity with the poor. Basically "Hari Kiamat"(The End of The Day) and

"Lonceng Kematian" (Death Albatross) are closely related to each other. In the

lyrics they do not directly address the criticism by using the personal pronoun

"kau" (you) and possessive pronoun "mu" (your). However, it is quite obvious that

they are meant for the rich and specifically the government. The people or the

poor are only the victims of the situation just like what Bob Marley would depict

in "Crisis." These two songs are a clear picture of Jakarta of 1970s that

everywhere people would encounter many beggars strolling along the streets and

alleys. The government who supposed to be responsible seemed to neglect the

condition. The mall administration of national bills has increased the numbers of

corruption. Therefore, these two songs are a strong condemnation and prophesy to

the rich or corrupt politicians of the consequence of their hypocritical game. This

final Biblical consequence of their deeds is really fatal since God has the power to

exterminate both their physic and soul.

"Kaum Benalu" (Parasites) is a symbol of hypocrites just like what Bob

Marley would also sing in "Who The Cap Fit," "hypocrites and parasites will

come up and take a bite." Both in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers's song, the

greedy image of parasites share the same characteristic that they would usually

mingle with the people just to take advantage out of them. Practically the song is

the praxis between the laborers and the rich, between the people and the parasites.

It is about how the rich only consume the harvest of the poor without putting


121

much care upon their wealth and paying sufficient reward for their hard labor. The

Black Brothers use the personal pronoun "dia" (he), " possessive pronoun "mu"

(your), and reflective pronoun "himself." They position them selves as the sender

of the message to warn the people of the hypocrites who will only take advantage

of their hard labor.

4.2.3. The Relationship Anonymity

In the relationship anonymity the adversary cannot tell which destination a

user or sender is to communicate with. Understood it in this context, the

relationship anonymity is a slightly different to receiver anonymity in a simple

way that it doesn't employ personal pronoun despite there is an intended target

receiver. The sender tends to speak of something without explicitly mention a

name and discuss a specific subject to show a relationship to the intended target. A

singer tends to use it as his rhetoric to do sarcasm. One example can be seen in

Bob Marley's "Zion Train."

"Two Thousands years of history/Could not be wiped so easily...Zion Trainis coming our way" (Zion Train).

It is not clear which destination or to whom Bob Marley communicates. It is more

than just a personal statement since there must be someone who is accused of

committing deletion of two thousand years of history. Basically the song is talking

about the long suffering by the Black people.56 That they will depart out of

Babylon to Zion. Those who chose wisdom and not wealth, and those with self

control can join the ride. Thus we can conclude that it is a sarcasm to the white



122

colonial power, who have oppressed the black. And that despite of this condition

the black are the chosen one by the almighty God to ride on to his dwelling place,

Zion.

In The Black Brothers we can see the typical example of relationship

anonymity in "Misteri" (Mystery).

"Gelap mendebu kelam tak bertepi/kabut kian tebal di jalan ini/deraplangkah yang kususuri/manusia memendam keadilan/...semoga nanti kantiba saatnya/seberkas cahaya menyinari/membuka semua misteri/tabirhidup di bumi pertiwi" - "Misteri"

[Clouds of darkness/endless blacknes/the fog swells on this road/everystep I take/humaan silenced the justice/...may one day/a spark of lightshine through/uncovering all the mysterie/all the veils in the life of thisland - Mystery].

As the title suggested, the song is about mystery. Throughout the song The Black

Brothers sing about mystery through the image of "gelap" (darkness), "kabut"

(mist), and "tabir kebenaran" (veil of truth). It is hidden to whom do they talk to

regarding the issue of mystery. Here The Black Brothers also employ the image of

"Cahaya" (sun or shine) like what Bob Marley would also use in some of his

songs like "Sun is shining," "Get Up Stand Up," and "Crisis." Sun and shine

symbolizes hope, truthfulness and happiness. So when The Black Brothers sing

the shines is being covered by dark shadow, it means that something has gone

wrong and they are hopeless and there must be someone they accused of

committing it. Although it is still ambiguous and mystery but one can conclude

that The Black Brothers are communicating to the corrupt system which is the

authority. This conclusion is based on what they would also refer to in their

previous songs regarding criticism.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers tend to use anonymity to cover


123

direct naming or identity of the addressee. The most common type of anonymity

that can be found in their songs is the receiver anonymity which takes form of

personal, possessive, and reflective pronoun. The clear intention of using

anonymity is to avoid direct confrontation and retaliation with the authority. In

doing so, much of the fear can be dissipated.

Anonymity is Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' rhetoric. Despite many

of the songs are obviously related to the specific target, they tend to play with

words through metaphor and anonymity. Using anonymity is like to throw a bite

and beat around the bush waiting for the snake to come out. Those who feel it will

come up and take the bite like what Bob Marley would sing in "Who The Cap

Fit," "Hypocrites and parasites will come up and the bite" and that "who the cap

fit/let them wear it."

4.3. The Third Element of Hidden Transcript: Euphemism

As part of resistance against oppressive power domination and hegemonic

structures, both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers employ euphemism as their

means of criticism. In a situation where direct verbal confrontation is not safe,

euphemism offers a solution. It is an accurate way to describe circumstances by

those who wish to avoid sanctions or retaliation.57

There is a strong relation between euphemism and taboo. Taboo refers to a

proscription of behaviour for a specifiable community at a certain period of time

and place.58 Etymologically euphemism comes from the Greek word "Euphĕmĕ

(eu: 'good, well,' and phĕmĕ: 'speech')." Euphemism is basically stirred by two

57 Scott, J.C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, p. 152.58 Hammad, Omar Abu. Euphemism: Sweet Talking or Deceptive?, p. 3.


124

basic reasons, either it is for sweet talking or for deception. It is said to be a sweet

talking when it is used to substitute taboos, impoliteness and profanity. The idea

of sweet talking is to replace taboos which are demonic, offensive, forbidden or

impolite.59 As example among others are like the word "cock" is replaced by

"rooster," the word "vagina" is replaced by "Miss V," "make love" for "having

sex," the word "gosh" for "God," "Jeez" for "Jesus," "darn" for "damn" and "heck"

for "hell."

Euphemism is said to be a deception when it gives a false impression. It

misleads, distorts reality, pretends to communicate, makes the bad seem good, or

in short makes the unpleasant appear attractive or tolerable and to avoid or shift

responsibility. In this way euphemism is meant to deceive the recipients in the

public sphere. Therefore, euphemism is generally related to doublespeak which

can be found in three main categories of discourse: law enforcement and military,

political and nuclear which sometimes function as a means of propaganda.60

While in the context of power domination it functions as rhetoric in resisting the

corrupt system in a safe way. The common techniques used in deception are

circumlocutions and jargon. They are deliberately dishonest ways of using words,

phrases, or expressions to make bad seems good or tolerable. To cite one example,

a terrorist can possibly become a freedom fighter, undergoing imprisonment

without legal justification as preventive detention, and being defeat as strategic

withdrawal, etc.

59 Ibid, p. 4.60 Hammad, Omar Abu. Euphemism: Sweet Talking or Deceptive?, p. 13.


125

4.3.1. Euphemism as Sweet Talking

Growing up in the rural Parish of St.Ann and urban Kingston, Bob Marley

was exposed to the rural proverbs and street language which he later on utilized in

his songs. They are his richness to become a lyrical genius. He found some

creative and artistic ways in depicting the phenomenon of life deliberately to the

people. And one of them would be euphemism. There are some dos and don't in

the society which need to be considered. Therefore in discussing a certain issue, a

singer tends to use euphemism as sweet talking to soothe the roughness and

vulgarity. Clear example of sweet talking can be found in Bob Marley's songs like

"Stir It Up," "Easy Skankin'," "Kaya," and "Pimper's Paradise."

"Stir it up, little darlin,'/stir it up/come on baby/stir it up...I'll push thewood/then I blaze your fire/Then I'll satisfy your heart's desire/Said I stir itevery minute/all you got to do/is keep it in baby...quench me/when I'mthirsty/come on and cool me down when I'm hot/your recipe is darlin'/is sotasty/when you show and stir your pot" (Stir It Up)

Excuse me while I light my spliff/Oh God I gotta take a lift/From reality Ijust can't drift/That's why I'm staying with this riff" (Easy Skankin')

Got to have kaya now/Got to have kaya now/Got to have kaya now/For therain is falling" (Kaya)

A pimper's paradise/that's all she was now/A pimper's paradise that's allshe was...she loves to model up in the latest fashion/She's in the scrambleand she moves with passion/She's getting high, trying to fly the sky/Nowshe's bluesing when there ain't no blues" (Pimper's Paradise)

"Stir It Up" is Bob Marley's most seductive love song about love making.

To soften the vulgarity and the taboo, in the chorus he employs the image of

cooking to depict the circular, up and down motion of love making "stir it up little

darling."61 Furthermore he makes a good parable of man's and woman's genital to

"wood" and "pot" so they would sound polite. The way he used those euphemism



126

and parables makes the song sounds good and far from the sense of vulgarity.

"Easy Skankin'" and "Kaya" are Bob Marley's two relax songs about

smoking ganja, enjoying reggae music and treating each other with respect. They

depict the 1970s Jamaican Rastafarian drug culture. As what has been explained

before that the Rastas use marijuana or ganja as sacrament and ritualized it as part

of their daily life.62 Rastas cite many Biblical references to "the herb" in their

defense of its use in ceremony as well as daily life. It is seen as the gift from Jah

to humans which help them to see truth and increase understanding of Jah.63 Bob

Marley was very aware of the illegal status of marijuana in Jamaica. Thus

avoiding detection was an everyday activity for him and many Rastas. In his

songs he would employ euphemism to address the issue. In these two songs he

replaced the word "ganja" or "marijuana" with "spliff" and "kaya."

"Pimper's Paradise" is speculated by some, like Dawes and Moskowitz to

be ambiguous. As the writer can see, basically "Pimper's Paradise" is a song about

the selling of self or prostituting of self that points to the failure of integrity. It

refers to either a generic woman or specific woman, either a prostitute or Jamaica

in a larger sense. In the context of euphemism as sweet talking, "Pimper's

Paradise" is a more subtle way of calling the prostitute a whore or bitch. The

pimper is the pimp, and the prostitute constitutes a paradise for the pimp.64 It is

speculated that the song is specifically addressed to one of Bob Marley's

girlfriends since he involved in several love affairs in the peak of his career. It

depicts the life of a woman who has cultivated a drug habit, who models for a

62 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 88.63 Worth, D.S. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, p. 23.64 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 295.


127

living and was a part of the jet set, and whose ego is causing her undoing.65

In a larger metaphorical context through a close reading, "Pimper's

Paradise" may refer to Jamaica as well. The IMF deals which had been made

during that time period causing Jamaica heading down a path of prostitution.66

Self-reliance on foreign countries had allowed Jamaica to sell itself. Its natural

resources are being exploited for the advantage of others.

Similarly, The Black Brothers clearly employs euphemism as sweet

talking in their songs about "Pramuria" (prostitute) like "Kisah Seorang

Pramuria" (The story of a prostitute), "Cinta dan Pramuria," (Love and a

prostitute), "Doa Pramuria" (The prostitute's prayer), "Untukmu Pramuria" (To

you O prostitute), "Balada Pramuria" (Ballads of prostitute), "Pramuria Tapi

Biarawati" (Prostitute but nun), "Juwita Malam" (Night Angel) and "Melati

Plastik" (Plastic Jasmine). They refer to either a generic woman and/or a specific

woman. It is speculated that those songs except the last two are based on a true

love story between Hengky, The Black Brothers' lead vocal and his girlfriend who

used to be a prostitute. In the context of euphemism as sweet talking, "Pramuria"

(prostitute) "Juwita Malam" (Night Angle), "Kupu-kupu malam" (Night Butterfly),

and "Melati Plastik" (Plastic Jasmine) are a more subtle way to call a prostitute

than a whore or bitch. Those songs describe about how the two lovers were being

excluded and alienated by the society because of their love affairs. Hengky, as the

singer positioned himself as a pro-feminist who would treat the prostitute in a

right way by taking her as his lover. He against the society who have

dehumanized her being as a mere object of man's satisfaction and a sinner.

65 Moskowitz, David. The Words and Music of Bob Marley, p. 107.66 Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley Lyrical Genius, p. 297.


128

In a larger metaphorical sense like Bob Marley's "Pimper's Paradise,"

those songs about prostitute generates another layer of meaning. Through a close

reading, it can be concluded that they actually refer to Indonesia in general and

Papua in specific. Just like Jamaica, Indonesia as one of the third world countries

would economically depend on foreign countries through the loans from IMF and

the World Bank. This self-reliance had caused Indonesia to sell its natural

resources to be controlled and exploited by foreign countries. Indonesia may be

heading down a path of prostitution in this sense as well. The signing contract

between Indonesia and American Mining Corporation, Freeport in 196767 might

lead to a massive exploitation which makes Papua as a mere "pimper's paradise."

Papua only became an object of satisfaction. Hence, the mellow mood song of

The Black Brothers about “Pramuria” in a certain sense is a lamentation and a

plea to be treated rightfully. It is a voice and a cry to humanize Papuans' mother

nature from being exploited and abandoned.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers would use euphemism as sweet

talking to soothe the specific issue which is regarded as taboo, impolite, forbidden

and offended. Specifically Bob Marley used it to sing about bodily effluvia, sex,

and forbidden object like ganja or marijuana. While The Black Brothers used it to

sooth the language to become less offended. Under the issue of prostitute both of

their songs have similarities in regard to the aim of euphemism which is to make

it less offended and its another layer of meaning in relation to socio-economic

condition.

67 Saltford, John. The anatomy of betrayal: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,1962-1969, p. xxii.


129

4.3.2. Euphemism as Deception

As a lyrical genius Bob Marley applied many ways in uttering his

concerns about the socio-and political conditions around him. They are his

rhetoric. Thus it is no surprise that he paid a careful attention to what he was

going to sing. Words are carefully chosen to meet his aims. He would usually

spread the spirit of positivity, hope and optimism among his people. By using

euphemism he made the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, and the

unpleasant appear attractive or tolerable. As examples we can see in "I Shot The

Sherif," "Talkin' Blues," and "Crazy Baldhead."

"I shot the sheriff/But I didn't shoot no deputy" (I Shot The Sheriff)

"...who's gonna stay at home/When the freedom fighters are fighting?"(Talkin' Blues)

"Build your penitentiary/We build your school/Brainwash education tomake us the fool" (Crazy Baldhead)

In "I Shot The Sheriff" Bob Marley laid a contrasting sensibilities of the

word "sheriff." He admitted that actually he wanted to sing "I shot the police," but

the government would get very upset so he sang "I shot the sheriff" instead.68 It

was intended to be put in that way so it will less offensive and function as a means

to deceive. Police has a bad connotation to most Jamaicans, especially the Rastas.

For them police is the symbol of brutality and wickedness. Thus, Bob Marley

intentionally made it like a fictional tale by using the term "sheriff. Despite it

sounds so American but it is accessible to a wider audience. And in doing so the

government would not put any suspicious attempt upon the song.

In some of his songs Bob Marley directly declared himself to be a militant



130

soul rebel like in his songs "Rebel Music," "Babylon System," and "Soul Rebel."

However in "Talkin' Blues" he would use the term freedom fighter instead of

rebellion. Here Bob Marley clearly wants the negative to appear positive. There is

a shift from something sounding bad (rebellion) to something sounding good

(freedom fighter). The change in term is depending on political interpretation.

"Crazy Baldhead" is a sarcastic song about the hypocrisy of the non-Rastas.

The term "baldhead" refers to one who lacked dreadlocks which also symbolizes

one who works for Babylon. The use of the term penitentiary instead of jail in the

second verse of the song aims at making it sounds positive yet it is sarcastic.

School is the penitentiary that will entrap people's mind through brainwashing.

These two humanity institutions have shifted their function to be a means of

propaganda.

Unlike Bob Marley, The Black Brothers used euphemism as deception

mostly to avoid direct retaliation with the authority. During the New Order regime

of Soeharto the censorship was very tight. In reading Indonesia history, the

political situations including social and cultural life were controlled by policies

issued by the government. These policies became the tool of repression to the

society. The rise of military power, strict censorship, and corrupt government had

limited the movement of resistance and people's freedom.69 The Black Brothers

were very aware of it. Thus in facing those particular circumstances, The Black

Brothers somehow would enter into the universe of dishonest euphemism by

avoiding offensive lyrics. As examples we can find in their songs about their land

69 Duka Kuda. "The Untold Story of Indonesian Underground Music in the 70s," ruang rupa, p. 3. Web Juli 2.2014.<https://www.qagoma.qdl.gov.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0009/141498/booklet_ruanrupa_APT_ok_print_rev2_0312.pdf>.


131

like "Irian Jaya 1," "Irian Jaya 2," and "Keroncong Irian Jaya."

"Irian Jaya kau kupuja/Irian Jaya tercinta/Irian Jaya kau kukenang/...Tanah subur menggiurkan/Kaya akan pertambangan" -IrianJaya

[Irian Jaya I praise you/my beloved Irian Jaya/Irian Jaya you're in mymind/luscious and mesmerizing land/filled with prescious minerals - IrianJaya].

"Suburnya tanahku/Asalku Irian Jaya/Kau kupuja slalu/Asalku IrianJaya/Banyak kekayaan/Yang masih terpendam di sana" - Irian Jaya 2

[I come from luscious land/I come from Irian Jaya/the land I alwayspraise/I come from Irian Jaya/Plenty of richness/are hidden there - IrianJaya 2].

"Irian Jaya yang kupuja/Itulah tanah tumpah darahku" - 'Keroncong IrianJaya"

[Irian Jaya that I praise/that's my mother's land - Keroncong Irian Jaya].

As what has been explained previously, Papua has changed its name

several times, "New Guinea," "West New Guinea," "West Papua," "Irian Barat,"

"Irian Jaya," and "Papua." From aforementioned names, "Papua" is the most

strictly forbidden. It was feared by the government that the name will rise

solidarity and nationalism among Papuans. In 1973 under the New Order regime

of Soeharto, the name was changed to "Irian Jaya." Things were even getting

worse in this period. Mentioning the name "Papua" would be seen as a capital

offence or a serious problem which can cause one's life. It is no wonder in many

of their songs, The Black Brothers would refer to the land with the term "Irian

Jaya instead of "Papua." For the writer, the use of the term in their lyrics has a

nuance of resistance if we take a closer look. In this way it can be seen as a form

of euphemism as deception.

"Irian Jaya 1," "Irian Jaya 2" and "Keroncong Irian Jaya" are not only a


132

mere tribute to the land but also a sarcasm to the government. They exist as one

entity yet they have layer of meanings. At a glance the songs are about praising

and boasting of the land. However behind this glorification lies a sarcastic lines,

"Tanah subur menggiurkan/Kaya akan pertambangan" and "Banyak kekayaan

yang masih terpendam di sana" ("luscious and mesmerizing land/filled with

prescious minerals"). These two lines can bee seen as cynical and sarcasm form of

expression to mock the government or they who usually only tempted with Papua

natural richness. They see Papua as a mere commodity and not as a community.

This treatment has caused Papuans to feel excluded and alienated. At least it can

be seen in "Keroncong Irian Jaya" when they sing "Irian Jaya yang ku

puja/Itulah tanah tumpah darahku" (Irian Jaya that I praise/that's my mother's

land). In the context of euphemism as deception the term "tanah tumpah darah"

(mother's land) has a strong sense of exclusivism, nationalism and belonging.

Therefore, basically the phrase "tanah tumpah darah" (mother land) might refer

specifically to Papua as distinctive land apart from Indonesia. It is more than just

a land, it is a nation. Furthermore, this expression also wants to show the sense of

pride and that they are unique. The distinctive characters also including physical

appearances which shall become their strength to be forward in the society where

they are usually marginalized.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers used euphemism as deception to

avoid vulgar verbal attack to the authority that would possibly cause direct

retaliation in turn. However, for Bob Marley it used not only as deception but also

as his rhetoric for art's sake. It is to show Bob Marley's artistic and poetic capacity

to play with words. In many songs Bob Marley would clearly position himself


133

against the corrupt government, although he did it in a more respective way by

using these elements of hidden transcripts. While for The Black Brothers,

euphemism as deception might be the only solution since it would have been

impossible to lodge a direct open criticism at all cost. Euphemism as deception is

merely used for the safety's sake as well as for their survival in the popular music

industry. This might because of the tight censorship and policies enacted both by

the government and recording company that financially support their respective

existence.


134

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers are two different artists who are

separated by language, musical genres, socio-political background, and geography.

However, parallels can still be drawn from their artistic works as this thesis has

shown. Both of them represent the Black power movement which emerged from a

racially, culturally, and economically marginalized context. They are the symbol

of resistance who stand on the behalf of their respective social groups. Other than

being a milestone for the development of popular music in their respective place

of origin, their music is also the vehicle to carry their criticism and protests

against the hegemonic power domination.

The analysis on the lyrics in their commercial studio albums reveals that

their songs consist of elements of or posses several elements of hidden transcript

such as metaphor, anonymity, and euphemism. It can be seen also that they

employ linguistic tricks in their songs. The elements of hidden transcript are used

to disguise their protests against the socio-political condition of the day, and an

in-depth analysis of their songs reveals those hidden transcripts.

There are some differences in applying these elements into their songs. An

early investigation reveals that Bob Marley's songs tend to focus and emphasize

on socio-politic and religious matters, while The Black Brothers tend to focus

more on the romance of love song and dance tunes. Therefore, Bob Marley's

works seem to be more straight-forward in giving protest against the hegemonic

power domination while The Black Brothers seemed to neglect the issue.


135

As proven in this thesis, the socio-political circumstances play an

important role in deciding what shall or shall not be put into song. Jamaica

obtained its political independence from the British rule in 1962. It created a wave

of post-colonial spirit that wanted to break with the colonial past. An intention to

discover a new identity as a new nation resulted in the birth of a distinctive

popular music style of Jamaica which are ska, rock steady and reggae. This new

styles of music coincidentally happened with the revival of social and spiritual

movement of Rastafarianism. This was even strengthened the post-colonial spirit

embodied in such music that began to function as a media to voice socio-political

and religious concerns than purely leisure and pleasure activity. Later in the

journey of the new independent Jamaica, it functions as a social control to watch

the act of the government.

A long time disputes between Jamaican political parties (JLP and PNP)

had divided the nation into two halves based on political allegiance. In standing

on the behalf of the people, Marley tried hard to keep his neutrality. What seemed

to be risky in Jamaica was to expose one's political allegiance. Therefore to avoid

arise conflict among his fellow Jamaicans, Bob Marley utilizes his music to unite

them besides also uses it as his safe weapon to fight the government or "Babylon."

Unlike Jamaica, Indonesia is the largest archipelagic nation in the world

with many diversities in language, religion and ethnic groups. Hence the primary

concern of the government is to keep the thousand islands to be in tact under the

nation's motto in Sanskrit (Javanese) "Bhineka Tunggal Ika" (Oneness In

Diversities) just like Jamaican slogan "Out of Many,One People." In

accomplishing it, the government will defend it at all cost. Papua became part of


136

Indonesia in 1969 under the referendum (Pepera) which is for most Papuans to be

the biggest scam in all of their history. It was a form of annexation to them. Ever

since that time, the disputes upon Papua political status became the main issue for

most Papuans. Apparently, Papua is stand out for its rich natural resources. The

signing contract between Indonesia and America to open world's largest gold mine

corporation in 1967 even worsen the condition. The land is being exploited while

its people are abandoned. The concern to voice all kind of injustice had always

been politicized to be the act of separatism and against the government. Under

New Order regime of Soeharto, the land was infiltrated from all suspected acts

against the government. The paranoia of the disintegration made the violence

seemed to be the only solution and policy. Thousands of people being killed while

some others crossed the border for survival. This long time oppression has caused

a traumatic pain.

This present study has also shown that out of their respective

socio-political unrest, both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers found a solution,

i.e. their guitar. Under the oppression by the hegemonic power domination, the

subordinate groups tend to mock the ruling power through artistic product like

poem, dance, and song. Their vulnerability has rarely allowed them to conduct

direct confrontation with the ruling power. Therefore, an effort to do the criticism

while avoiding retaliation through a veiled discourse within the public sphere

seems to be an option.

This study has applied the concept of hidden transcript by James Scott to

analyze Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' lyrics that somehow they can be

considered to be a voice under domination. This ideological guerrilla war occurs


137

mostly within political space and hegemonic public sphere through veiled and

disguised forms. For the safety's sake one would enter the world of rumor, gossip,

disguises, linguistic tricks, metaphors, euphemisms, folktales, ritual gestures, and

anonymity. The writer found some of these elements within the lyrics of Bob

Marley and The Black Brothers. By relating it to the socio-political condition

from where they emerged, the writer assumed that these elements are consciously

infused as their peotical and rhetorical method in resisting the hegemonic and

oppressive power. However not all the interpretation would match perfectly as

what both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers intended. Cognitive poetic

analysis which encompasses text-reader-author and the four level of context in the

metaphoric process by Osborne and Ehninger can be used as a stepping stone in

understanding their work. One is contextual qualifier which refers to the context

of a discourse in terms of its actual text and the situation in which it used. Second

is communal qualifier which is culturally bound, or relying on culturally-based

social knowledge. The third is archetypal qualifier which supplies meaning based

on experiences common to men of many races and ages. It is a generally

acknowledged or accepted by most people. The forth is private qualifier which

affects the meaning based on personal or subjective associations.

A thorough investigation found out that basically Bob Marley's hidden

transcripts are not merely to avoid retaliation but also for the sake of politeness

and respect. He even didn't hide what he was intended to criticize. He clearly

proclaimed himself as a militant "soul rebel." However, as spiritual devoted

person and a lyrical genius, he would do it in a more respective and artistic way.

Therefore those elements of hidden transcript would likely to be more as an


138

euphemism and aesthetic in general sense rather then a harsh criticism. People in

Jamaica, especially the underprivileged would clearly understand what he meant.

Contrary to the early finding that views Bob Marley's songs being more

socio-political and religious inclined, while The Black Brothers' are mainly about

love and romance, this thesis has proven that The Black Brothers is more romantic

in a real sense. The Black Brothers has 18th German and English romanticism

spirit which was deeply connected with the politics of the time, echoing people's

fears, hopes, and aspiration. The Black Brothers' main concerns as shown or heard

through their songs are mainly about the people (Papuans), natural exoticism of

Papua, mysticism, and folksongs (Papuan traditional song). Hence, the writer

assumed that their songs may contain hidden transcript that carries the real spirit

of romanticism within their commercial love tunes. They are strongly connected

with politics of their time. It can be seen as a cunning deception to avoid

retaliation. Their songs are not merely as leisure and pleasure but also an act of

resistance. In this way we can assume that romantic can be political as well.

Despite possessing elements of hidden transcript, there are some more

significant differences between the two artists. The analysis in this thesis reveals

that explicitly Bob Marley's critique is focused on resistance against structures

that cause oppression and injustice, whereas The Black Brother's critique is

focused on descriptive accounts of social injustice which mostly about poverty.

However, implicitly The Black Brothers' song has a more political tendency than

Bob Marley's. Despite the fact that government and recording policies play an

important role in deciding what shall and shall not put into a song, The Black

Brothers kept on preserving their genuine spirit to sing of their folks and criticism


139

while fulfilling the market demand of popular theme at the same time. The same is

true to Bob Marley that he would never compromise his ideology of reggae music

and the spirit that it carried.

This thesis also reveals that Bob Marley engages his social critique to an

overwhelmingly optimistic and hopeful way, while The Black Brothers songs are

characterized by hope and optimism only at a certain times but by hopeless and

pessimistic at most others. Due to the complexity of socio-political background, it

would be insufficient to suggest that the difference between the two artists could

be accounted to just one factor. However, what seems quite likely to be obvious is

Marley's affiliation with a particular religious and cultural movement. The

movement which he kept promoting in his lyrics and The Black Brothers is lack

of such affiliation as a partial explanation for the differences with respect to hope.

Perhaps Bob Marley's Rastafarian beliefs grounded him and helped him to cope

with the struggles, and his faith provided a source of hope and optimism. While,

The Black Brothers who stands on the behalf of Papuans would have undergone a

long time oppression that their mellow songs symbolize hopelessness and

pessimistic. Their protest unaffiliated with a specific movement, therefore it is

more isolated and alienated.

Despite of the differences in tone between the two artists, one common

thing is that their music and song can be conceptualized as the vehicle they would

use to offer their critiques. Although their message sometimes had to penetrate the

public sphere through hidden transcript and required an in-depth analysis and tend

to be accessed by insiders than outsiders, Bob Marley and The Black Brothers

may be unlikely to effectively reach and sway outsiders with their message. Music


140

affords Bob Marley and The Black Brothers the opportunity to speak to the

members of their social context with words of encouragement and resistance.

Their music and song may play a role in the creation of group consciousness

necessary for counter-hegemonic power domination.

Understanding Bob Marley and The Black Brothers lyrics will make the

people are not only affected physically and emotionally but also cognitively. This

current research suggests that through cognitive poetic analysis, the hidden

transcript elements in Bob Marley and The Black Black Brothers songs can be

analyzed and interpreted. However, there are some points related to the concept of

hidden transcript that need to be made clear. Scott example of elements in hidden

transcript: rumor, gossip, disguises, linguistic tricks, metaphors, euphemisms,

folktales, ritual gestures, and anonymity are still cryptic and opaque. This

somehow makes they can be juxtaposed and mixed to each other. Further

explanation and clear division is needed. Therefore in this research, the writer

tried to elaborate more. However, since this is quite likely to be the first one that

apply it to analyze song's lyric, there are still more things to be considered.

Perhaps there are more hidden transcript elements can be found in the lyrics of

Bob Marley and The Black Brothers. New finding would likely to help elaborate

and enrich Scott's concept. It would be interesting to look at numbers of Black

Brothers' traditional folk songs sung in tribal language and connect it to the

element of linguistic tricks.

There are some more interesting questions to be elaborated into further

research that can help to raise people's cognitive consciousness upon the message

in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' song lyric. It would be interesting to


141

specifically study each elements of hidden transcript in relation to each artist's

lyrics and a comparative study between the two artists. What is the metaphoric

explanation of prostitute in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs and their

engagement to socio-political condition within their respective society? How to

decide and describe euphemism for sweet talking and deception in Bob Marley

and The Black Brothers' lyrics? How to elaborate and explain types of anonymity

and their relation to socio-political condition? Those are among other questions

that would likely lead to further research that will enrich people's understanding of

Scott's concept in relation to Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs.

As a final remark, the major difficulty in this study lies in the fact that it is

hard to cover all Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs deeply and equally.

This study has tried to do comparison and an in-dept analysis towards Bob Marley

and The Black Brothers' lyrics. However, there are still limitations and more

things to be considered. Hopefully, by seeing this study more researches will be

interested to explore deeper about hidden transcript in relation to lyric in Bob

Marley and The Black Brothers' songs. At last the writer hopes that he did justice

to Scott's theory of hidden transcript, and to Bob Marley and The Black Brothers'

work.


142

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aditjondro, George Junus. Cahaya Bintang Kejora. (Jakarta: ELSAM, 2000), p.132. Print.

Agawu, Kofi. "Music as Discourse: Semiotic Adventures in Romantic Music."(New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 15. Print.

Al Qatiry, Igir M, et all. Menelesuri Jejak Langkah Sang Legenda. (959Publishing House, 2011). Print.

Barnard, Eben. "Cultural resistance: Can such practices ever have a meaningfulpolitical impact?" Critical Social Thinking:Policy and Practice, Vol.3(2011), p.114. Web. December 12. 2013.

Brown, Marshall. The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Volume 5,Romanticism. (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 92. Print.

Brundige, Elizabeth, et all. "Indonesian Human Right Abuses in West Papua:Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control,"a paper by Yale Law School, 2004, p. 10. Web. May 1st. 2014.

Crehan, Kate. Gramsci, Culture and Anthropology. (London: Pluto Press, 2002), p.6. Print.

Dawes, Kwame. Bob Marley: Lyrical Genius. (London, United Kingdom:Sanctuary Publishing Limited, 2002).

DeCosmo, Jan. "Religion and Revolution in the Lyrics of Bob Marley." Workingcopy of an article in Caribbean Studies Assn. Conference, Merida, Yucatan,Mexico (1994), p. 2. Web. January 12. 2014.

Destiana, Evie. "Keroncong Stamboel sebagai Bentuk Akulturasi Budaya Urban,"PEDAGOGIA Vol. 1, No. 2 (2012), p. Web. August 2. 2014.

Duka Kuda. "The Untold Story of Indonesian Underground Music in the 70s,ruang rupa," p. 3. Web Juli 2. 2014.

Fontana, Benedetto. Hegemony and Power. (Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1993), p. 14. Print.

Freeland, Gregory. "Music and the Rise of Caribbean Nationalism: The JamaicanCase," a paper to Department of Political Science, California LutheranUniversity, p. 3. Web. May 2nd. 2014.

Fusaro, Lorenzo. "Gramsci's concept of hegemony at the national andinternational level," King's College London, 2010, p. 1. Web. March 29.2014.


143

Glazebrook, Diana. "Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living inPapua New Guinea). (ANU E Press, 2008), pp. 27-33. Print.

Gronow, Pekka, and Ilpo Saunio. "An International history of the RecordingIndustry." (London: Cassell, 1999), p. 184. Web. 14 May. 2014.

Hammad, Omar Abu. "Euphemism, Sweet Talking or Deception?" D-Essay inLinguistics, Högskolan Dalarma Spring Term (2007), p.5. Web. March 6.2014.

Haner, Mark. "Bob Marley's Spiritual Rhetoric, the Spread of Jamaican Cultureand Rastafarianism," a seminar paper. West Oregon University, 2007, p.3.Web. January 22. 2014.

Hayward, Philip. "Sound Alliances: Indigenous Peoples, Cultural Politics, andPopular Music in the Pacific." (London: Cassell, 1998), p. 109. Web. 14May. 2014.

Jacobs, Steven. "Rebel Music from Trenchtown to Oaktown: The Lyrics of BobMarley and Tupac Shakur as Counter-hegemonic Culture," post graduatethesis, University of Florida, 2009, p. 14.

Johnson, Aaron. "Design and Analysis of Efficient Anonymous-CommunicationProtocols," a dissertation, Yale University, 2009, p. 14. Web. March 9.2014.

Johnson, Bruce and Cloonan, Martin. "Dark Side of the Tune: Popular Music andViolence." (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2009), p. 13. Print.

Joo, Hyung-min. Hidden Transcripts...Shared?: Passive Resistance in The SovietCase. The Korean Journal of International Studies, Korea University. Vol 8.No.2. 2010, pp. 227-298. Web. October 7. 2014.

King. Stephen A. "Reggae, Rastafari, and the Rhetoric of Social Control."(Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2002), p. 55. Print.

Lakoff, George. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. (Cambridge UniversityPress: 1992). Web. January 18. 2014.

Leslie, Glaister. "Confronting the Don: The Political Economy of Gang Violencein Jamaica." (Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2010), p. 12.

Lockard, Craig A. "Dance of Life Popular Music and Politic in Southeast Asia."(Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press, 1998), p. 105. Web. 14 May.2014.


144

Moskowitz, David. "The Words and Music of Bob Marley." (USA: Praeger, 2007),p.132. Print.

Nasution, Ikhwanuddin. "Sistem dan Kode Semiotika Dalam Sastra:Suatu proseskomunikasi," LOGAT: Jurnal Ilmiah Bahasa dan Sastra, UniversitasSumatra Utara, Vol IV No 2 (2008), p. 111. Web. July 2. 2014.

Nordine, Manisha. Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in BobMarley's "Jah-Public," a dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2007,p.121. Web. January 18. 2014.

Osborne, Robin. "Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan PerangRahasia di Papua Barat." (Yogyakarta: ELSAM dan Putaka PelajarYogyakarta, 2001), p. 14. Print.

Putra, Nathalian H.P.D. "Musik di Papua: Kehidupan, Interaksi Budaya danPerkembangannya," an article, Perpustakaan Digital FMMI (ForumMusikologi Muda Indonesia), 2011, p. 2. Web. 2 April. 2014.

Radulović, Milica. "Expressing Values in Positive and Negative Euphemisms."Facta Universitatis Series: Linguistics and Literature Vol. 10, No 1 (2012),p. 19. Web. March 6. 2014.

Roberts, W Rhys. Rhetoric by Aristotle. An Electronic Classics Serries Publication.Pennsylvania State University, 2010-2013. Web. January 21. 2014.

Saltford, John. "The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the IndonesianTakeover of West Papua, 1962-1969." (London and New York:RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), p. 1. Print.

Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance (Michigan: Yale UniversityPress, 1990), p. 137. Print.

Skopal, Edward, Jr. "Hear Them Crying (Rastafari and Framing Processes inReggae Music)," postgraduate thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute andState University, 2005, pp. 33-35. Web. January 18. 2014.

Smith, Anthony L, Papua: Moving Beyond Internal Colonialism?, New ZealandJournal of Asian Studies 4.2, December, 2002, pp 90-114. Web. January 20,2015. <http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec02/Smith-Ng.pdf>

Steinholt, Yngvar B. "Cognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A newapproach to song lyric?" Bergen University. Web. 12 December. 2013.

Stockwell, Peter. Cognitive Poetics. (London and New York: Routledge, 2002),p.2. Print.


145

Stoddart, Mervin. "Bob Marley's Lyrics: Understanding and Explaining TheirPedagogical Value," a dissertation, Capella University, 2007. Web. 18January. 2014.

Trajano, Julius Cesar I. "Ethnic Nationalism and Separatism in West Papua,Indonesia." Journal of Peace, Conflict and Development (2010), p. 15.Web. July 27. 2014.

Wambrauw, Sonfor W. "An Analysis of Theme and Tone in Six Selected Songs ofBlack Brothers (Balada Pramuria, Cinta dan Pramuria, Kisah SeorangPramuria, Pramuria Tapi Biarawati, Untukmu Pramuria, and DoaPramuria)," unpublished undergraduate thesis, Manokwari: StateUniversity of Papua, 2014.

Whimp, Kathy. "Protection of Intellectual, Biological and Cultural Property inPapua New Guinea." (ANU E Press, 2013), p.118. Web. 14 May. 2014.

Williams, Kareen Felicia. "The Evolution of Political Violence in Jamaica1940-1980," a dissertation, Columbia University, 2011, p. 3. Web. April 1st,2014.

Worth, David Steven. "Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley,postgraduate thesis," Texas Tech University, 1995, p. 3. Web. 18 January.2014.

Wright, Colin. Badiou in Jamaica, The Politics of Conflict. (Australia: ColinWright and re.press, 2013), p. 227. Print.


146

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 List of Bob Marley's and the Black Brothers’ Albums andSongsTable 1.

No Song Album YearCatch a Fire 1973

1 Concrete Jungle2 Slave Driver3 400 years4 Stop That Train5 Rock It Baby6 Stir It Up7 Kinky Reggae8 No More Trouble9 Midnight Ravers

Burnin' 197310 Get Up Stand Up11 Hallelujah12 I shot The Sheriff13 Burnin' and Lootin'14 Put It On15 Small Axe16 Pass It On17 Duppy Conqueror18 One Foundation19 Rasta Man Chant

Natty Dread 197420 Lively Up Yourself21 No Woman Nuh Cry22 Them Belly Full (But We Hungry)23 Rebel Music (3 O'clock Roadblock)24 So Jah She25 Natty Dread26 Bend Down Low27 Talkin' Blues28 Revolution

RastamanVibration 1976

29 Positive Vibration30 Roots Rock Reggae31 Johnny Was


147

32 Cry To Me33 Want More34 Crazy Baldheads35 Who The Cap Fit36 Night Shift37 War38 Rat Race

Exodus 197739 Natural Mystic40 So Much Things To Say41 Guiltiness42 The Heathen43 Exodus44 Jammin'45 Waiting In Vain46 Turn Your Light Down Low47 Three Little Birds48 One Love/ People Get Ready

Kaya 197849 Easy Skanking50 Kaya51 Is This Love52 Sun Is Shining53 Satisfy My Soul54 She's Gone55 Misty Morning56 Crisis57 Running Away58 Time Will Tell

Survival 197959 So Much Troubles In The World60 Zimbabwe61 Top Rankin'62 Babylon System63 Survival64 Africa Unite65 One Drop66 Ride Natty Ride67 Ambush In The Night68 Wake Up and Live

Uprising 198069 Coming From The Cold70 Real Situation


148

71 Bad Card72 We and Them73 Work74 Zion Train75 Pimpers Paradise76 Could You Be Loved77 Forever Loving Jah78 Redemption Song

Table 2

AlbumNumber ofSongs

Socio-Politics/Religious

Love song/Dancetunes

Catch a Fire 9 7 2Burnin' 10 9 1Natty Dread 9 7 2Rastaman Vibration 10 9 1Exodus 10 6 4Kaya 10 2 8Survival 10 10 0Uprisising 10 9 1Total 78 59 19

Table 3.

BOB MARLEY'S ENTIRE SAMPLE (78)Album 1(9)

Album2 (10)

Album3(9)

Album4 (10)

Album5 (10)

Album6 (10)

Album7 (10)

Album8 (10)

Total

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %Babylon 4 4 4 6 2 1 4 1

26

Rastafarianism 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 1 6Pan-Africanism 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 5

Livity 3 3 3 2 5 7 3 733

Romance/Love 2 0 0 1 2 2 0 1 8

78


149

Table 4

AlbumNumberof Songs

SocialCriticism

Cultural pride andIdentity

LoveSongs/DanceTunes

Irian Jaya 1 10 0 5 5Derita Tiada Akhir 8 1 2 5Lonceng Kematian 8 1 2 5KenanganNovember 8 0 1 7Kaum Benalu 9 2 2 5Misteri 7 0 2 5Volume Perdana 8 5 1 2Hening 8 0 1 7Total 66 9 16 41

Table 5.

No Song Album YearIrian Jaya 1 1976

1 Persipura2 Terjalin Kembali3 Oh Sonya4 Irian Jaya5 Balada Dua Remaja6 Putus di Tengah Kerinduan7 Apuse8 Jayapura di Waktu Malam9 Kisah Seorang Pramuria10 Kali Kemiri

Derita Tiada Akhir 197611 Derita Tiada Akhir12 Terima Kasih13 Hari Kiamat14 Huembello15 Hilang16 Keroncong Kenangan17 Cinta dan Pramuria18 Irian Jaya 2

Lonceng Kematian 197719 Doa Pramuria20 Black Brothers21 Lonceng Kematian22 Amapondo


150

23 Melati di Tanah Gersang24 Kuburan Tua25 Sahabatku Anggie26 Tragedi Awal Agustus

KenanganNovember 1977

27 Gadis Lembah Sunyi28 Dewi Kribo29 Kenangan November30 Gadis Bilyard31 Tiada Senyum di Akhir Senja32 Musik Masa Kini33 Bertemu Takkan Terpisah34 Untukmu Pramuria

Kaum Benalu 197835 Tirai36 Layu DI Ujung Senja37 Saman Doye38 Balada Pramuria39 Gundik-gundik Latah40 Kaum Benalu41 Keroncong Gunung Syclop42 Jurang43 Lagu Yang Terpotong

Misteri 197844 Pramuria Tapi Biarawati45 Misteri46 Gerimis di Hati Gersang47 Mangge-mangge48 Pantai Pasir 249 Goyang Disco50 Keroncong Irian Jaya

Volume Perdana 197951 Juwita Malam52 Kuncup Putih53 Kurnia Ilahi54 Gigolo55 Tangan Hampa56 Ino Mote Ngori57 Tanah Dosa58 Rengsa

Hening 197959 Nafas


151

60 Hening61 Melati Plastik62 Memori63 Beku64 Mega Masih Kelabu65 Gadis Kerudung Putih66 Yawonde

Table 6.

THE BLACK BROTHERS' ENTIRE SAMPLE (66)

Album1 (10)

Album2 (8)

Album3(8)

Album4 (8)

Album5 (9)

Album6 (7)

Album7 (8)

Album8 (8)

Total

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %IrianJaya/Papua 5 2 2 1 2 3 0 1

16

Romance/Love 4 2 1 4 4 2 0 4

21

SocialCriticism 0 1 1 0 2 0 4 0 7Pramuria 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 9OtherThemes 0 2 3 2 0 1 2 2

1366


152

APPENDIX 2 Bob Marley's Songs Selected for Analysis

Ambush In The NightBad CardBurnin' and Lootin'Concrete JungleCrazy BaldheadCrisisDuppy ConquerorEasy Skankin'Get Up Stand UpI Shot The SheriffJohnny WasKayaNatty DreadOne DropPimpers ParadiseRedemption SongSlave DriverSo Much Troubles In The WorldStir It UpTalkin' BluesThem Belly FullWant MoreWarZion Train


153

APPENDIX 3 The Black Brothers' Songs Selected for Analysis

Balada PramuriaCinta dan PramuriaDewi KriboDoa PramuriaHari KiamatHuembeloIrian Jaya 1Irian Jaya 2Juwita MalamKaum BenaluKeroncong Irian JayaKisah Seorang PramuriaLonceng KematianMelati Plastik.MisteriPersipuraPramuria Tapi BiarawatiUntukmu Pramuria


plagiat merupakan tindakan tidak terpuji - core.ac.uk · review of jamaica and papua socio...

Documents