Writing Skills 1

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE WRITING PROCESS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, students should be able to

1. understand the various steps involved in writing

2. use various strategies to generate ideas for a particular topic

3. provide various kinds of supporting details for a particular topic

4. draft, revise and draft again for a particular topic

1.1 What is the writing process?

Writing is always hard at the beginning, when the page is blank. We start to write,

find it going slow, and imagine our secret fears about our inability to write confirmed.

The truth is that for nearly everyone, writing is a hard and slow work. The only

solution to the slow start is to understand the process of writing.

By definition, a process is ―a series of actions, changes, or functions that bring about

a result.‖ According to Langan (2002), writing is a process of discovery which

involves a series of steps and those steps are very often a zigzag journey. In

addition, writing is often a process of continuing discovery. Very often writers

discover the direction and shape of a paper during the process of writing.

Lannon (2004) argues that most writing is a conscious, deliberate process – not the

result of divine intervention, magic, miracles, or last-minute inspiration. Nothing ever

leaps from the mind to the page in one neat and painless motion- not even for

creative geniuses. Instead we generate ideas, focus, support, draft, revise and draft

again. Sometimes we know right away what we want to say, sometimes we discover

our purpose and meaning only as we write. But our finish product takes shape

through our decisions at different stages in the writing process.

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Look at the following illustrations of the writing process:

Taken from Troyka (1999)

As you can see, the writing process is like a spiral. The components in the process

are not isolated; there is a constant interaction among them. Working on one

component influences how you look at another. You may even work on two elements

at the same time. For example, while writers are generating ideas, they may also

discover a focus for their essay. Very often, writers discover the direction and shape

of a paper during the writing process. In fact, discovering new ideas, focusing,

supporting, and revising go on in some form at each stage. Although there is a

continual interplay among the components, we need to look at each one separately

in order to understand what good writers do.

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1.2 Steps involved in writing

1. Generating ideas: Listing details, searching your mind for relationships, and

locating topics – much as the generator of electricity emits sparks and

provides energy.

2. Focusing: Choosing from among your ideas, narrowing your vision, making

clear your main idea, and formulating a thesis sentence – similar to the

photographer who selects an interesting subject, frames it in the viewfinder,

and sharply focuses the camera.

3. Supporting: Finding details, examples, facts, or description to explain and

reinforce your focus statement or thesis – just as a lawyer searches for facts

to prove a case.

4. Drafting: Determining your audience and your specific purpose and organizing

the essay with these in mind; putting your pen on the paper to write the essay.

5. Revising: Reshaping your thesis; reshuffling the draft; improving the thinking

and evidence; tightening the transitions; proofreading for grammar,

punctuation, and spelling.

6. Drafting again: Rewriting the composition in a form that satisfies the writer and

the writer‘s audience.

1.3 Generating ideas

Generating ideas is the first step in the process of writing. It is extremely important

because it provides the ideas from which to write an essay. There are many methods

of generating ideas.

The four strategies which are commonly used are:

1. Listing

2. The Reporter‘s Formula

3. Fish boning

4. Webbing

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1.3.1 Listing

Here you list words and phrases sparked by a particular topic.

Steps:

i) Jot down any images, ideas and phrases that come to mind regarding the topic (review your background knowledge). ii) Do not evaluate or be critical of your ideas while jotting them down.

iii) after you have completed the list, go through it and mark out all the ideas

that are irrelevant or that you are not interested in including in your essay. iv) Of the remaining ideas, pick a few that you think you can write on.

Example:

Here is a list formulated by a student in response to the topic ―My First Day in

the U.K.‖

- Horrible

- lost passport

- missed my parents

- scared, wanted to go home

- what would I do without a passport – go to jail? What are British police

like?

- Pakistani lady – asked me what was wrong – she helped me

- airport was too big, crowded – Heathrow London

- afraid of crime from TV I‘d watched back home

- end of story – ok – passport found under seat of airplane

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Take Note

i) put a title at the top of your list so that you will stay on purpose and always

know why you are making the list.

ii) write as fast as possible and use short words or phrases

iii) generate questions that will enhance your thinking about a topic.

Task 1.1

Using listing, generate ideas for the topic ―My most unforgettable experience‖.

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1.3.2 The Reporter’s Formula

Put yourself in the shoes of a reporter. Ask the following questions about a topic:

Who? Where? Why?

What? When? How?

Example:

Topic: An Embarrassing Incident

- What is the incident?

- Where did it occur?

- Who were involved?

- When did it happen?

- Who helped you?

- Why was it so embarrassing?

Take Note

Students must use their question-generating ability to the fullest to ensure you have a

pool of ideas.

Task 1.2

Using the ―The Reporter‘s Formula‖ strategy, generate ideas for the topic ―An

Unlucky Day‖.

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1.3.3 Fish boning

This method of generating ideas helps you form connections between your

thoughts. Write the topic on the left of your page and draw a horizontal line

across. This line is the fishbone (which represents the thesis statement). From

the backbone, you will represent your ideas on the topic (topic sentences) by

drawing in lines to represent sub-topics. You can branch out from these,

adding more lines to represent supporting details.

Example:

Taken from Troyka (1999)

In the above example, the thesis statement is ‗teenagers face many problems‘.

Based on this ‗fish bone‘, you can write four content paragraphs, each with one of the

topic sentences given.

For example, in one content paragraph, the topic sentence is ‗teenagers face a lot of

pressure to do well in school’. The supporting ideas for this are ‗pressure by

teachers‘ and

‗pressure by students’.

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Take Note

Work on the fishbone chart quickly and feel free to jump from one level to another as

you think of ideas, rather than trying to complete everything at one level before

proceeding to the next.

Task 1.3

Using the ‗fish boning‘ strategy, generate ideas for the topic ―Social issues in

Malaysia‖.

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1.3.4 Webbing

This is another useful strategy to help you to both generate idea and begin to

focus on a question as the basis of the essay.

Write the topic in the centre of your page. On a web radiating out from the

topic, identify issues or problems related to the topic which will form the topic

sentences. On the next set of webs, state the issues in the form of a question.

The web can be continued by next stating where the answers to the questions

can be found (supporting details).

Example:

Taken from Troyka (1999)

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In the above example, the thesis statement is ‗watching television brings about many

disadvantages‘. There are six points to support this thesis statement. Each point

represents the topic sentence/main idea. The answers to the questions will form the

supporting details. For instance, one of the topic sentences is about violence; i.e. one

of the disadvantages of watching television is there is too much violence shown on

TV‘. By answering the question ‗What is influence of TV violence? We can get

supporting details such as an increase in crime rate among teenagers – gangsterism,

fights etc.

Task 1.4

Using the ‗webbing‘ strategy, generate ideas for the topic ―Suggest some ways to

make your holidays more interesting‖.

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1.4 Focus

Ideas are certainly the beginning of the process of writing. Without them, you

would have no materials from which to build an essay. However, ideas can be

just a jumble of words and phrases on a page unless you see some links or

connections between them. Frequently these connections are discoveries that

writers make when they search through their ideas for a central theme or

focus. It is these ―discoveries of meaning‖ that make writing challenging for the

writer and interesting to the reader. When they are put into sentence form,

they are called focus or thesis statements.

1.4.1 What is a thesis?

A thesis is the clear focus of your essay, the opinion you express about a

subject, the basic attitude you have toward a limited subject. It is the idea that

controls and ties together all the separate elements in your essay.

The first step in creating a thesis is to sort through your ideas for general

connections in meaning, to focus on the ―truth‖ in those ideas. The next step is

to write one sentence which expresses this ―truth‖ or central idea. This

sentence is called a thesis statement.

The thesis statement can be expressed in various ways, as in these

examples:

As an opinion: Starting university after the age of 30 hasn‘t been easy,

but the good points definitely outweigh the bad.

As an evaluation: I want my life to be better than that of my parents.

As a suggestion: Laptops should be provided for all students.

As a question: Should examination be abolished?

As a debatable claim: University is not for everyone.

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From the examples above, it is obvious that each of those thesis statements

creates a clear expectation. They don‘t keep readers guessing. They make

their points quickly.

Task 1.5

Using the 5 ways, write a thesis statement for each of the following topic.

1. As an opinion: Marrying at a young age

2. As an evaluation: Imported cars

3. As a suggestion: University accommodation

4. As a question: Television commercials

5. As a debatable claim: Good health

1.5 Supporting Details

What kind of supporting details do paragraph writers most often use? That

depends on the topic sentence. A topic sentence is a single sentence that

sums up the main point of your paragraph. The good topic sentence suggests

the kinds of details needed for its support. Basically, there are five kinds of

supporting details:

1. Examples

2. Facts

3. Testimony

4. Reason

5. Personal observation

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1.5.1 Examples

An example is a part used to represent the whole. To use examples, simply

introduce them with a suitable phrase, such as for example, for instance, or

take the case of, and then spell out the example you have in mind. Naturally,

any example you use should support your point.

Example:

Topic sentence: UPSI provides many facilities for the students.

First example: It has a large library with thousands of books on various

subjects.

Second example: It also has a gymnasium.

Third example: Besides these, there are many big hostels.

Task 1.6

Write three appropriate examples that support the following points.

1. Topic Sentence: There are many places in Malaysia which will interest

tourists.

First example: ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Second example: _____________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Third example: _______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

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2. Topic sentence: There are many disadvantages of living in a big city.

First example: ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Second example: _____________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Third example: _______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

3. Topic sentence: Sometimes it hurts to tell the truth.

First example: ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Second example: _____________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Third example: _______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

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1.5.2 Facts

A fact is a statement that is true or can be verified. Anyone who is curious can

look up the statement in a proper source and confirm its truth. For instance,

the fact that Tun Mahathir was born in Alor Star, can be confirmed by checking

any biography of Malaysia‘s fourth prime minister. Some facts are simply

accepted by everyone because they have never been proven untrue. That sooner

or later humans die is one fact.

The opposite of a fact is an opinion. Unlike a fact, an opinion is a personal

belief, often accompanied by emotion, that cannot be proved either true or

false. Here are some examples of facts and opinions:

Accepted Fact: The sun will always rise in the East.

Verifiable Fact: John Steinbeck wrote Of Mice and Men.

Opinion: Steinbeck‘s best book is Of Mice and Men.

Here is a paragraph that supports its topic sentence with facts.

Food at Abuya Restaurant is cheaper than at the University Cafeteria. A can

of 100 plus at the University Cafeteria was RM1.80. But I found the same drink

at Abuya Restaurant for RM1.50. The price of a packet of nasi lemak was

RM1.20 at the University Cafeteria but RM1.00 at Abuya. Likewise, I paid 50

sen less for a plate of chicken rice at Abuya than I would have to at the

University Cafeteria. These cheaper prices are the reasons why I buy my food

at Abuya.

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Task 1.7

Support the following topic sentences with at least three facts. You may need to

interview or survey classmates or visit your library.

1. Topic sentence: The students in my English class come from many different backgrounds.

First fact: ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Second fact: _________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Third fact: ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Topic sentence: Tuanku Bainun Library has an adequate book collection and

excellent facilities.

First fact: ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Second fact: _________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Third fact: ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

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3. Topic sentence: A car is expensive to run and maintain.

First fact: ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Second fact: _________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Third fact: ___________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

1.5.3 Testimony

Testimony is expert opinion that backs up your topic sentence. The expert

may be someone who is recognized in the field or who has had personal

experience with your topic. Of course, getting the testimony you need may

require you to check a newspaper or interview the right people. Here is a

paragraph that has both kinds of testimony – the personal experience and

expert opinion.

If you are stopped by the police for a traffic violation, there are some things

you should not do. You should not, for one, get out of your car unless the

officer asks you to. My friend Joe was pulled over by the police late one night

on a lonely city street and he got out of the car, thinking that it would make him

seem friendly. It had the opposite effect on the officer. Joe says she put her

hand on her gun and ordered him to get back into the car. He said he was

afraid she would shoot him. Corporal Aishah of the federal police

headquarters, Bukit Aman says a motorist who gets out of the car without

being told is considered a threat. Says Corporal Aishah, ―I‘m always cautious

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when a motorist gets out of the car and walks toward me. I think he‘s being

aggressive.‖

As a testimony, the writer quotes his friend‘s personal experience as well as

the expert opinion of Corporal Aishah.

Task 1.8

Cite at least two opinions as testimony, supporting the following topic sentences.

1. Topic sentence: When you‘re in university, parents should treat you like an

adult, not a child.

First fact: _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Second fact: ___________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. Topic sentence: Working your way through university can be a stressful

experience.

First fact: _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Second fact: ___________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

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1.5.4 Reasons

Some topic sentences are best supported by reasons – explanations based

on common sense, good judgment, clear thinking, and logic. This kind of

support is most commonly used when a writer is trying to persuade the reader

to change an opinion.

In the following paragraph, reason is used to support the writer‘s argument

that heavy rain stops many of our activities.

Heavy rain stops many of our activities. We cannot move about without getting

wet. Many accidents may occur on a wet road and traffic can be held up.

Games, sports, picnics and other outdoor activities are interrupted by rain.

Heavy rain also prevents fishermen from going out to sea.

Task 1.9

Provide at least three reasons to support the following topic sentences.

1. Everyone should play a sport.

2. Capital punishment does not stop murder.

1.5.5 Personal Observation

Some topics are strictly personal and must be supported mainly by your own

personal observation. That old stand-by topic, ―Write about how you spent your end-

of-semester vacation,‖ is a classic example of a personal topic. Unless he or she

vacationed with you, no librarian can help you find support for it. You must draw

entirely on your personal observations for support.

Personal observation includes descriptive details and examples. Here is an

example of both in a paragraph:

Last end-of- semester vacation I spent a week hiking and discovered that I

hate it. To begin with, we got caught in a two-day rain on Gunung Tahan Trail.

The tent turned out not to be waterproof, and for one whole night I tried to

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sleep with water dripping on my nose. When I moved, it dripped on my belly. I

turned over, and it dripped on my butt. I also found out that aside from weather

problems, hiking is unhealthy for you. For example, I ate poorly for the week

that I was starving and pigged-out afterward on double beef chicken burger

and french fries for a month. So I ended up gaining weight.

Task 1.10

Develop a topic sentence on the topic ―An incident that changed me in some way‖

and write a paragraph about it, supporting the topic sentence with personal

observations.

1.6 Drafting

When you have generated ideas, focused on a central theme, and selected

supporting details, you must next consider your audience, your purpose in writing,

and the way in which you will organize your essay.

1.6.1 Audience

Readers are the audience for your writing. Your ability to reach your intended

audience determines how good your writing is. Your writing must show that you are

aware of your readers and are trying to reach them. If you write without considering

your readers, you risk communicating with yourself.

To orient yourself to remaining aware of your readers as you write, think about the

various reader characteristics listed in the table below.

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Checklist of basic audience characteristics

Who are they?

age, gender

ethnic backgrounds, political philosophies, religious beliefs

roles (students, parent, voter, teacher, veteran, others)

interests, hobbies

What do they know?

level of education

amount of general or specialized knowledge about the topic

preconceptions brought to the material

If you know or can reasonably assume even a few of the characteristics listed in the

table above, your chances of reaching your audience improve. In short, you can

reach your audience better when your knowledge about your audience is more

explicit.

1.6.2 Purpose

The next step in beginning your first draft is to determine your purpose, which may be

to inform, to explain, to persuade, or to interact with your audience in some other

way. In determining your own purpose, you can simply complete this sentence: ―In

this paper I want to ______________.‖ This sentence doesn‘t usually appear in the

actual finished paper, but it does give direction to your writing as you go through the

process of essay writing. It also implies that there is an audience. If your purpose is

to inform, you are assuming that someone needs to be informed, if it is to persuade,

someone needs to be persuaded.

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1.6.3 Organizing your essay

Now you face the task of arranging the focus statement and the support you have

chosen to form a unified, coherent essay. Since the first kind of writing you probably

will have to do in a university English class is the expository essay, let‘s look at the

basic parts in this type of essay. The four basic parts of an expository essay include:

1. The introduction: This is the beginning of the essay, the first paragraph.

2. The focus statement: This statement is the thesis or main idea of the essay. It

is usually located at the end of the introduction but may be placed elsewhere

in the essay.

3. The body: This section is the middle of the essay. The paragraphs may

explain, define, clarify, or illustrate the focus statement. Each paragraph in the

body has a topic sentence and several supporting sentences. If the assigned

essay is long and complicated, more paragraphs will be needed.

4. The conclusion: The end of the essay, the last paragraph, which ties together

the major points of the essay.

Task 1.11

Consulting section 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9, draft an essay for any one of the topics you had

done in Section 1.3 (Generating ideas) above.

1.7 Revising

To revise, you must evaluate. You assess each draft to determine where

improvements are:

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needed. Then you make the improvements and evaluate each on its own and in the

context of surrounding material. This process continues until you are satisfied that

the essay is the best that you can make it in the time available. To revise effectively,

you likely need to engage in all the activities in the tables below:

Steps for revising

Shift mentally from suspending judgment (during the generating idea

and drafting) to make judgments.

Read your draft critically to evaluate it.

Decide whether to write an entirely new draft or to revise the one you

have.

Be systematic. Do not evaluate at random. You need to pay attention to

many different elements of a draft, from overall organization to choice

of words.

Major activities during revision

Add. Insert needed words, sentences and paragraphs. If your additions

require new content, return to gathering idea strategies.

Cut. Get rid of whatever goes off the topic or repeats what has already

been said.

Replace. As needed, substitute new words, sentences, and paragraphs

for what you have cut.

Move material around. Change the sequence of paragraphs if the

material is not presented in logical order. Move sentences within

paragraphs or to other paragraphs if any paragraph arrangement

seems illogical.

Task 1.12

Revise the draft you had prepared for Task 1.11.

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1.8 Draft again

After revising the essay, the last step in the writing process is to draft again. In this

stage you can make changes in wording, development of ideas, supporting details

etc. and edit the essay for mistakes in grammar, punctuation, mechanics, usage and

spelling. Finally, proofread your final draft closely for typos and careless errors.

Task 1.13

Draft again the revised draft in Task 1.12.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT

Test 1

What are the 6 steps in the writing process?

Test 2

Write a thesis statement for each of the following topic.

1. As an opinion: Money can buy happiness

2. As an evaluation: Studying overseas

3. As a suggestion: Healthy lifestyle

4. As a question: Facebook

5. As a debatable claim: Euthanasia

Test 3

Write a topic sentence and 2 supporting details for each of the thesis statement you

have written in Test 2.

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REFERENCES

Langan, J. (2004). English Skills With Readings (5th ed.) Boston: McGraw Hill.

Lannon, J.M. (2004). The Writing Process (8th ed.) New York: Pearson Education.

Shoemaker, C. (1985). Write in the corner where you are Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston.

Troyka, L. Q. (1999). Simon & Schuster Handbook For Writers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Winkler, A.C. & Mc Cuen, J. R. (1997) Writing Talk: Sentences and Paragraphs New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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Answer for Test 1

1. Generating ideas

2. Focusing

3. Supporting

4. Drafting

5. Revising

6. Drafting again

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UNIT 2

THESIS STATEMENT, TOPIC SENTENCES AND

SUPPORTING DETAILS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

1. Write good thesis statements

2. Write good topic sentences and supporting details

3. Understand and recognize the characteristics of an effective paragraph

4. Write an effective paragraph

2.1 Thesis statement

You have learned in Unit 1 that a thesis statement is a sentence which

expresses the central idea of your essay. It is evident that you have something

definite to say about the topic. An effective thesis statement prepares your

readers for the essence of what you discuss in an essay. As the writer, you

want to compose a thesis statement with care so that it accurately reflects the

content of your essay. If you discern a mismatch between your thesis

statement and the rest of your essay, revise to coordinate them better. Troyka

(1999) lists five basic requirements for a thesis statement:

It states the essay‘s subject – the topic that you are discussing

It reflects the essay‘s purpose – either to give your readers

information or to persuade your readers to agree with you.

It includes a focus – your assertion that conveys your point of view.

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It uses specific language – vague words are avoided.

It may briefly state the major subdivisions of the essay‘s topic.

Here are some examples of thesis statements, written for 500-600 word essays with

an informative purpose.

1. Topic: classical music

Thesis statement: Classical music can be played by groups of various sizes,

ranging from chamber ensembles to full symphony orchestras.

2. Topic: discomforts of city living

Thesis statement: Rising crime rates, increasingly overcrowded conditions and

growing expenses make living comfortably in a modern city difficult.

3. Topic: deceptive advertising

Thesis statement: Deceptive advertising can cost consumers not only money

but also their health.

4. Topic: government loans for higher education

Thesis statement: The federal government should enact a law setting up an

education loan for each Malaysian citizen for university or college.

5. Topic: Malaysian food

Thesis statement: A variety of spices make Malaysian food much more

interesting than American food.

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Task 2.1

The following weak thesis statements were used as focus statements for essays.

Change each one so that it clearly expresses the main idea of the essay.

1. I want to discuss my ideas about the ideal wife.

2. My son decided to major in mechanical engineering.

3. Drug addiction among teenagers.

4. The treatment of handicapped people in my country

5. Electricity is a phenomenon arising from the existence and interactions of

electric charge.

Task 2.2

Evaluate each thesis statement below according to the five basic requirements listed

by Troyka (1999).

1. The university cafeteria could attract more students if it improved the quality of

its food, its appearance, and the friendliness of its staff.

2. The United States should increase efforts to slow the destruction of the ozone

layer.

3. Playing tennis for fun and exercise requires agility, stamina and strategy.

4. Cattle ranchers‘ biggest challenge is survival for their business.

5. The best features of my apartment are its large windows, roomy closets and

great location.

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Task 2.3

Construct appropriate thesis statement for each of the following essay topics.

1. My best vacation

2. What are some of the factors you would consider when buying a mobile

phone?

3. Do you think that, in Malaysian schools, too much attention is paid to

examinations?

4. What are the characteristics of an ideal teacher?

5. Write about someone you fear.

2.2 Topic sentence

You learned in Unit 1 that sometimes the main idea of a paragraph is stated in

one sentence. This sentence can usually be found at the beginning, the

middle or the end of the paragraph. If the main idea is conveyed in one

sentence, that sentence is called the topic sentence.

When you look closely at a topic sentence, you can see that it is made of two

parts:

1. the limited topic

2. the writer‘s attitude towards the limited topic

The writer‘s attitude, point of view, or idea is usually expressed in one or more

key words. All the details in a paragraph should support the idea expressed in

the key words. Examples:

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1. My girlfriend is very aggressive.

2. Highway accidents are often caused by absentmindedness.

In the first sentence, the topic is girlfriend, and the word that expresses the

writer‘s idea about the topic is that his girlfriend is aggressive. In the second

sentence, the topic is highway accidents, and the key word that determine the

focus of the paragraph is that such accidents are often caused by

absentmindedness.

Task 2.4

For each topic sentence below, draw a single line under the topic and a double line

under the idea about the topic.

1. Billboards should be abolished.

2. My boss is an ambitious man.

3. The car needed repairs.

4. The language in many movies today is offensive.

5. Looking for a job can be a degrading experience.

Task 2.5

Each group of sentences below could be written as a short paragraph. Circle the

letter of the topic sentence in each case. To find the topic sentence, ask yourself

―Which is a general statement supported by the specific details in the other three

statements?‖

1. A If you stop carrying matches or lighter, you can cut down on impulse

smoking.

B If you sit in no-smoking areas, you will smoke less.

C You can behave in ways that will help you smoke less.

D By keeping a record of when and where you smoke, you can identify

the most tempting situations and avoid them.

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2. A Its brakes are badly worn.

B My old car is ready for the junk pile.

C Its floor has rusted through, and water splashes on my feet when the

highway is wet.

D My mechanic says its engine is too old to be repaired, and the car isn‘t

worth the cost of a new engine.

3. A Tobacco is one of the most addictive of all drugs.

B Selling cigarettes ought to be against the law.

C Nonsmokers are put in danger by breathing the smoke from other

people‘s cigarettes.

D Cigarette smoking kills many more people than all illegal drugs

combined.

4. A Part-time workers can be easily laid-off.

B Most part-time workers get no fringe benefits.

C The average part-timer earns three ringgit less an hour than a full-timer.

D Part-time workers have second-class status.

5. A The last time I ate at the restaurant, I got food poisoning and was sick

for two days.

B The health inspector found matches and mice in the restaurant‘s

kitchen.

C Our town restaurant is a health hazard and ought to be closed down.

D The toilets in the restaurant often back up, and the sinks have only a

trickle of water.

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Task 2.6

Construct a topic sentence for each set of statements below.

1. A First I lost my notebook.

B Then I broke the mirror in my compact when I dropped it.

C I got sick during lunch and flunked my geometry mid-semester exam

after lunch.

D I cried all the way to the dorm.

Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

2. A Open the microwave oven door and put your leftovers.

B Then shut the door and set the timer to about two minutes.

C After that press the ―on‖ button and wait.

D When the bell goes off, take the leftovers out.

Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

3. A Only thirty people came to the dance, instead of the expected two

hundred.

B The band arrived late and spent an hour setting up.

C There were at least three males at the dance to every female.

D An hour later the dance started, it ended because of power failure.

Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 35

4. A We had to wait an hour even though we had reserved a table. B Our appetizer and main course arrived at the same time. C The waiter ignored our request for more water. D The wrong desserts were served to us. Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

5. A When we brought a ―welcome to the neighbourhood‖ present, the family

next door didn‘t even say thank you.

B The family never attends the annual block party.

C The family‘s children aren‘t allowed to play with other neighbourhood

kids.

D Our neighbours keep their curtains closed and never sit out in their

yard.

Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Task 2.7

The followings are five general topics and a series of limited topics that fit under

them. Make a point out of one of the limited topics in each group. To create a topic

sentence, ask yourself, ―What point do I want to make about __________________

(my limited topic)?‖

Example: Recreation

Movies

Dancing

TV shows

Reading

Sports parks

Your point: Sports parks today have some truly exciting games.

Writing Skills 36

1. Your hometown

Location

Development

Facilities

Food

Tourist attractions

Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

2. Job

Pay

Boss

Duties

Coworkers

Working conditions

Customers or clients

Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

3. Money

Budgets

Credit cards

Dealing with a bank

Family expenses

Ways to get it

Ways to save it

Writing Skills 37

Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

4. Cars

First car

Accident

Driver‘s test

Safety problems

Road conditions

Mandatory speed limit

Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

5. Sports

Women‘s team

Favourite team

Outstanding athlete

A team‘s chances

Recreational versus spectator

Your point: _______________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 38

2.3 Supporting Details

You have learned in Unit 1 that specific details are examples, facts, testimony,

reasons and personal observations. Such details are needed to support and

explain a topic sentence effectively. They provide the evidence needed for

readers to understand, as well as to feel and experience, a writer‘s point.

Here is a topic sentence followed by two sets of supporting sentences. Which

set provide sharp, specific details?

Topic sentence

Some poor people must struggle to make meals for themselves.

Set A

They gather whatever free food they can find in fast-food restaurants and take

it home to use however they can. Instead of planning well-balanced meals,

they base their diet on anything they can buy that is cheap and filling.

Set B

Some make tomato soup by adding hot water to the free packets of ketchup

they get at McDonald‘s. Others buy cans of cheap dog food and fry it like

hamburger.

Set B provides specific details: instead of a general statement about ―free food

they find in fast-food restaurants and take……… home to use however they

can,‖ we get a vivid detail we can see and picture clearly: ―make tomato soup

from free packets of ketchup.‖ Instead of a general statement about how the

poor will ―base their diet on anything they can buy that is cheap and filling,‖ we

get exact and vivid details: ―Others buy cans of cheap dog food and fry it like

hamburger.‖

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Task 2.8

Each topic sentence below is followed by two sets of supporting details. Write S (for

specific) in the space next to the set that provides specific support for the point. Write

G (for general) next to the set that offers only vague, general support.

1. Topic sentence: My roommate is messy.

_____ a. He doesn‘t seem to mind that he can‘t find any clean clothes or

dishes. He never puts anything back in its proper place; he just

drops it wherever he happens to be. His side of the room looks

as if a hurricane has gone through.

______b. His coffee cup is covered inside with a thick layer of green mold.

I can‘t tell you what colour his easy chair is; it has disappeared

under a pile of laundry. When he turns over in bed, I can hear

the crunch of cracker crumbs beneath his body.

2. Topic sentence: Our new kitten causes us lots of trouble.

_____ a. He has shredded the curtains in my bedroom with his claws. He

nearly drowned when he crawled into the washing machine. And

my hands look like raw hamburger from his playful bites and

scratches.

_____ b. He seems to destroy everything he touches. He‘s always getting

into places where he doesn‘t belong. Sometimes he plays too

roughly, and that can be painful.

3. Topic sentence: My landlord is softhearted.

a. Even though he wrote them himself, he sometimes ignores the

official apartment rules in order to make his tenants happy.

b. Although the lease states ―No pets,‖ he bought my daughter a

puppy after she told him how much she missed having one.

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Task 2.9

Each of the following paragraphs needs specific details to back up its supporting

points. In the spaces provided, add a sentence or two of realistic details for each

supporting point. The more specific you are, the more convincing your details are

likely to be.

1.

Helping a Parent in University

There are several ways a family can help a parent who is attending university. First,

family members can take over some of the household chores that the parent usually

does.

Also, family members can make sure that the parent has some quiet study time.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Last, families can take an interest in the parent‘s problem and accomplishments.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 41

2.

A Pushover Teacher

We knew after the first few classes that the teacher was a pushover. First of all, he

didn‘t seem able to control the class.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

In addition, he made some course requirements easier when a few students

complained.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Finally, he gave the easiest quiz we had ever taken.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

2.4 Characteristics of an effective paragraph

Troyka (1999) lists three characteristics of an effective paragraph:

Unity: clear, logical relationship between the main idea of a paragraph and

supporting evidence for that main idea.

Coherence: smooth progression from one sentence to the next within a

paragraph.

Development: logical arrangement of paragraphs and specific, concrete

support for the main idea of each paragraph.

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2.5 Unity

In every paragraph, there must be unity of ideas. In other words, there is a

main idea – which contributes to the central theme of the entire text – and

every point in the paragraph must support and develop that idea. Therefore, a

paragraph is unified when all its sentences clarify or help support the main

idea. Unity is lost if a paragraph goes off the topic by including sentences

unrelated to the main idea.

The sentence that introduces the main idea in a paragraph is called the topic

sentence. The remaining sentences are called supporting sentences because

they contain details that support or control the topic sentence. The final

sentence of a paragraph is called the concluding sentence. It relates the main

idea or summarize it in a new way.

Read the sample paragraph below and notice how the main idea and details

are arranged.

Interacting with American Students

If you are an international student interested in interacting with American

students, try making plans to study in a group and join some campus

organizations. First of all, at the beginning of the semester, arrange to study

with a group of students in one of your classes. You can do this by asking the

lecturer to announce to the class a group study opportunity. After that, you can

meet with other interested students to decide on the day, time, and place of

your regular meetings. When you meet, you can review vocabulary, discuss

ideas and assignments, and prepare for exams. Secondly, you can join some

campus organizations that attract American students. Very often clubs are

formed that are related to various major fields and subject areas. These clubs

can give you the opportunity to learn more about a subject while hearing

English spoken by Americans. A benefit of interacting with Americans in these

two ways is that friendships are sometimes formed, even though your primary

goal may be to just participate in the language.

Writing Skills 43

Interacting With American Students

1. International students interested in interacting with American students

can do two things.

A. First of all, at the beginning of the semester you can arrange to

study with a group of students.

1. Ask your instructor to announce a group study

opportunity.

2. Meet with other interested students to decide the day,

time, and place of your regular meetings.

3. When you meet, study vocabulary, discuss ideas and

assignments, and prepare for exams.

B. Join campus organizations that attract American students.

1. Clubs are formed that are related to various major fields

and subject areas.

2. These clubs can help you to learn more about a subject

while allowing you to hear more spoken English.

C. A benefit of forming study groups with American and joining

campus organizations is that you may make friends, in addition

to improving your English.

The diagram below offers another way to visualize the structure of a paragraph:

Topic sentence

Supporting details

Conclusion

Writing Skills 44

Task 2.10

Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.

I have been living in a dormitory for two months with two Australians. This has

caused many good results. First, I can learn English. When I talk with the Australian

students, they always correct my English. I have become used to the native speed. It

improves my listening ability. Second, I can learn about Australian culture. We talk

about many topics and I can understand Australian thinking. I find many differences

between my culture and theirs. Third, I don‘t feel lonely because I always stay and

talk with them. When I worry about something, I can discuss it with them and so I

don‘t feel lonely. Due to these reasons, I really enjoy living in a dormitory.

1. State the main idea/topic sentence of this paragraph.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

2. How many supporting sentences are there? What are they?

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

3. What is the concluding sentence?

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 45

Task 2.11

Write a paragraph of about 50-70 words on the following topic. Make sure there is a

clear topic sentence and supporting ideas that support the topic sentence.

How has the computer changed our lives?

2.6 Coherence

Another element that an effective paragraph needs is coherence. A coherent

paragraph contains sentences that are logically arranged and that flow

smoothly. Coherence within paragraphs can be achieved by:

1. using pronouns to refer to previous nouns.

Example:

Honour is very important in Japanese culture. It is the centre of family

and professional life.

2. repeating key words and phrases from the topic sentence.

Example:

Egypt has been famous for fine textiles from ancient times. The world‘s

earliest known textiles, in fact were woven in Egypt.

Synonyms can also be used for key words.

Example:

Egypt has been famous for fine textiles from ancient times. The world‘s

earliest known fabrics, in fact were woven in the land of the pharaohs.

Writing Skills 46

3. Using transitional words and phrases to indicate the relationship of one

idea to another.

Example:

All the ancient Greeks worshipped the same gods, but one city would

choose a particular god or goddess to protect it. The Athenians. For

example, choose Athens as their protector. All Greeks believed that

Zeus was the greatest of all gods. Under him were a number of divine

powers which were thought of as looking like humans. There were

Ares, God of War; Aelos, God of the Wind; Poseidon, God of the Sea;

Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love; and many others. In addition, there

were a great number of heroes, humans who had become half-gods,

like Herakles and Achilles.

4. Using parallel structures

Parallelism is created when grammatically equivalent forms appear in a

set of two or a series of three or more. The repeated tempos and

sounds of parallel structures reinforce connections among ideas and

create a dramatic effect.

Example:

Superstitions are sometimes smiled at and sometimes frowned upon as

observances characteristic of the old-fashioned, the unenlightened,

children, peasants, servants, immigrants, foreigners or back-woods

people. Nevertheless, they give all of us ways of moving back and forth

among the different worlds in which we live – the sacred, the secular,

and the scientific. They allow us to keep a private world also, where,

smiling a little, we can banish danger with a gesture and summon luck

with a rhyme, make the sun shine in spite of storm clouds, force the

stranger to do our bidding, keep an enemy at bay and straighten the

paths of those we love.

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Task 2.12

Fill in the blanks with pronouns to refer to previous nouns in the following paragraph. My host family is a typical American family. 1.____________ have only two children

and live in a three-bedroom house in the suburbs. The father, Mel Stinson, is very

busy as a vice president of his company. 2._____________ works at least fifty hours

a week. Mrs. Stinson also works, but 3. __________ is not in as important a job as

her husband. Even the children in the family are terribly busy. 4. ___________ go to

music lessons after school and sometimes 5. __________ play on organized soccer

teams. Nobody seems to have time for 6. _____________ own relaxation and

freedom of choice. 7._________ in the family has meetings, lessons, appointments,

and many other commitments. When do 8. _________ find time to relax and talk

together? When do 9._________ find time for family life?

Task 2.13

Fill the blanks with key words and phrases from the topic sentence.

To many people of other cultures, Americans ask too many personal questions and

‗come on‘ too fast and too strong. This barrage of 1.____________ seems like an

invasion of privacy for people from 2. ____________ where privacy is important.

―Where do you work?‖, ―Do you have any children?‖, ―Do you play tennis?‖ are not

3.__________ 4. ____________ by 5.___________ standards. They are a way of

searching for common interests on which to base a conversation or build a

relationship. Such 6. ____________ are meant to be friendly, not rude.

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Task 2.14

Use suitable transition words from the list in the box to complete the text below.

also but incidentally not only

although but also in particular on the other hand

and for in this way since

because however instead therefore

meanwhile too indeed for the moment

Janet West‘s sister is an air hostess for a famous international airline,

1._____________ Janet wants to become one 2.______________, she is still too

young: the minimum age for an air hostess is twenty 3.____________ Janet is only

just over sixteen. 4.__________ has taken a job in an office 5. ___________ she 6.

___________ attends evening classes. 7.___________ she wants to improve her

French and Spanish, 8.__________ foreign languages are an essential qualification

for an air hostess. 9.__________ Janet is gaining experience through her present job

10.__________ the office where she works is a travel agency 11.___________ she

is learning 12.________ how to deal with people 13._____________ quite a lot about

the places she one day hopes to visit.

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Task 2.15

The following sentences contain faulty parallelisms. Underline the faulty parallelism

and correct the sentence.

1. Fikri enjoys hunting for birds, socializing with friends, and to read the

comics.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. When I saw my roommate with my girlfriend, I felt worried, angry and

embarrassment as well.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

3. Najwa enjoys shopping for new clothes, to try different cosmetics and

reading beauty magazines.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

4. When Jessica doesn‘t have class, she uses her time to clean house,

getting her laundry done and to buy groceries.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 50

5. The video store has sections devoted to comedy films, dramatic films

and films made in foreign countries.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2.7 Development

Development involves arranging a paragraph and knowing patterns for

paragraph development. Arranging a paragraph means you put its

sentences into an order logical for communicating the message of the

paragraph clearly and effectively. Choices for arranging a paragraph

include sequencing according to time and to location; moving from

general to specific, from specific to general and from least to most

important; and progressing from problem to solution.

Patterns for paragraph development have evolved as writers created

better methods to express their ideas. If you get to know a variety of

patterns for paragraph development, you will always have more choices

as a writer to help your paragraphs deliver their meanings most

effectively.

In the next unit and the other consecutive units you will learn the

common patterns for paragraph development such as narrative, cause

and effect, process, comparing and contrasting and classification.

Writing Skills 51

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Test 1

Read the paragraph below and explain why it lacks unity.

Automated Customer Service

Today people have fewer human contacts as they go about their personal

business. To buy petrol, you can pull up alongside a petrol pump, insert a credit card,

and fill the tank without the help of an attendant. The charge is made automatically to

your credit card. You can pay for your purchase inside the station office. If you want

to make a deposit or withdraw some money from the bank, you can step up to an

automated teller machine (ATM) to complete your business without talking to a teller.

In fact, banking services charges are rising rapidly. Moreover, to park in a public lot,

you drive alongside a ticket dispenser machine, from which an automated voice

explains what you should do. The gate then opens and allows the car in. When you

leave, you insert the ticket in a machine, the gate opens, and you are on your way.

What are the disadvantages of automated customer service?

Test 2

Read the incoherent paragraph below and then make changes and additions so that

the paragraph is more coherent.

Miswan is very good in English and always make straight A‘s. Miswan doesn‘t

seem like a person who would study hard. Miswan loves to have good time. Miswan

loves western music and plays the guitar for hours everyday. He has three sisters

and two brothers at home in Indonesia. Miswan likes to dance and to have parties

with friends from Japan, Korea and Malaysia. I don‘t know when Miswan finds time to

study. I guess that‘s his secret.

Writing Skills 52

Test 3

Write a coherent paragraph on one of the following topics. Make sure you use

appropriate transitional words and there is consistent subject viewpoint in your

paragraph. You may use the order or pattern specified in brackets.

1. What do children expect from their parents today?

(General to Specific)

2. What benefits can be gained from studying at a university?

(Specific to General)

Writing Skills 53

REFERENCES

Langan, J. (2004). English Skills With Readings (5th ed.) Boston: McGraw Hill.

Lannon, J.M. (2004). The Writing Process (8th ed.) New York: Pearson Education.

Ramanoff, M. R. (1986). Language and Study Skills For Learners of English.

Massachusettes: Newburry House Publishers.

Shoemaker, C. (1985). Write in the corner where you are Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston Inc.

Troyka, L. Q. (1999). Simon & Schuster Handbook For Writers. New Jersey: Prentice

Hall.

Writing Skills 54

Answers

Unit 2

Task 2.4

1. Single line: Billboards

Double line: should be abolished

2. Single line: My boss

Double line: is an ambitious man

3. Single line: The car

Double line: needed repair

4. Single line: The language in many movies today

Double line: is offensive

5. Single line: Looking for a job

Double line: can be a degrading experience

Task 2.5

1. C

2. B

3. A

4. D

5. C

Task 2.8

1. a G b S

2. a S b G

3. a G b S

Writing Skills 55

Task 2.10

1. Staying in a dormitory for two months with two Australians has caused many

good results.

2. Two. First, I can learn English. Second, I can learn about Australian culture.

3. Due to these reasons, I really enjoy living in a dormitory.

Task 2.12

1. They

2. He

3. she

4. They

5. they

6. their

7. Everyone

8. they

9. they

Writing Skills 56

Task 2.13

1. personal questions

2. other cultures

3. personal

4. questions

5. Americans

6. question

Task 2.14

1. incidentally

2. But

3. However

4. For the moment

5. and

6. also

7. in particular

8. since

9. Therefore

10. because

11. too

12. not only

13. but also

Writing Skills 57

Task 2.15

1. to read = reading

2. embarrassment =embarrassed

3. to try = trying

4. getting = to get

5. made in foreign countries = foreign

Writing Skills 58

UNIT 3

NARRATIVE ESSAY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

1. produce the structure of a narrative essay

2. complete the tasks given on narrative essays

3. write a narrative essay

3.1 What is a narrative essay?

A narrative essay is often written to tell a story.

It is a kind of writing that is usually written based on an individual‘s or

someone else‘s past or present experience.

A narrative type of essay often relates a central idea that reflects a lesson

learned from the experience or simply telling a story.

3.2 Steps to write narrative essays

Make decision on the topic.

Brainstorm for ideas on how to write the essay.

Start writing the essay.

Reread the essay. Check whether you have described the events vividly.

Identify the parts that need further development or details. Identify parts that

are irrelevant and stray away from the main point.

Edit the essay. Check for any grammatical errors or spelling and punctuation

errors.

Writing Skills 59

3.3 Guidelines for narration

It must have a central point or a thesis statement to ensure the essay is

developed around the central point.

The scene should be described immediately in the essay. It should give the

answer to the question who, what, where and when.

Pace the story. Do not recount all the details of the story. Instead, select the

details that would support your central point. Provide details that answer the

questions who, what, why, when and where.

The description should be vivid so that the readers could feel as if they were at

the scene and witnessing the event.

In narratives, the writer often uses first person perspective in their writings (I

took, I checked).

The essay should use transitions to indicate the changes in time, character

and location. In showing the change of time of the events, you have to be

careful of your tenses: present, past, past perfect or future tense. Be

consistent in using the tenses. Most of the time, when you are reporting past

events, you use past tense. ―As I walked, I saw a tiger‖. However, when you

are reflecting from present to past you may change the tense from present

tense to past tense as follows: ―Now I realize how impulsive I was back then‖.

The story should be chronologically sequenced so that the readers can follow

the story line and do not get confuse when reading the story. Use transitions

or sequence connectors to link the ideas you presented like afterwards, then,

now.

The story should move toward a climax, which gives an interesting or

surprising closure to the story. The climax is the moment the ending is

exposed and the story becomes clear.

Writing Skills 60

3.3.1 Thesis Statement

Some people think that a narrative essay does not need a thesis statement.

That is not true. Even a narrative essay requires a thesis statement. The

thesis statement can give a general idea to the readers what the story is going

to be all about. For example, if the writer writes “My school days were the

happiest moments in my life” as his thesis statement, the readers would then

know that they will be reading about the writer‘s memorable school days

moments.

The thesis of a narrative essay helps the writer presents the central point or

the main idea of the essay to the readers. Then, the writer will be able to build

the essay around the thesis.

A narrative essay thesis statement guides the writer in writing the essay so

that it does not stray away from the central focus.

The thesis of a narrative essay depends on the story. It can be a general

statement, a lesson learned or a key message to be related to the readers.

For example: The incident taught the family just how important following

simple directions is when travelling to a destination.

The readers would expect that they will be reading an essay on the

importance of simple directions and about a family‘s trip.

The following are examples of introductory paragraph without a thesis

statement and with a thesis statement.

Example A:

An introduction without a thesis statement

It was late November. My neighbour, Johan and his wife have

been planning for a trip to Penang where they will take their two

boys to visit their relatives. They were all looking forward to the

trip as they have decided to stop at several places along the

journey.

Writing Skills 61

Example B:

An introduction with a thesis statement

Based on the examples given, you can see that it is difficult to make out the focus of

the essay without the thesis statement. The readers would wonder what the writer

plans to write about. In contrast, the introductory paragraph with the thesis statement

provides a clear idea of the central point of the essay. Therefore, it can be concluded

that without the thesis statement the essay seems lack focus and pointless.

Writers should also take note of constructing interesting thesis statement. An

interesting thesis statement can attract readers to read your essay while a dull thesis

statement has the opposite effect.

Here are some examples:

Dull

Interesting

I first travelled to a foreign country when I

was nineteen years old.

I can still recall the excitement I felt when

I travelled overseas at the age of

nineteen.

I had a great time at the wedding

ceremony.

The wedding ceremony was one of the

most memorable events in my life.

It was late November. My neighbour, Johan and his wife have

been planning for a trip to Penang where they will take their two

boys to visit their relatives. They were all looking forward to the

trip as they have decided to stop at several places along the

journey. Little did they know that an unforgettable incident

happens during the journey because they did not follow a simple

direction.

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Task 3.1

Rewrite the following thesis statements to make them more interesting.

We almost died that day.

It was an interesting Sunday.

I had a good time at the farewell party.

The memories of my childhood are unforgettable.

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3.4 Organization of the story

The sequence or the chronology of the story is important in a narrative essay. The

story should be presented following a sequence of events. When the readers follow

the chronological order, they will understand the story better. In order to show the

sequence of events in the story, you should use transitional words.

The following are useful time transitions that can be used in a narrative essay.

first second

afterward later

when immediately

soon while

now suddenly

then the next day

following finally

It was my last day at school.

Writing Skills 64

Task 3.2

Read the following extract taken from an essay entitled ―My childhood memory‖

(Abraham Sung, 2000). The sentences have been jumbled up. Try to arrange the

sentences accordingly in the given table.

1.

Then, invariably our enthusiasm would turn to neglect and the

whole collection of fish would die.

2.

My elder brother taught me many things.

3.

We used to catch fighting-fish, tiger barbs, guppies and various

other colourful fishes.

4.

After some time, the enthusiasm would suddenly grip us again and

we would start all over again mending our nets and venturing out

into the countryside again.

5.

I learned to make flyable kites and spinnable tops.

6.

We kept them in all sorts of containers.

7.

In addition, we would go around the neighbouring countryside

catching tiny tropical fishes.

The correct sequence

2.

My elder brother taught me many things.

Writing Skills 65

Task 3.3

Now write the transitions you were able to identify from the rearranged sentences.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 66

Task 3.4

The following paragraph is another extract adapted from the essay ―My childhood

memory‖ (Abraham Sung, 2000). Fill in the blanks with suitable transitions given

below.

Instead Before However Suddenly

Fortunately Often When Unfortunately

(1) __________, my elder brother went overseas to further his studies. I miss him

terribly. (2) __________, I had a group of friends living in the neighbourhood. (3)

__________We would play all sort of games and explore all sorts of places. We

were lucky to live at the fringe of town where the natural surroundings were not

destroyed yet. (4) __________, the streams and farm are gone now. They are the

victims of development. No longer can we catch any fish in the stream of cool water.

(5) __________ the stream has turned into polluted waters. No longer too can we

hear the call of the birds and animals. (6) __________, we hear impatient blast of

horns and the roar of bulldozers churning up the once beautiful land. I mourn the

destruction of the living bountiful land and the subsequent erection of nameless

houses all arranged in neat sterile rows. I wonder what sort of childhood memories

the children living in these houses will have.

3.5 Description

The writers of a narrative essay should give vivid descriptions of the events or

incidents they present so that the readers are hooked to the story and they feel as if

they were at the scene.

Writing Skills 67

The paragraph presented in Task 3.4 presents some vivid descriptions of the writer‘s

childhood memory. Some of the words and phrases used enable the readers to

imagine the situation described. The examples are as follows:

impatient blast of horns

the roar of bulldozers

neat sterile rows

3.5.1 Details

Details are important to give the readers supports and descriptions related to the

central idea of the narrative essay. Without details, the essay will be boring and dull.

Compare the two examples below. The first example lack details as compared to the

second example.

As the years passed, many of my friends left our

neighbourhood. I seldom see them anymore. We live

our separate lives. The only thing binding us is our

childhood memories.

As the years passed, my friends and I grew up. Most

of them have left the neighbourhood for more lucrative

jobs in the big cities. Some of us remained. However,

many things happened. A few years ago, one of my

childhood friends committed suicide and then another

one died in a tragic accident. Things became awkward

and strange since then. We have lost our childhood.

We are like strangers now for we have our separate

lives to live. The only thing that binds us together is the

fact that we share the same childhood memories,

memories we will always treasure.

Writing Skills 68

The first example given above clearly shows that when the paragraph lacks details,

the presentation of ideas becomes dull and uninteresting. Unlike the presentation of

ideas in the second example which is livelier because of the details being included to

elaborate the idea that things are not the same anymore between the writer and his

friends.

Task 3.5

The following paragraph lack details. Rewrite it by adding some details to make it

more realistic and livelier.

On the way home from work today, I witnessed a terrible accident.

It happened in front of my eyes. I saw a car was hit by a trailer. The

car then hit another car. A few people were injured including a five

months old baby.

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Task 3.6

Choose any of the following topics and write five episodes to develop the narrative.

Add a transition word to connect each episode.

1. A change in your life.

2. An unusual incident.

3. Think about an incident that makes you realize how important someone was

for you.

Episode 1 :

Transition :

Episode 2 :

Transition:

Episode 3:

Transition :

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Episode 4 :

Transition :

3.6 The structure of a narrative essay

The following is the structure of a narrative essay that can help a writer to structure

the essay.

Introduction

The writer can start the story with a quotation, a

question or a statement to catch readers‘ attention or

known as ―the hook‖.

Provide the readers with the scene; where it happens

and the major characters.

Write a thesis statement to show the main the story or

what the story will be about. The thesis statement will

provide the readers with a general idea on what the

story will be about.

An example of a thesis statement is as the following:

It was a wonderful day to go hiking. So, I asked two of

my good friends to join me hiking at the Maxwell Hill.

Little did I know that the journey turned out to be a

scary experience.

*The underlined thesis statement guides the writer in

writing the essay and presents the readers with what to

expect when reading the essay; a scary experience.

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Body

Paragraph

The writer writes details and descriptions related to the

experience to support and explain the main idea.

It would be good to describe the events by using all

five senses – what you saw, heard, smelled and felt.

Organize the events chronologically.

Conclusion

You can end the story by giving the moral of the story

or show the lesson you learnt from the experience or

story.

Task 3.7

Now, try to complete the following outline.

Choose any of the titles in Task 3.6.

Introduction

Begin with a

“hook” to attract

readers’ attention.

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Set the scene by

answering these

questions:

Where the

event

happened?

When it

happened?

How old

were you

when it

happened?

State the thesis

statement.

Body Paragraph

Paragraph 1

Starting of the

event/action

Topic sentence:

Detail 1:

Detail 2:

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Detail 3:

Paragraph 2

Middle of the

event/action

Topic sentence:

Detail 1:

Detail 2:

Detail 3:

Paragraph 3

End of the

event/action

Topic sentence:

Detail 1:

Detail 2:

Detail 3:

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Conclusion

Reflect on the

events/actions and

state the moral

value gained from

the story.

Task 3.8

Now, write a narrative essay based on the outline you have developed above. The

essay should be about 300 words. Remember to follow the following stages:

1) Brainstorm for ideas and present them in the form of a fishbone or a list.

2) Outline the essay according to the structure suggested in table 3.1.

3) Write your draft based on the outline developed.

4) Edit and revise the draft using the following self-evaluation checklist presented

in table 3.1.

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Language

Tick

Check on the basic grammar (tenses, transitions, word forms, word choice)

Correct usage of punctuation

Correct spelling

Organization

Introduction

Thesis statement in the introductory paragraph

Topic sentence in each body paragraph

Conclusion

Use of transitional markers to connect the ideas within the paragraphs and between paragraphs

Events are chronologically sequenced

Content

The introduction attracts readers‘ attention

Thesis statement clearly states the central idea.

Clear topic sentences in each body paragraph

Topic sentences are clearly developed with details

The conclusion consists of a reflection of the events and/ or the moral value of the story

Table 3.1 Self-evaluation checklist for a cause and effect essay

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3.7 Prompts to help in a narrative essay

There are times that you might find it difficult to decide on an experience to write

about. The followings are some prompts to help you identify a significant life

experience to write about.

A childhood event. Think of an experience when you learned something for

the first time, or when you realized how important someone was for you.

Achieving a goal. Think about a particularly meaningful achievement in your

life. This could be something as seemingly minor as achieving a good grade

on a difficult assignment, or this could be something with more long-lasting

effects, like getting the job you desired or getting into the best school to which

you applied.

A failure. Think about a time when you did not perform as well as you had

wanted. Focusing on an experience like this can result in rewarding reflections

about the positive emerging from the negative.

A good or bad deed. Think about a time when you did or did not stand up for

yourself or someone else in the face of adversity or challenge.

A realization. Think about a time when you experienced a realization. This

could be anything from understanding a complicated math equation to gaining

a deeper understanding of a philosophical issue or life situation.

Task 3.9

Use the prompts in 3.7 to write outlines and practice writing essays.

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SELF ASSESSMENT

Test 1

Fill in the blanks with the correct transition words from the box below.

so then hence immediately

fortunately however At first suddenly

surprisingly and but as

It was my first cross-country race and I can still recall that day. All the students were

at the school gate waiting impatiently for the shattering sound of the gun.

(1)__________ after hearing the blast of the gun, the crowd rushed out of the school

gate. (2) __________ I was hemmed in by a crowd of school runners so I had to

keep pace with them. (3) __________, the runners were running at a quick pace,

much too quick for me. (4) __________I tried my best to stay with the group

(5)__________ I found myself short of breath. I was struggling to keep up. (6)

__________, I slowed down and let the runners past ahead of me. (7) __________ I

slowed down to catch my breath, (8) __________, Silva, the overweight little fellow in

my class flashed past me. That really jolted me. (9) __________, I found myself

picking up the pace (10) __________ trying to overtake Silva with such strong

determination.

Test 2

Write the introductory paragraph with the thesis statement for the following topics.

1) A picnic on a rainy day.

2) A new beginning

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REFERENCES

Abraham Sung. (2000). 330 English essays. Seremban: Minerva Publications. Jarrett, J.M., Lee, M.G. & Mbalia, D.D. (1999). Pathways: A text for developing writers. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon. Lannon, J.M. (2001). The writing process: A concise rhetoric. (7th edn.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Lyons, C.C. (1984). Discover Writing: A rhetoric workbook for the beginning writer. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Mayers. A. (2003). Writing with confidence: Writing effective sentences and paragraphs. New York: Addison Wesley-Longman. Paxton, L.K. (1999). Writing power: Elements of effective writing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Winkler, A.C, Metherell, J.R. (2003). Writing talk: Paragraphs and short essays with readings. (3rd edn.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. http://www.writeexpress.com/narrative-essay.html

Writing Skills 79

Answers

Task 3.2

2. My elder brother taught me many things.

5. I learned to make flyable kites and spinnable tops.

3. We used to catch fighting-fish, tiger barbs, guppies and various

other colourful fishes.

6. We kept them in all sorts of containers.

7. In addition, we would go around the neighbouring countryside

catching tiny tropical fishes.

1. Then, invariably our enthusiasm would turn to neglect and the

whole collection of fish would die.

4. After some time, the enthusiasm would suddenly grip us again and

we would start all over again mending our nets and venturing out

into the countryside again.

Task 3.3

Then, after some time, in addition

Task 3.4

1. When

2. Fortunately

3. Often

4. However

5. Unfortunately

6. Instead

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Answers for Test 1

1) Immediately

2) At first

3) However

4) Hence

5) but

6) So

7) As

8) Suddenly

9) Surprisingly

10) and

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UNIT 4

CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

4. produce the structure of a cause and effect essay

5. complete the tasks given on cause and effect essays

6. write a cause and effect essay

4.1 Causes and Effects

Causes refer to the reasons a particular situation occur, for example the causes of

teenage social problems. Effects on the other hand refer to the results of the causes.

For instance, one of the causes of teenage social problems is lack parents‘ attention

while the effect of lacking in parents‘ attention is teenage social problem.

Causes of

Road accidents

Effects Of

Road accidents

Reckless driving

Faulty car condition Bad weather

Death Serious injury Damage to the

vehicle

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One is usually asked to write either on causes or effects in their essay. To

ensure that you have identified causes and effects clearly, you must be able to

differentiate between the two of them.

Task 4.1

Classify the following points into the columns labeled causes and effects of teenage

stress.

1.

the pressure from teachers

2.

disruptive behaviour in class

3.

becomes aggressive and disrespectful

4.

refuse to go to school

5.

separation of parents or parents‘ divorce

6.

being neglected or abandoned by people they love

7.

get involved in illegal and reckless activities

8.

peer and social pressures

9.

the pressure due to poor grades

10.

like to be alone and isolate himself or herself from other people

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Causes

of Teenage stress

Effects

Of Teenage stress

1) the pressure from teachers

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4.2 Writing a cause and effect essay

As in order writing process, you need to go through stages in writing you

essay.

The following are the stages you can follow when writing an essay:

a) Pre-writing

b) Writing

c) Editing

4.2.1 Prewriting

Before you start writing, you should allow some time to list or brainstorm for

possible ideas to be included in your essay. In the case of a cause and effect

essay, you may want to list out the causes or/and effects. When you list the

causes and effects, your essay will be more focused and organized.

When brainstorming for the causes and effects, you can use a mind map to jot

down all the points that come to mind in relation to the topic.

4.2.2 Fish bone

The following is an example of a mind map called fish bone for a cause and

effect essay.

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Detail 1 Detail 1 Detail 2 Detail 2

Thesis Statement

Detail 1 Detail 1

Detail 2 Detail 2

Figure 4.1 Fishbone for a cause and effect essay

Fishbone can be used to organize your ideas for a cause and effect essay.

The thesis statement that is the central idea to your essay is placed in the

middle of the fish bone to show the focus of the essay.

You can put the causes in the respective cause boxes.

The details are the supporting points or the evidence you want to use in order

to support the causes. The supporting details can be examples of cases or

situations. It is best to have two supporting details for each cause. This will

ensure a strong development of your points.

The following figure 3.2 shows a sample of a fishbone developed under the

topic causes of teenage social problems.

TITLE

Cause 3 Cause 4

Cause 1 Cause 2

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Faulty tyre sleepy Faulty brakes consume alcohol

Thesis Statement

Slippery road speeding

potholes disregard road signs

Figure 4.2 Fishbone for an essay titled Causes of Teenage Social Problem

Task 4.2

Now, fill in the blanks using the points given under the topic the causes of teenage

stress as presented in Task 4.1.

Causes of Road

Accidents

The condition of

the road

The driver’s

attitude

The condition of

the car

The driver’s condition

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Thesis Statement

4.2.3 Listing

Besides using a mind map such as a fishbone, you can also jot down the main

points that you want to use in your essay by listing them out. Then you choose

the best 3 or 4 points you would like to focus on in your essay.

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Task 4.3

For task 4.3, list out the causes and effects of stress.

Cause 1

Supporting details

Cause 2

Supporting details

Cause 3

Supporting details

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Effect 1

Supporting details

Effect 2

Supporting details

Effect 3

Supporting details

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When writing a cause and effect essay, you must classify the causes and

effects clearly so that the readers can see your main causes and effects and

these main points do not overlap with one another. For example, if your first

point for the causes of stress is excessive workload and you put a lot of

assignments to mark as your second point, then there is an overlap because a

lot of assignments can be considered as the supporting point for the main

point excessive workload.

Look through the causes and effects of stress that you have written down in

Task 4.3 and check whether the points in each category overlap with one

another.

4.3 Arrangement of causes and effects

When writing a cause and effect essay, you should follow the following structure:

Figure 4.3 Structure of a cause and effect essay

Introduction

Body Paragraph 1

Body Paragraph 2

Body Paragraph 3

Conclusion

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4.3.1 Introduction

The introduction paragraph should contain some background information of

the topic.

It should attract the readers‘ attention to read the essay.

It should consist of a thesis statement that presents the central idea or the

focus of the essay.

The following are examples of thesis statements for a cause and effect essay:

From the examples given above, you can see that the thesis statement usually

states the main points that will be discussed in the essay. Hence, it gives the

readers a general idea what the essay will be about.

There are numerous causes of teenage stress and among them are social

pressure, parents‘ high expectations and poor examination results.

A lot of road accidents in Malaysia are caused by faulty condition of the

car, driver‘s behaviour and the road condition.

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Task 4.4

Underline the thesis statement in the following introductory paragraphs.

There have been numerous campaigns against cigarette smoking

communicating that this vice causes death. But a threat to health

doesn‘t seem to be a good reason for quitting anymore. People

somehow block themselves and ignore all the information that is

given to them. The purpose of this essay is to discuss three effects of

cigarette smoking, besides the broadly mentioned possibility of

developing cancer or dying, which are the smell of smoke, the

stained teeth, and the cost of doing it.

Taken from http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples

Are you aware that 20 million people in Mexico live on less than two

dollars a day? Sixty million people, half the Mexican population, live

in poverty, and 20 million of them live in extreme poverty. Most of the

time, garbage is their food, and some days, they don‘t even eat

anything. This critical poverty situation in Mexico is caused by

individual, geographic and political factors.

Taken from http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples

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Task 4.5

Now, based on the following topics, write your thesis statement. Make sure you state

the three points you will discuss in your essay, in the thesis statement.

1. The effects of introducing the English for Science and Technology subject at

upper secondary level.

Entering a university is a very important and interesting experience in

a person‘s life, but at the same time it is an experience that will

change your lifestyle and personality forever. The purpose of this

essay is to discuss the three main effects of entering a university

which are missing old friends, learning how to survive during

university, and developing responsible behavior which must

accompany university studies.

Taken from http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples

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2. The causes of social problems among teenagers nowadays.

4.3.2 Topic sentence and supporting details.

When you write a thesis statement, you should include at least three main

points like the examples given above.

For instance, for the thesis statement on the causes of teenage stress, the

three main points presented are as underlined : There are numerous causes

of teenage stress and among them are social pressure, parents‘ high

expectations and poor examination results.

In an essay, each of the point presented in the thesis statement should be

developed to form a topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually the first

sentence in a body paragraph to give readers the main idea of a particular

body paragraph.

Each topic sentence should be supported with examples or specific details.

Details help to explain the writer‘s main point and provide evidence to support

the main idea presented.

Hence, if you have three main points, you should have three body paragraphs

and each body paragraph should contain a topic sentence.

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The following diagram shows the topic sentence of each body paragraph. The

topic sentence is usually the first sentence in the body paragraph.

Thesis Statement

There are numerous causes of teenage stress and among them

are social pressure, parents‘ high expectations and poor

examination results.

Body Paragraph 1

Topic Sentence

Many teenagers experience stress due to peer pressure.

Body Paragraph 2

Topic Sentence

Another source of teenage stress is parents‘ high expectations.

Body Paragraph 3

Topic Sentence

Finally, stress among teenagers is a result of poor examination results.

From the diagram, you can see that each body paragraph usually starts with a

topic sentence that states the main idea of the respective paragraph.

Each body paragraph also should contain details that provide evidence or

examples to support the main idea stated in the topic sentence.

Read the following example of a thesis statement, topic sentences and

supporting details.

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Title: The positive effects of modern inventions.

Introduction

Thesis

statement

Modern inventions build up the economy, save time

and energy and develop creativity.

Body

Paragraph

1

Topic

sentence

Modern inventions help to boost up the economy.

Supporting

details

a) They increase productions from factories.

b) They develop the business industry faster.

Body

Paragraph

2

Topic

Sentence

Modern inventions save time and energy.

Supporting

details

a) One can gain information from around the world.

b) Research can be carried out easily

Body

Paragraph

3

Topic

Sentence

Modern inventions also develop human creativity.

Supporting

details

a) The making of movies became more advanced.

b) Advertisements are well presented.

Conclusion

Restate the main points and close the essay

effectively.

Table 4.1 Outline of a cause and effect essay

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Read the sample essay below. Then, complete the table that follows with the thesis

statement, topic sentences and supporting details taken from the essay.

Task 4.6

The impacts of advertisements

There is no doubt that advertisements perform a useful service to the consumers.

They reduce the cost of goods, give educational benefits and provide service to the

public.

Advertisements help reduce the cost of goods in the market. The cost of newspapers

and magazines would be astronomical if not for the advertisements which subsidise

the cost of production. Besides that, manufacturers spend vast sums of money on

advertising their products to inform the public of the goods available in the market.

Far from increasing the cost of the product, advertisements help to promote sales of

that product. When sales of the product increased, it helps to keep the cost down.

Advertisements also give the public educational benefits. For instance,

advertisements on road safety provides advises on safety measures to be taken

seriously by road users before and while driving. This is to ensure the safety of those

in the car and other road users. Other than that, some advertisements also present

consumers with information about products that can cure particular illness and

products that can give bad impact to their well being.

Finally, advertisements provide services to the public. Some advertisements in the

newspaper or online advertise invaluable services to the consumers. For example,

advertisements on banking services to help consumers manage the payments of

their bills effectively. Other services like typing and editing services for students can

easily be found online.

To sum up, advertisements have brought innumerable benefits hence; they are

useful to the public. Without advertisements, the cost of living would be higher as the

price of goods and services would not be subsidized.

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Thesis statement

Topic sentence 1

Supporting details :

a)

b)

Topic sentence 2

Supporting details : a)

b)

Topic sentence 3

Supporting details : a)

b)

Writing Skills 99

Task 4.7

Below is a short task with a topic for you to practise writing out the thesis statement,

topic sentences and supporting details.

Title

The effects of face book.

Thesis statement

Topic sentence 1

Supporting details :

a)

b)

Topic sentence 2

Supporting details : a)

b)

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Cigarette smoking clearly causes lung cancer, stained teeth and

smelly odour. Hence, to those smokers out there, you should stop

smoking as it makes other people around you feel uneasy.

So, cigarette smoking clearly causes lung cancer, stained teeth and

smelly odour. Do you want to be one of those people whom other

people stay away from?

Topic sentence 3

Supporting details : a)

b)

4.3.3 Conclusion

You could restate your points in the concluding paragraph. You could also

restate the main supporting points.

Some of the ways to conclude your essay are:

a) end with a final thought

b) a thought-provoking question

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It is important that smokers realized that smoking is bad for their

health and it creates a bad image of themselves. Therefore, smokers

should not take the effects of smoking lightly. They should take

measures to stop the smoking habit for their own good.

c) a recommendation or prediction

4.4 Useful expressions

Here are some expressions you can use in writing a cause and effect essay.

Task 4.8

Now, write a cause and effect essay on the topic the effects of the internet. The

essay should be about 300 words. Remember to follow the following stages:

1) Brainstorm for ideas and present them in the form of a fishbone or a list.

2) Outline the essay according to the structure suggested in table 3.1.

one of the causes as a result is caused by is due to

is the result of results from results in leads to

contributes to in addition moreover accordingly

because consequently hence eventually

for this purpose therefore thus so

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3) Write your draft based on the outline developed.

4) Edit and revise the draft using the following self-evaluation checklist presented

in table 4.2.

Language

Tick

Check on the basic grammar (tenses, sequence connectors, word forms, word choice)

Correct usage of punctuation

Correct spelling

Organization

Introduction

Thesis statement in the introductory paragraph

Topic sentence in each body paragraph

Conclusion

Use of transitional markers to connect the ideas within the paragraphs and between paragraphs

Content

The introduction attracts readers‘ attention

Thesis statement clearly states the main points

Clear topic sentences in each body paragraph

Topic sentences are clearly supported with examples and evidence

The conclusion summarizes the main points of the essay

Table 4.2 Self-evaluation checklist for a cause and effect essay

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SELF ASSESSMENT

Test 1

What are the 3 stages in writing a cause and effect essay?

Test 2

Draw a fish bone for the essay entitled ―the causes of stress‖.

Test 3

From the points developed in the fish bone in Test 2, write an outline for the essay

entitled ―the causes of stress‖.

Thesis statement

Topic sentence 1

Supporting details :

a)

b)

Topic sentence 2

Supporting details :

a)

b)

Topic sentence 3

Supporting details : a)

b)

Writing Skills 104

REFERENCES

K C Lee, Happy Goh, Janet Chan & Ying Yang. (2007). Effective college writing: A

process- genre approach. Singapore: Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Langan, J. (2002). English skills with readings. Boston: McGraw Hill Companies.

Lannon, J.M. 2001. The writing process: A concise rhetoric. (7th edn.). New York:

Addison Wesley Longman.

Lyons, C.C. (1984). Discover Writing: A rhetoric workbook for the beginning writer.

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Mayers. A. (2003). Writing with confidence: Writing effective sentences and

paragraphs. New York: Addison Wesley-Longman.

Paxton, L.K. (1999). Writing power: Elements of effective writing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples

Writing Skills 105

Answers

Task 4.1

1. the pressure from teachers

Causes of teenage stress

2.

disruptive behaviour in class Effects of teenage stress

3. becomes aggressive and disrespectful

Effects of teenage stress

4. refuse to go to school

Effects of teenage stress

5. separation of parents or parents‘ divorce

Causes of teenage stress

6. being neglected or abandoned by people they love

Causes of teenage stress

7. get involved in illegal and reckless activities

Effects of teenage tress

8. peer and social pressures

Causes of teenage stress

9. the pressure due to poor grades

Causes of teenage stress

10. like to be alone and isolate himself or herself from other people

Effects of teenage stress

Task 4.4

1. The purpose of this essay is to discuss three effects of cigarette smoking, besides

the broadly mentioned possibility of developing cancer or dying, which are the smell

of smoke, the stained teeth, and the cost of doing it.

2. This critical poverty situation in Mexico is caused by individual, geographic and

political factors.

3. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the three main effects of entering a

university which are missing old friends, learning how to survive during university,

and developing responsible behavior which must accompany university studie

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UNIT 5

PROCESS ESSAY

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

1. understand process essay

2. recognize the elements of a process essay

3. identify the steps to write a process essay

4. write a process essay

5.1. What is a Process Essay?

A process essay is written when you want to describe a process. Normally, it involves

step by step descriptions of the followings:

a) How something is done (providing instructions)

b) How something works (providing information)

c) How something happened (providing the history)

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Task 5.1

In the blanks provided, write A for how something is done, B for how something

works or C for how something happened.

1. __________ How to bake cookies.

2. __________ Three most effective steps to lose weight.

3. __________ How Malaysia became an independent nation.

4. __________ How to become a good student.

5. __________ Things to do during an emergency.

6. __________ How smoking becomes addictive.

Task 5.2

In the space provided, state whether the paragraph describes a process or not. If

yes, please indicate whether it shows how something is done, how something works

or how something happened.

1.

To be a good friend, an individual has to spend time working on the

friendships, or they will eventually fade. When two people first meet, they

both need to be sure they are acting in good manner, so they don‘t scare the

other away. After they meet and start talking a few times, they will start

getting to know each other, calling each other, and spending more time with

each other. That is how a friendship begins. After they call each other

―friends‖, the friendship can be maintained through the effort of both parties.

Friendships should not take a lot of money but they do take a lot of time and

care. Friends should always listen to what the other has to say, and then

should give advice only when asked for it.

__________________________________________________________________

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2. 3.

I am fifty years old, rather tall and I have brown eyes and short black hair. I

wear casual clothes as I attend to my patients in a relaxed atmosphere. I

enjoy my job because I get to meet and help so many different people from

all over the country. During my spare time, I like playing golf which I play at

least three times a week (much to wife‘s chagrin!). I also love listening to

traditional music and enjoy occasional movie nights with the family. I live in a

small town with my wife and two children. I always try to make the best out of

my life and I hope one day I would be able to look back and have no regrets.

_________________________________________________________________

In order to live on a tight budget, you may have to find a new job, keep a record of your money, and spend your free time wisely. The first step is to consider getting a second or third job because doing so has two advantages: you can make more money, and you have less time to spend the money! Secondly, you must record all the money that you receive and spend. The money you receive is called your salary, and it should be more than the money you spend. This is called a budget. Finally, try to spend your free time without spending money! Spare time activities like movies, parties, and eating out at fancy restaurants will require you to spend some money. You should cut back on these unnecessary expenses. If you follow these steps, you may not notice that you are actually living on a tight budget.

__________________________________________________________________

4.

There are three different types of rock music, alternative rock, classic rock,

and hard rock, also known as metal. Alternative rock features a steady bass

drum laying down the beat, with easy flowing guitar riffs over the top. The

bass line is toned town, and the lyrics are sung with intensity an authority.

Depending on the song, the guitars can either be acoustic guitars or electric

guitars. Classic rock combines a steady driving bass drum sound, with high

Writing Skills 109

5.

6.

snare overtones, steady and often repeating guitar riffs, and an intensive

bass line. The guitars are more often than not all electric guitars, and

distortion is rarely used. The lyrics are sung with style and enthusiasm. Hard

rock, or metal, features a hard rolling bass drum with an abundant amount of

cymbal work. This style of rock uses several electric guitars with heavy

distortion to bring a very intense sound. A hard, intense, driving bass line

rounds out the style. The lyrics aren‘t really sung so much as screamed. It

doesn‘t matter what your preference is, each different style of rock music is

unique on its own.

___________________________________________________________________

The problem of hairballs that have already formed in cat‘s fur can be solved

by proper brushing. In order to brush your cat‘s hairballs, you‘ll need two

kinds of brushes: a wide-teeth wipe and a metallic one. The former will help

you dissolve and, partially, remove tightly knotted hairballs without causing

any pain or discomfort to your cat. The latter, used subsequently, will remove

excess of loose puffy hair and decrease the possibility of reoccurrence the

next day. Once brushing is over, make sure to polish your cat‘s fur all over

his body with the help of a clean, cotton, or woolen cloth.

___________________________________________________________________

Since my daughter has been in daycare she has become better at a few

different things. To start off, her vocabulary is much larger and more

developed. Before she started daycare, my daughter had a few select words

that she would say like; mama, papa and some other simple words. Now she

tries to repeat everything that is said. Another result of her being in daycare

is that she has the ability to interact with other children better. In the past,

she was only around one child. Now she is around about six to eight kids,

and she has learned to share her toys and to play in a group with the other

children. A third outcome of her being in daycare is the fact that she is

becoming more self-reliant. Before daycare, she wouldn‘t try very hard to

Writing Skills 110

help me with getting dressed, but now she wants to try to do it all on her own.

She tries to pull on her shirts and pants herself. Socks still go on upside

down, but at least her shoes go on the correct feet I am really glad that I

decided to put her in a daycare, for the benefits have been great.

___________________________________________________________________

5.2. How to Write a Process Essay

Writing a process essay involves the followings:

1. At the beginning of the essay, you must state the purpose very clearly.

2. Each step of the process must be presented in logical order.

3. To help readers understand your essay, you must use some transitions.

5.3. Stating a Clear Purpose

When you write a paragraph describing a process, you must begin with a very clear

topic sentence. The topic sentence will help you and your readers to understand your

paragraph better.

Examples: Baking cookies involves five easy steps

To drive a car, you need to follow some instructions.

The building was constructed over several phases.

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Task 5.3

Write a topic sentence for each process below.

1. How to prepare a cup of coffee.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

2. Three most effective steps to lose weight.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

3. How Malaysia became an independent nation.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

4. How to become a good student.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

5. Things to do during an emergency.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

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6. How smoking becomes addictive.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

7. Getting a dream job.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

5.4. Presenting a Logical Order

Having a logical order is another important element of a process essay. You need to

be clear of which step should come first and which one should come later. In some

processes such as baking cookies, you need to make sure that each step follows a

chronological order or else you may end up not having any cookies to eat! On the

other hand, there are processes which do not have obvious order of sequence (i.e.

how to become a good student). For these kinds of processes, you need to decide

the order of which you want your ideas be presented. The most important thing to

remember is that, your paragraph must be presented in a logical order.

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Task 5.4

List the steps for each of the process below.

1. Three most effective steps to lose weight.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. Things to do during an emergency.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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3. Getting a dream job.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

4. How to become a good student.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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5.5. Using Some Transition Words

A process essay is normally organized according to time. It begins with the first step

in the process and proceed in time until the last step in the process. Transition words

indicate that one step has been completed and a new one will begin. Some common

transitional words used in process essays are as follows:

Firstly

First

In the beginning

At first

Initially

Then

Next

Second

Third

Immediately

After that

Afterward

Eventually

Simultaneously

Meanwhile

While

During

Later

After a few seconds/minutes

At the same time

In the mean time

Soon after

At the end

Before

When

Last of all

Finally

Lastly

Please take note that there are other transition words which you can used in your

process essay besides the ones listed above.

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Task 5.5

Based on Task 5.4, choose four of the processes and connect each step you have

listed using transition words.

1. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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4. ______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

5.6. The Structure of a Process Essay

When you write a process essay, you need to use the following structure:

Introductory Paragraph

In the introduction you reveal the basic aim of the process leaving out specific details.

You also need to provide basic background information. Another important thing to

mention is the true meaning of this process and its everyday life application.

Therefore the reader learns in which spheres he can later apply the knowledge of this

process. The thesis statement is always the final sentence of the introduction.

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Here is an example of an introductory paragraph of a process essay:

Many students feel uncomfortable when they are faced with the

task of writing an essay. While they may have many ideas

when they discuss a topic, picking up pen and paper seems to

dry up all ideas. Some students aren't even sure what an

essay is. Basically, an essay is an organized way to express

an opinion and prove that I is valid. This can take a variety of

forms, but the standard format starts with an introduction, has a

body, and ends with a conclusion. There are a few simple

steps to writing an essay.

In the above example, the writer does the followings:

a) introduces the topic (sentence 1 and 2)

b) provides basic background information about the topic (sentence 4 and 5)

c) write a thesis statement (last sentence of the paragraph)

Task 5.6

Based on the topics in Task 5.1, choose two of them and write the introductory

paragraphs.

1. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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Body Paragraph

The number of body paragraphs of a process essay depends on the amount of

processes involved. If the process you are describing consists of five main steps for

example, your essay must have five body paragraphs – one paragraph for each step.

Each step or stage should have its specific purpose the reader needs to understand.

All the stages need to be presented in a logical order to avoid confusion. In each

paragraph you must include all the necessary details for the procedure including

equipment (should there be any), cautions readers must take and the stage‘s main

difficulties.

The following is an example of the body paragraphs for the essay describing the

steps involved in writing an essay.

First, students must generate ideas. They have to think

about what they know about a topic and what they want to

write. Students do this in different ways. Some students do

brainstorming. That is, they sit with a piece of paper and write

words and try to relate them to other words. Some students

just make a list of ideas. Other students find they need to do

some prewriting because they think better when they are

writing out their ideas. Some students just sit and think and get

the ideas sorted out in their minds. One way is not better than

another way. Everyone is different, so everyone writes in a

different way. The important thing is not the method but the

results. Sometimes, students think that the ideas have to be

perfect from the beginning, but this is not true. Sometimes they

might find that their ideas need revision or that some can be

eliminated. Once they have generated ideas, they have a

starting point so they can begin to write, and that is what is

important.

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Next, students need to organize their ideas. They need to

make sure that they have a statement of opinion, and then they

need to put their supporting ideas into some kind of order. That

is, they need to decide what will come first and so forth. For

example, if students are writing about history, most of the time

they will organize their ideas chronologically because that is

the way that people usually think about history--from past to

present.

Sometimes, the decision students have to make is whether to

start with something very simple first and then building up to

something big, or whether to hit the reader right away with

something important. Students need to look carefully at their

ideas and think about what will make the strongest paper--and

the most interesting paper.

Last, students need to write. This seems easy enough, but

many students delay this part of the paper until the last minute.

Write here means writing the first draft because, whenever

possible, it is good to save time to write, look at it and make

corrections, and then write it again. Students need to give

themselves time--especially in the beginning--to learn from

their writing. If they wait until an hour before class, the paper

becomes a burden instead of an opportunity to learn and share

ideas. Sam, for example, had a 1000 word essay due at

11:00pm in his English class. He waited until 9:00pm the night

before to begin. By then, he was so nervous about getting the

paper finished on time that he couldn't think of anything to write

about. He kept thinking about the F he was going to get and

what it would do to his grade point average. Students should

just start writing and not expect a perfect product the first time,

but even an imperfect paper is better than no paper.

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In the example above, the writer does the followings:

1. divide three important steps into three different paragraphs

2. start each paragraph with a very clear topic sentence

3. use transitional words

4. describe each step in detail by providing lengthy explanations and examples.

This helps readers to understand the process better.

Task 5.7

Based on the topic sentences you wrote in Task 5.3, choose two of them and write 2

main steps involved in the processes. Pay attention to the logical order of your

paragraphs and please use transition words.

1. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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Concluding Paragraph

Your concluding paragraph should tell the readers the result of the process. You

must also reinstate the thesis restatement to reinforce the significance of the

procedure.

Here is an example of the concluding paragraph of an essay describing the process

of writing an essay.

In conclusion, writing an essay is really not so difficult.

Students simply need to have a plan for writing. First, they

need to find a way to generate ideas, and then they need to

organize these ideas in some way that makes sense to them.

Lastly, but most importantly, the students have to sit down and

pick up their pencils and begin to write. The more students

practice writing, the easier it will become because it's really

only thinking and sharing ideas—something they do all of the

time.

In the above example, the writer has done the followings:

1. informs the readers the result of the process (sentence 1)

2. reinstate thesis statement (sentence 2)

3. reinforce the significance of the procedure (sentence 3 and 4 and 5)

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Task 5.8

Write the concluding paragraphs for the two topics you have chosen in Task 5.6.

1. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

5.7. Things to Remember

As you are writing your process essay, consider the followings:

What process are you trying to explain? Why is it important?

Who or what does the process affect?

Are there different ways of doing the process? If so, what are they?

Who are the readers? What knowledge do they need to understand this

process?

What skills/equipment is needed for this?

How long does the process take? Is the outcome always the same?

How many steps are there in the process?

Why is each step important?

What difficulties are involved in each step? How can they be overcome?

Do any cautions need to be given?

Does the process have definitions that need to be clarified?

Are there other processes that are similar and could help illustrate the process

that you are writing about?

If needed, tell what should not be done or why something should be done.

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This is a checklist to help you when writing a Process Paragraph:

Narrow the topic. Think of who you are writing to.

Make a topic sentence that clearly states what your process will be.

Free write or brainstorm some ideas that might help with the process.

Drop unnecessary information that is not necessary in the process.

Make an outline with the steps of how you will write it.

Write a draft of the process and use transitional words to indicate order.

Revise.

Proofread to make sure that you have no errors in grammar or spelling,

punctuation, or mechanics.

Task 5.9

Write a process essay of your choice. Bear in mind that you should be writing about a

process you are very familiar about. Please make sure that you do not leave any

critical steps in the process and always remember your audience when you are

writing.

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SELF ASSESSMENT

Based on the topic “Preparing for an Examination‖, complete the followings:

1. Write the thesis statement.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. Write the first topic sentence.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. List three supporting details for the first topic sentence.

a) __________________________________________________________

b) __________________________________________________________

c) __________________________________________________________

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4. Write the second topic sentence.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

5. List three supporting details for the second topic sentence.

a) __________________________________________________________

b) __________________________________________________________

c) __________________________________________________________

6. Write the third topic sentence.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 132

7. List three supporting details for the third topic sentence.

a) __________________________________________________________

b) __________________________________________________________

c) __________________________________________________________

8. Write the concluding statement.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 133

REFERENCES

Meyer, A. (2003). Writing with confidence. New York: Longman

Winkler, A.C & McCuen-Metherell, J.R. (2003). Writing talk. New Jersey: Prentice

Hall

http://daria-przybyla.suite101.com

Jessi Johnson 2005 http://english120.pbworks.com

Kristian Anderson 2005 http://english120.pbworks.com

http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/process.html

http://english120.pbworks.com/w/page/19007022/process%20paragraph

http://www.mpc.edu/academics/Humanities/ESSC/Handouts/sampleprocess.pdf

Writing Skills 134

UNIT 6

COMPARE AND CONTRAST ESSAY

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

1. understand compare and contrast essay

2. recognize the elements of a compare and contrast essay

3. identify the steps to write a compare and contrast essay

4. write a compare and contrast essay

6.1. What is a Compare and Contrast Essay?

When you compare, you discuss similarities. When you contrast, you discuss

differences. Most of the time, when you write a compare and contrast essay, you

discuss both, the similarities and the differences. Comparing and contrasting can

only be done on entities that share similar features. For example, it is possible for

you to compare and contrast two people. However, you cannot compare or contrast a

person to a table.

Writing Skills 135

Task 6.1

In the blanks provided, write CC if you think it is possible for you to compare and

contrast and write X if you think it is not possible.

1. __________ The advantage of using computers.

2. __________ The wonderful features of two cars

3. __________ How Malaysia became an independent nation.

4. __________ How Malaysia and Indonesia became independent nations.

5. __________ Why conventional classrooms are better than virtual classrooms.

6. __________ Television programmes then and now.

6.2. How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay

Writing a compare and contrast essay involves the followings:

a) comparing and contrasting things that share similar features

b) writing a clear topic sentence to state the purpose

c) choosing a pattern

d) using transition words

Writing Skills 136

6.3. Comparing and Contrasting

As stated earlier, compare and contrast can only be conducted on things which carry

similar features. As such, it is not possible for you to compare or contrast your

favourite food to your cat. However, you may compare these two if your essay

focuses on why you like your favourite food and your cat. Here, the discussion is not

on the similarities or differences between the food and the cat but rather on your two

favourite things – the food and the cat.

Task 6.2

The followings are two things which may not be suitable for comparing and

contrasting. In the space provided, provide a brief explanation on the focus of your

discussion so that you are able to compare and contrast them.

Example:

1. Reading and My brother

Both are annoying.

2. Exercising and Apples

______________________________________________________________

3. Shoes and Study

______________________________________________________________

4. Maps and Hobbies

______________________________________________________________

5. Clothes and Babies

______________________________________________________________

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6. Songs and Chairs

______________________________________________________________

7. Sickness and Holidays

______________________________________________________________

8. Dancing and Grandparents

______________________________________________________________

9. Hong Kong and Flowers

______________________________________________________________

10. Football and Hornbill

______________________________________________________________

Task 6.3

In the space provided, state three similarities or differences of the followings:

1. Football and tennis

a. _________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________________

2. An iron and a remote control

a. _________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 138

3. A teacher and a mother

a. _________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________________

4. America and Britain

a. _________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________________

5. Day and night

a. _________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________________

6.4. Writing a Clear Topic Sentence

Similar to writing other types of essays, a compare and contrast essay also requires

you to write a very clear topic sentence. This is to ensure that your readers are aware

of the purpose of your essay. Some examples of clear topic sentences for compare

and contrast essays are as follows:

Both Mathematics and Science are difficult subjects.

Even though they are twins who share some similarities, they do have their

differences.

Walking is a lot better than jogging.

Writing Skills 139

Task 6.4

In the space provided, write a topic sentence for each of the following:

1. Exercising and Apples

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. Shoes and Study

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. Maps and Hobbies

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

4. Clothes and Babies

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

5. Dancing and Grandparents

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

6. Football and tennis

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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7. An iron and a remote control

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

8. A teacher and a mother

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

9 America and Britain

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

6.5. Choosing a Pattern

A compare and contrast essay may follow two patterns : Pattern A and Pattern B. If

for example, you are writing an essay comparing or contrasting conventional

classrooms and virtual classrooms, this is how you may write your essay.

First of all, you need to decide the features of the two classrooms that you want to

compare or contrast. For example:

Expenses

Convenience

Accessibility

Based on these three features, you may decide whether you want to follow Pattern A

or Pattern B.

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Pattern A

Pattern B

Point 1 : Expences

Conventional Classrooms

Virtual Classrooms

Point 2 : Convenience

Conventional Classrooms

Virtual Classrooms

Point 3 : Accessibility

Conventional Classrooms

Virtual Classrooms

Conventional Classrooms

Point 1 : Expenses

Point 2 : Convenience

Point 3 : Accessibility

Virtual Classrooms

Point 1 : Expenses

Point 2 : Convenience

Point 3 : Accessibility

Task 6.5

The followings are four possible topics that you can develop into a compare and

contrast essay. In the space provided, write down the points for each topic using the

two patterns.

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1. Two friends

Pattern A Pattern B

2. Two feature films

Pattern A Pattern B

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3. Two favourite hobbies

Pattern A Pattern B

4. Two secrets nobody knows

Pattern A Pattern B

Writing Skills 144

6.6. Using Transition Words

Similar to writing a process essay, you need to use transition words to make your

ideas clear.

Read the following paragraphs. Do you notice the difference between the two?

Maisy and Kiki are best firiends. They both have very different

personalities. Maisy is a petite young woman who is soft spoken.

Kiki is tall and is almost always very loud. Maisy likes to stay

indoor. Kiki prefers outdoor activities. Maisy is shy and quite

reserve. Kiki is very friendly and enjoys meeting people. The fact

that they are best friend makes it hard to believe that they are so

different.

Although Maisy and Kiki are best firiends, they both have very

different personalities. While Maisy is a petite young woman who

is soft spoken, Kiki on the other hand is tall and is almost always

very loud. Unlike Maisy who likes to stay indoor, Kiki prefers

outdoor activities. Maisy is shy and quite reserve. However, Kiki is

very friendly and enjoys meeting people. The fact that they are

best friend makes it hard to believe that they are so different.

The second paragraph uses some transition words and this has made it easier for us

to follow the idea. Can you list all the transition words used in the second paragraph?

1. __________________________________

2. __________________________________

3. __________________________________

Writing Skills 145

4. __________________________________

5. __________________________________

The followings are some of the transition words you can use in your essay.

Similarities

Differences

Similar to

Also

Additionally

As well as

Both

Too

Furthermore

In addition

And

In the same way

Like

Just as ….. so

Conversely

However

Unlike

Yet

Although

In contrast

On the other hand

Whereas

While

The opposite

Writing Skills 146

There are other transition words that you may use in your essay in addition to the

ones listed above. It is important that you use the correct transition words or else

your readers may not be able to understand your ideas.

6.7. The Structure of a Compare and Contrast Essay

When you write a compare and contrast essay, you need to use the following structure:

Introductory Paragraph

In the introduction, you should provide some basic background information about the two

things being compared or contrasted. This paragraph should end with a very clear thesis

statement.

Here is an example of an introductory paragraph of a process essay:

It is a fact that not all the people have the opportunity to go on

vacation. The ones who have the facilities like to go out of town once

in a while in order to leave their worries behind. When we go on

vacation, we have to decide the best place to go according to what

we have in mind. The purpose of this essay is to contrast the

differences between vacation at a beach or in a city. We will look at

the kinds of activities, the clothing required and the pace of life

available while vacationing on the beach or in the city.

In the above example, the writer does the followings:

a) introduces the topic (sentence 1 and 2) b) provides basic background information about the topic (sentence 3 and 4) c) write a thesis statement (last sentence of the paragraph – all the three

features to be contrasted are mentioned)

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Task 6.6

Based on the topics in Task 6.5, choose two of them and write the introductory

paragraphs.

1. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 148

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Body Paragraph

For the body paragraphs, you need to follow the two patterns we discuss in 6.5.

The following is an example of the body paragraphs for the essay describing the

differences between vacationing on the beach and in the city.

The first major difference between vacationing on the

beach or in a city is the kind of activities you are able to

do. On the beach, for example, you can go sailing, fishing,

surfing, skiing, or take advantage of the sun and lie in the sand

to get tan, or even in some cases feed sharks and swim with

dolphins. On the other hand, in a city you can visit different

sites such as museums, theaters, important buildings,

downtown, among other things. This means that you have

many places to know and you will need much more time and

organization in a city than on the beach.

Another difference between vacationing on the beach or in

a city is the clothing and equipment you need to take with

you. If you decide to go to the beach, you will have to take

mainly a bathing suit, shorts, short-sleeve shirts, sandals,

sunglasses, goggles, and sun block. Considering that you are

going to the city where you will have to walk a lot, you will need

comfortable and casual clothing such as jeans and tennis

shoes. You will also have to take fancy clothes in case you

want to go, for example, to watch a play or to a concer.

Writing Skills 149

The final difference between vacationing on the beach or

in a city is the pace of life. If you want a relaxing plan, your

option will be the beach. When you are on the beach you just

let things happen while in the city you will have to schedule all

your activities in order to have time to visit the different sites

you want to.

In the example above, the writer does the followings:

a) choose Pattern A to present the ideas and stick to it (You may want to choose

Pattern B when you write your essay).

b) start each paragraph with a very clear topic sentence

c) use transitional words

d) describe each step in detail by providing explanations and examples. This

helps readers to understand the process better.

Task 6.7

Based on the topic sentences you wrote in Task 6.4, choose two and write 2

paragraphs of compare and contrast for each of them. Please use transition words.

1. _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 151

Concluding Paragraph

In this paragraph, you need to restate your thesis statement and briefly concludes

how you have discussed what you claim you would in the introductory paragraph.

Here is an example of the concluding paragraph for the essay describing the

differences between vacationing on the beach and in the city.

In conclusion, here you have these differences to consider

when deciding where to go on vacation. Although both places

are interesting and exciting, it all depends on what you are

looking for. Keep in mind that wherever you decide to go you

will enjoy it.

In the above example, the writer has done the followings:

a) concludes the essay (sentence 1)

b) reinstate thesis statement (sentence 2)

Task 6.8

Write the concluding paragraphs for the two topics you have chosen in Task 6.6.

1. _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 153

6.8. Things to Remember

To write a good compare and contrast essay, remember the followings:

Be sure of the pattern you want to use

Stick to the pattern you choose.

Narrow the topic. State the features you want to compare or contrast very

clearly so that you would not write anything irrelevant.

Think of who you are writing to.

Write clear topic sentences.

Free write or brainstorm some ideas that might help.

Drop unnecessary information that is not necessary.

Make an outline with the steps of how you will write it.

Revise.

Proofread to make sure that you have no errors in grammar or spelling,

punctuation, or mechanics.

Task 6.9

Write a compare and contrast essay of your choice. Bear in mind that you should

choose a pattern in presenting your ideas.

Writing Skills 154

SELF ASSESSMENT

Based on the topic “Studying and Working‖, complete the followings:

1. Write the thesis statement to compare or contrast studying and working.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. Write the first topic sentence.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

3. List three supporting details for the first topic sentence.

a)

__________________________________________________________

b)

__________________________________________________________

c)

__________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 155

4. Write the second topic sentence.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

5. List three supporting details for the second topic sentence.

a)

__________________________________________________________

b)

__________________________________________________________

c)

__________________________________________________________

6. Write the third topic sentence.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 156

7. List three supporting details for the third topic sentence.

a)

__________________________________________________________

b)

__________________________________________________________

c)

__________________________________________________________

8. Write the concluding statement.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 157

REFERENCES

Langan, J. (2002). English skills with readings. Boston: McGraw Hill

Lannon, J.M. (2001). The Writing Process. New York: Longman

Meyer, A. (2003). Writing with confidence. New York: Longman

Winkler, A.C & McCuen-Metherell, J.R. (2003). Writing talk. New Jersey: Prentice

Hall

http://eslbee.com/contrast_vacation_beach_or_city.htm

Writing Skills 158

UNIT 7

CLASSIFICATION ESSAY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

1. classify things into categories and provide examples for them.

2. write thesis statement in the introductory paragraph of the classification essay.

3. develop the body of classification essay into paragraphs with each paragraph

consisting of a topic sentence.

4. write concluding statements for the conclusion paragraph of a classification

essay.

5. use language that represents categories accurately.

7.1 Understanding Classification Essay

Do you know what a classification essay is? Have you heard of it? Have you been

asked to write one? According to Ozagac (2004), a classification essay requires a

person to classify things into categories and provide examples of things that fit into

each category. Let‘s look at the examples below provided by Ozagac (2004) on

different types of computers (PCs & servers).

5 types of

computers

Criteria: Functions Criteria: Capabilities

1.PC General use by a single person desktop: permanent

laptop: portable

2. Workstation Used by 3D graphics, game

development

powerful microprocessor,

additional memory and

enhanced capabilities

Writing Skills 159

3. Server Used to provide services to other

computers

have powerful processors,

lots

of memory and large hard

drives

4. Main Frame Used in business enables hundreds of people

to work together

5.Super

Computer

Used for jobs that take massive

amount of calculating

very powerful

For example, if you are interested to write about types of residential colleges, each of

your developmental paragraphs should discuss the features of a different type of

residential college.

Task 7.1

Let‘s try this. First, think of the different types of residential colleges that you know.

Then, think of the different features of those residential colleges that you can classify.

Figure 7.1: Different Type of Residential Colleges

HOUSE

Writing Skills 160

Table 7.1: Types of Residential Colleges and Their Features

Features

Types

Of

Residential

Colleges

Task 7.2

You may also choose the following topics as your classification essay and brainstorm

your ideas as in Task 7.1.

a. Favourite Shopping Malls

Writing Skills 161

i) Types of Favourite Shopping Malls

ii) Criteria of the Shopping Mall

Writing Skills 162

b. Reality Shows on Television

Writing Skills 163

c. Social Networking Sites

Writing Skills 164

7.2 Organization

The organization of a classification essay is very simple. Like any other essays, you

need to divide your paragraphs into the Introduction, Body of the Essay and

Conclusion section. In the Introduction Paragraph, you need to have a thesis

statement. This thesis statement should state that there are how many types of

something that you have chosen and what are their features or properties. For

instance, in the case of the computer as mentioned above, your thesis statement

should state that there are 5 types of computers and each of the computers is

compared in terms of their functions and capabilities. The body paragraphs should

include the number of types mentioned in the thesis statement. So, in the case of the

computers just now, you need to have at least 5 paragraphs for the Body of the

Essay. You need to define and provide explanation of each of the type. You also

need to show the similarities and differences of these types. This would enable your

readers to understand better.

Tips on Organizing the Classification Essay

a. Identify the group and try to distinguish it by giving a specific name to avoid the

reader from being confused.

b. Describe the category properly. State the similarities of the members in the category.

Once the category is defined, discuss the common characteristics of the category‘s

members.

c. Supply relevant examples with good elaborations on the categories used in your

classification. Remain objective by providing vivid descriptions of the categories.

d. Give clear distinction on how one category is different from another. Use the compare

and contrast techniques when discussing different categories. Stay coherent in terms

of order when discussing the categories.

Writing Skills 165

Let’s look at the following essay:

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these

words imply the size, expected use or capability of the computer.

While the term ―computer‖ can apply to virtually any device that has a

microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that

receives input from the user through a mouse or keyboard, processes

it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen. Computers can

be divided into five according to the purpose they are used for and

their capabilities.

TITLE OF THE

ESSAY

Look at the

sentence in red.

This is the thesis

statement.

Introduction

The most familiar type of microprocessor is the personal computer

(PC). (It designed for general use by a single person. While a Mac is

also a PC, most people relate the term with systems that run the

Windows operating system. PCs were first known as

microcomputers because they were a complete computer but built

on a smaller scale than the huge systems in use by most

businesses.) A PC can come in two types (three if we include the

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) that differ from PCs not by the working

policy but in appearance as well.): Desktop and laptop. The former is not

designed for portability.

The expectation with desktop systems is that you will set the computer up

in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and

versatility for less cost than their portable brethren. On the other hand, the

laptops - also called notebooks - are portable computers that integrate the

display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and

hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an

average hardcover book.

Paragraph 1

Personal

Computer

(Body)

Topic

Sentence

The

functions of

a PC PC

Capabilities

Writing Skills 166

Another purpose for using a microprocessor is as a workstation.

[The computers used for this purpose have a more powerful processor,

additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special

group of task,] such as 3D Graphics or game development.

TOPIC

SENTENCE

Capabilities of

Workstation

Function of

the

workstation

Paragraph 2 Workstation (Body)

A fourth type, a main frame is the heart of a network of computers

or terminals which allows hundreds of people to work at the

same time on the same data. It is indispensable for the business

world. These machines are huge both in size and in capacity. Generally

they are kept in a separate room where nobody can reach since their

breakdown can cause a fortune to the company.

Paragraph 3 Server (Body)

Topic Sentence

Function

of the

server

Capabilities

of the

server

Sometimes, computers can be used for specialized fields as well. The

supercomputer is the top of the heap in power and expense. It is used for

jobs that take massive amounts of calculating, like weather

forecasting, engineering design and testing, serious decryption, and

economic forecasting.

Paragraph 4

Super-computer

(Body)

Topic Sentence

Capabilities of

the

supercomputer

Function of the Supercomputer

Writing Skills 167

http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Classification%20Essay.htm

How to write the thesis statement of a classification essay? The following are some

tips:

The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified.

Sometimes the categories are named.

e.g. Tourists in Pulau Tioman can enjoy three water sports: snorkeling,

surfing, and sailing.

With the increasing demand in different specialties, new

adjustments are being made to microprocessors and new types of

computers that serve different purposes emerge. In this ongoing

process, it would not possible to put a full stop here. What we

suggest is that it is better to keep en eye on the development of science

in this field and keep updating our knowledge in order not to be out-of-

date like the

computers of old times that were as big as a room.

Concluding Paragraph

Concluding

Remark

Suggestions

Writing Skills 168

Task 7.3

Underline the thesis statement in the following introductory paragraph of the

classification essay.

a. Working at a supermarket has given me a chance to observe the different

ways human beings behave. I like to think of the shoppers as rats in a lab

experiment, and the aisles are a maze designed by a psychologist. Most of the

customers follow a dependable route, walking up and down the aisles,

checking through my counter, and then escaping through the exit door. But not

everybody is so dependable.

(taken from: http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php)

b. Money is the foremost incentive why infinite people work around the world.

There are unequal classifications of jobs that contain more physical labor or

deskwork. Some work as rescuers, businessmen, consultants, a student,

doctors, or even garbage men. No matter where an individual works, they will

always encounter three types of workers: Hard-Workers, Slackers, and

Mediocres.

(taken from: http://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=42948)

c. There are three types of domestic cats: indoor domestic cats, outdoor

domestic cats, and indoor-outdoor domestic cats. Though these cats would

look very similar if they were clean and sitting next to each other, they would

also be very different.

(taken from: http://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=42948)

Writing Skills 169

Task 7.4

Based on the ideas that you have brainstormed in Task 7.2, write the introductory

paragraph for each of the following topic. Make sure that your introductory

paragraph has a thesis statement.

a. Favourite Shopping Malls

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

b. Reality Shows on Television

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 170

c. Social Networking Sites

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Task 7.5

Underline the topic sentence in each of the paragraph below. Identify the main points

and elaboration of the main points.

a. The first type of unusual shopper is one that I call the amnesiac. He always

seems to be going down the aisles against the normal flow of traffic. He

mutters things to himself because he left his shopping list at home. When he

finally makes it to my register and starts unloading the cart, he suddenly

remembers the one item of food that brought him here in the first place. He

then resumes his trip around the store while the customers waiting in line start

to grumble impatiently. Inevitably, when it comes time to pay for the goods, the

amnesiac discovers that he has left his wallet at home. I don't say a word. I

just void his receipt and tell him to have a nice day.

Writing Skills 171

Main Point:

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Elaborations:

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

b. Senior citizens mean well, I guess, but they can also try my patience. One

man stops by several times a week, more to pay a visit than to shop. He

wanders around the aisles slowly, pausing now and then to read a box of

cereal or squeeze a roll or sniff one of those lemon-scented blobs of room

freshener. But he never buys very much. When he finally comes up to the

checkout, this type likes to chat with me--about my hair, his bunions, or that

pretty tune tinkling out of the ceiling speakers. Although the people waiting

behind him in line are usually fuming, I try to be friendly. I really don't think this

man has anywhere else to go.

MainPoint:

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 172

Elaborations:

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

c. Even more annoying is someone I call the hot shopper. You can tell that she

plans her shopping trip days in advance. She enters the store with a

pocketbook on her arm and a calculator in her hip pocket, and she carries a

shopping list that makes the Dewey Decimal System look chaotic. Like a

soldier marching in a parade, she struts from one sale item to another,

carefully organizing things in her basket by size, weight, and shape. Of

course, she is the biggest complainer: something she wants always seems to

be missing or mispriced or out of stock. Often the manager has to be called in

to settle her down and set her back on course. Then, when she reaches my

lane, she begins barking orders at me, like "Don't put the grapes in with the

Nutty Ho Hos!" In the meantime, she stares at the prices on the register, just

waiting to jump on me for making a mistake. If my total doesn't match the one

on her calculator, she insists on a complete recount. Sometimes I make up the

difference myself just to get her out of the store.

Main Point:

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Elaborations:

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 173

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

(taken from: http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php)

Task 7.6

Write three paragraphs which contain the body of the classification essay based on

the ideas that you have brainstormed and categorized in Task 7.2. Make sure you

write one topic sentence and three sentences to elaborate the main point for each of

the paragraph.

a. Favourite Shopping Malls

___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 174

_________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Task 7.7

Underline the concluding statement in the paragraph below.

a. To be truthful, most of the people who pass through my checkout are quietly

efficient and polite--and a little boring. Though the abnormal ones may try my

patience, they also help to make a dull job more interesting. So, for your own

amusement keep an eye out for these characters the next time you pull into

the parking lot of the Piggly Wiggly: a fellow trying to unlock his car with a coat

hanger, a woman fussing at the bag boy for squashing a grape, and a sweet

old man who may try to tell you about the arthritis in his knees or the

expiration date on his buttermilk.

( taken from: http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php)

Writing Skills 175

Write the concluding paragraph for Task 7.6 based on the paragraphs that you have

developed and make sure that the paragraph consists of the concluding statement.

b. Favourite Shopping Malls

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

7.3 Language

The most common transition used while classifying are the first kind/type/group, the second

kind/type/group or the third kind/type/group.

Look at the example below:

One of the quickest and most popular breakfast foods is cold cereal. There's a wide

selection and various name brands to choose from. For people with a sweet tooth, the

choice is plentiful. For instance, Frosted Corn Flakes, made by Kellogg's, is a grain cereal

that consists of fine corn flour, sugar, sugar, and sugar, plus corn syrup, calcium carbonate,

trisodiumphosphate, and topopherol to preserve freshness. For the health conscious,

Honey Bunches of Oats is one of many alternatives. Made by Post, it is also a grain

cereal which comes with a list of ingredients that doesn't sound like Chemistry 101! It

contains corn, whole wheat, rolled oats, and brown sugar instead of processed

sugar, almond, rice, and of course, honey. Sure, one can disguise a bowl of cereal

with slices of banana or juicy strawberries, but that's where the excitement ends! No

matter the camouflage, a bowl of cereal has the potential to become redundant

quickly.

Writing Skills 176

The following phrases are examples on how the reference for categories can be

made as in the above paragraph.

One of the quickest and most popular

For people with a sweet tooth

For the health conscious

Task 7.8

Underline the phrases that show reference to the categories.

a. Another option that might satisfy one's palate in the morning is hot cereal.

Perhaps not as popular as cold cereal but just as quick to get to the table, this

breakfast food does not fall in the "exciting" category. It does, however,

command the respect of other health foods; it is wholesome and known to

lower cholesterol levels. The only disadvantage is its extremely fixed quantity

of assortment. One can only find three or four selections in any given

supermarket. One of the most sold is Quaker Oats. Its ingredient is quite

simple: one hundred percent rolled oats! Oats can be prepared effortlessly.

With just two parts boiling water and one part oats, breakfast is served.

Another variety of hot cereal, grits, is equal in taste but very different in

texture. It is made of finely ground wheat and salt. It comes in twelve individual

packets to a box which makes it convenient. Grits is prepared in the same

manner as oats and just as quickly, so quickly that there would still be time to

prepare a bowl of corn flakes instead!

b. The last category of the breakfast dilemma is the greasy food group which

includes the likes of bacon, eggs, and their associates. This type of meal is not

the quickest to make, but for certain, is the most desirable. After days of corn

flakes and grits, this is a criminal's last meal before the execution! The list of

choices is endless. Topping it, of course, is bacon and eggs. Bacon comes not

only in different brands but also in different thicknesses, smoked and regular.

Some bacon comes with less fat than others, but all comes with much more

fat than it should. Eggs come in various sizes and colors: small, medium,

large, and extra large. They're packed in half dozen, one dozen, or a baker's

dozen of eighteen to a carton. Their shell's colors range from white, brown to

Writing Skills 177

pastel blue and pale yellow. Though there's only one way to prepare bacon,

eggs can be cooked in numerous ways. They can be scrambled, hard-boiled,

poached, pan fried, or made into omelettes. For those who prefer a "hardier"

breakfast, a variety of sausage can be added to the menu. Beef sausage and

Kielbasa sausage are the most popular. They can be baked and served sliced

with warm bread. Although they're delicious, most sausage contains nitrite, a

quantity. However, preferable this group of breakfast food is, it contains too

much fat and cholesterol and should be consumed with moderation.

(taken from: faculty.ksu.edu.sa/aldarby/Pages/example-classification-essay.aspx)

Task 7.9

From the process that you have gone through on how to write a classification essay,

let‘s try to brainstorm ideas and write a complete classification essay. You may

choose one of the following topics:

On-campus jobs for students

Online educational resources

Videos on YouTube

Styles of eating in the cafeteria

High school teachers or college professors

Ways of protecting the environment

Title

Introduction

Paragraph

___________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 178

Body of

Essay

Category 1

Paragraph 1

Category 2

Paragraph 2

Category 3

Paragraph 3

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 179

Concluding

Paragraph

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

7.4 Revisiting Your Draft

Once you have finished writing your essay, revised your work by going through the

questions in the following checklist:

Have I made my ideas clear by stating my thesis statement in the introduction

paragraph?

What is the purpose of my classification essay? Do I intend to inform,

entertain, evaluate or persuade? Have I made my purpose clear to the

readers?

Have I made the introduction paragraph interesting for my readers?

Have I organized my essay accordingly?

Is there a continuity and coherence in the paragraphs I develop?

Have I stated the topic sentence clearly in each of the paragraph?

Have I elaborated on the topic sentence by elaborating my ideas and

providing examples?

Have I used correct words and phrases to provide reference to the

categories?

Have I maintained a consistent tone in the essay?

Writing Skills 180

Have I used the correct words to convey my ideas?

Is the structure of my sentence correct?

Is there any glaring grammatical mistakes made?

Have I written a concluding statement in my conclusion paragraph?

Have my conclusion paragraph summed up the main ideas in the essay?

SELF ASSESSMENT

Test 1

Topic: Compulsive Shopper

1) Brainstorm on how you can classify on the topic of Compulsive Shopper.

Writing Skills 181

Test 2

Write an introductory paragraph for the classification essay entitled ―Compulsive

Shopper‖.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Test 3

Choose one of the main points that you have brainstormed above and write a

paragraph which consists of a thesis statement and elaborate the ideas into three

sentences.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 182

Test 4

Write a concluding paragraph for the topic ―Compulsive Shopper‖.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 183

REFERENCES

http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Classification%20Ess

ay.htm

http://www.essaymall.com/Classification_essay.php

http://grammar.about.com/od/developingessays/a/draftclass07.htm

http://essayinfo.com/essays/classification_essay.php

http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php

http://www.ehow.com/about_4597015_what-classification-essay.html

http://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=42948

http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/aldarby/Pages/example-classification-essay.aspx

Writing Skills 184

UNIT 8

RECOGNIZING SENTENCES AND FIXING

FRAGMENTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

2. identify subjects and verbs in sentences.

3. write complete sentences with subject-verb and agreement.

4. recognize and identify group of words with sentence fragments.

5. rewrite group of words with fragments into complete sentence.

8.1 How do we identify subjects and verbs?

When you write a sentence in your essay, you have to remember that every

sentence has a subject and a verb. A subject is the ‗who‘ or ‗what‘ the sentence is all

about. A verb is what the sentence says about the subject. The verb usually is in the

form of an action or what the subject is doing. Usually ‗S‘ stands for subject and ‗V‘

stands for verb. For example:

The boys laughed.

S V

Most graduates attended the convocation.

S V

Writing Skills 185

Task 8.1

Identify the subject and the verb in the following sentences.

1. A huge thunderstorm ruined the air display in Langkawi.

Subject: _______________

Verb: _______________

2. A bee stung the baby on his cheeks.

Subject: _______________

Verb: _______________

3. The two celebrities like to quarrel over small issues.

Subject: _______________

Verb: _______________

4. The old lady sat a few minutes on the park bench.

Subject: _______________

Verb: _______________

5. My laptop and computer tablet are stolen from my office.

Subjects: _______________

Verbs: _______________

6. Mikhail and Haikal ate at Mac. Donalds and then went shopping.

Subjects: _______________

Verbs: _______________

Writing Skills 186

7. Liza and Anne have bought a glittering golden pendant.

Subjects: _______________

Verbs: _______________

8. The lorry began to sputter on the highway.

Subjects: _______________

Verbs: _______________

9. The newlywed couples have decided to go to Bangkok for their honeymoon.

Subjects: _______________

Verbs: _______________

10. Vampires and werewolves are repelled by garlic.

Subjects: _______________

Verbs: _______________

8.2 Do you know what a subject-verb agreement is?

Subjects can be nouns or pronouns. They can be singular in which they represent

one particular thing, place or a person. They can also be plural in which they

represent two or more things, places or persons. A singular subject takes a singular

verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. For example:

Writing Skills 187

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB NOTES

The lady boss requires a lot

of help and support from her

subordinates.

Many professional

footballers make a lot of

money.

Verb + -s = singular

Noun + -s = plural

That magazine on political

views is interesting.

The ideas in his biography

are interesting.

A prepositional phrase that

comes between a subject

and a verb does not affect

the verb.

Some of the equipment is

good.

Some of the equipments

are good.

The verb is determined by

the noun which follows an

expression of quantity.

Examples of the expressions

of quantity: most of, half of,

some of and two thirds of.

The number of students in

the class is fifteen.

A number of students are

late.

The number is a subject.

A number of is an expression

of quantity. It is followed by a

plural noun and a plural verb.

There is a vase on the table. There are vases on the

table.

There is a vase –singular

There are vases – plural

Every girl has been given a

room.

Every or each require

singular verb.

Each baby requires a

mother‘s love.

Everyone is here.

Everybody is there.

Everyone and everybody

take a singular verb.

One of my nieces is getting

married.

One of + plural noun +

singular verb

Writing Skills 188

None of the volunteers is

here.

Subjects with none of are

considered as singular in

formal English.

The news is interesting yet

shocking to many people.

News is usually used as

singular.

Six hours of sleep is

enough.

Five dollars is too little to

pay.

Expressions of time, money

and distance are usually

singular.

Physics is easy for her.

Statistics is a discipline to

be studied.

The statistics in that report

are not accurate.

Chinese is a difficult

language.

The Chinese are kind and

helpful.

Task 8.2

Choose the correct answer from the two words in the parentheses.

1. Half of this money ______________ (belong, belongs) to my brother.

2. One of the lectures ______________ (is, are) going to meet me at the

conference.

3. Many people in this world _______________ (do, does) not have a place to

live.

4. Thirty minutes _____________ (is, are) the maximum hour to answer the quiz.

5. The English _________________ (drink, drinks) more tea than the American.

6. None of my friends ____________ (is, are) at the party.

Writing Skills 189

7. A lot of students in the class ___________________ (is, are) from European

countries.

8. January and February ________________ (is, are) the coldest month of the

year.

9. The taxes for our car ___________________ (is, are) high because we live in

the city.

10. The blind _____________________ (read, reads) using Braille.

Task 8.3

Each of the following passage contains two mistakes in subject-verb agreement.

Find these two mistakes and cross them out. Then write the correct form of each

verb in the space provided.

1. Few people recalls of seeing baby crow. The reason is simple. Baby crows in

the nest eats a huge amount of food every day. Before leaving the nest, they

are close to the size of their parents.

a. __________________

b. __________________

2. Everything in the supermarket are on sale today. Customers from everywhere

are overcrowding the spaces. There is terrific bargains in many departments.

a. __________________

b. __________________

3. All the neighbours meets once a year for the Hari Raya gathering. Everyone

talks and has fun until late night. Many delicious foods is served on the tables.

Later, everyone goes home and sleeps all day.

a. __________________

b. __________________

Writing Skills 190

4. The members of the football team paces nervously at the side of the football

field. The referee blows a whistle. The new footballer run into the field to get

to his position.

a. __________________

b. __________________

5. When Mila comes home from school each day, her work is just starting. The

members of her family all works in their Café. Nobody rest until the last

customer has gone home. Only then Mila and her brother start doing their

homework.

a. __________________

b. __________________

8.3 Have you heard of Sentence Fragments?

As mentioned at the beginning of this unit, every sentence must have a subject and a

verb and they must also express a complete thought. According to Langan (2002), a

word group that lacks a subject or a verb and that does not express a complete

thought is a fragment. Based on your understanding of subject and verb, underline

the following statements that you think are not a complete sentence.

1. Because I could not eat. I start reading the magazines in the restaurant.

2. Calling his cat‘s name. Ash walked into the backyard of his house.

3. My little sister will drink anything. Except milk, soya and yogurt drinks.

4. The copy writer turned on her laptop computer. Then began to type frantically.

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Let‘s analyze the above statements.

Statements Explanation

1. Because I could not eat. I start

reading the magazines in the

restaurant.

Because I could not eat is not a complete

sentence because the writer does not

complete the verb by telling us why he

could not eat.

2. Calling his cat‘s name. Ash

walked into the backyard of his

house.

Calling his cat‘s name. This word group

has no subject and no verb and

therefore, does not express a complete

thought.

3. My little sister will drink anything.

Except milk, soya and yogurt

drinks

Except milk, soya and yogurt drinks. This

word group also does not have a subject

and a verb so it does not express a

complete thought.

4. The copy writer turned on her

laptop computer. Then began to

type frantically.

Then began to type frantically is not a

complete sentence. This word group has

no subject. One way to correct is to add

the subject she.

Writing Skills 192

8.3.1 The Most Common Types of Fragments

Type 1: Dependent Word Fragments

Types of Fragment Examples

Dependent-word fragments Dependent Words

After, although, even if, whenever, although, in order

that, where, as, since, whether, because, while, even

though, until, unless, whose, whoever, how.

Fragmented Sentence

After I left him. I went overseas to pursue my

career.

A dependent word group like after cannot

stand on its own.

My sister refused to diet. Unless I diet also.

A dependent word group like unless I diet also

cannot stand on its own.

Correcting Fragmented Sentence

After I left him, I went overseas to pursue my

studies.

The phrase with the dependent word above

has been attached to the next sentence so the

phrase no longer stands on its own.

My sister refused to diet unless I diet also.

The phrase with the dependent word has been

combined with the sentence before to make it

complete.

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Task 8.4

Turn each of the following dependent word groups into a sentence by adding a

complete thought. Put a comma after the dependent word group if a dependent word

starts the sentence.

1. Although the jet fighters are nervous to perform the aerobatics display

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2. Because it was raining

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

3. If your mother lend you twenty thousand ringgit

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

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4. Since the driver was so exhausted

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

5. Before the examiner entered the hall

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 195

Type 2: -ing and to Fragments

Types of Fragments Examples

-ing and to Fragments When an –ing words appear at or near the start of a

word group, a fragment may result.

Fragmented Sentence

I spent almost one hour on the phone

yesterday. Trying to find a petrol station to

fill in the gas for my car. Eventually I ran out

of it and had to stop by the roadside.

It is a fragmented sentence because there is

no subject in trying to find a petrol station to fill

in gas for my car.

Jamie is very happy with the satin gown that

she bought for graduation ball. Not realizing

after a few days later that her best friend

had also bought the same gown.

It is a fragmented sentence because there is

no subject in not realizing after a few days

later that her best friend also bought the same

gown.

She looked forward to be on her own. It being

the only time that she has some peace

from the chaos of her busy life.

It is a fragmented sentence because being is

not the correct form of the word to be used.

Writing Skills 196

Correcting Fragmented Sentence

I spent almost an hour on the phone

yesterday, trying to find a petrol station to fill in

the gas for my car.

By joining the previous sentence to the

dependent word with –ing, the sentence

becomes a complete thought.

Jamie is very happy with the satin gown that

she bought for graduation ball. She did not

realize after a few days later that her best

friend had also bought the same gown.

By adding the subject ‗she‘, it becomes a

complete sentence.

She looked forward to be on her own. It was

the only time that she had some peace from

the chaos of her busy life.

By changing the verb ‗being‘ to ‗was‘, the

sentence is no longer fragmented.

Writing Skills 197

Task 8.5

Underline the –ing or to fragment or fragments in each item. Use one of the

methods of correction as shown in the above examples.

1. A mysterious letter arrived under my office door yesterday. Bearing no

sender‘s address. I was shocked to find a book inside.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2. Eisha covered herself and went to work in the cold bitter morning. To

attend an important meeting with the business partners from Moscow.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

3. Looking sad and miserable. The parents waited anxiously outside the

operation theatre. The operation was due to finish in an hour time.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 198

4. Planning for a trip. Delia switched on her JPS. She wondered if she could

get there on time since she didn‘t know much about the area.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

5. Hitting the table with his fist. He was upset with the outcome of his hard

work. He should have known who he could trust.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 199

Type 3: Added Detail Fragments

Types of Fragments Examples

Added Detail Fragments Added detail fragments lack a subject and a verb.

They often begin with the following words: also,

especially, except, for example, including, such as.

Fragmented Sentence

I love to cook and eat Malaysian food.

Especially nasi lemak and sambal tumis. I

don‘t mind spending time in the kitchen.

Especially nasi lemak and sambal tumis

cannot stand on its own as it is not a

complete sentence.

The meeting always starts late. For example,

yesterday at half past two instead of at

two.

There is a fragment in the second sentence

because there is no subject and a verb.

Faiz scored low marks in a number of papers

in his final examination. Among them

English, Science and Mathematics.

There is a fragment because the dependent

clause cannot stand on its own so the idea is

not complete.

Correcting Fragmented Sentence

I love to cook and eat Malaysian food,

especially nasi lemak and sambal tumis. I

don‘t mind spending time in the kitchen.

When attached to the sentence which

Writing Skills 200

precedes the fragment, the ideas become

complete.

The meeting always starts late. For example,

yesterday it began at half past two instead of

at two.

The ideas in the fragment become complete

when the subject ‗it‘ and the verb ‗began‘ are

added.

Among the papers that Faiz scored low

marks in his final examination were English,

Science and Mathematics.

By changing the words and the structure of

the sentence that precedes the fragment, the

idea in the sentence becomes complete.

Task 8.6

Underline the fragment in each of the items below. Then make it a sentence by

rewriting it, using the examples shown above.

There are many little things that I hate about this hotel. Especially things

related to bed sheets and towels. I will give the manager a piece of my

mind.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 201

I could feel Fitri‘s hatred building listening to his comments. Like a volcano

ready to explode. I was just observing what was to happen next.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

We went hiking without a few essential equipments. Among other things,

our medical supplies and extra sneakers.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

It‘s always hard for me to get back to work. Especially after a long break.

However, I always force myself to be motivated.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 202

Shaqira did most of her shopping online through fashion blogs. Especially

the executive apparel blogspot.com.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Jibrel has an enormous energy. For example, the ability to play tennis in

the morning and then go swimming all afternoon.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

One of my greatest satisfaction is life is eating desserts. Such as cheese

cakes, ice-cream and chocolate éclairs. Chocolate fondue drives me

crazy.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 203

The grandmother couldn‘t stand to be touched. Except by her own

daughter.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

The finance officer gave her some excellent suggestions for staying out of

debt. Including creating a budget.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Mokhtar is so paranoid he‘s put four locks on his bedroom door. In addition

to installing a security system.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 204

Type 3: Missing Subject Fragments

Types of Fragments Examples

Missing subject fragments People usually write missing subject fragments

because they assume that the subject in the sentence

which precedes the fragment has already been

applied.

Fragmented Sentence

Normah eats too much appetizers. And then

realized that, when the main course arrived,

her stomach was already full. The clause is

fragmented because there is no subject.

The tour bus skidded on the snow slick

motorway. But missed a signage on the side

of the road. The clause is fragmented because

it is a dependant clause and therefore cannot

stand on its own.

Correcting Fragmented Sentence

Normah eats too much appetizers. She then

realized that, when the main course arrived,

her stomach was already full.

By adding the subject ‗she‘, the sentence

becomes complete.

The tour bus skidded on the snow slick

motorway but missed a signage on the side of

the road. By joining the fragment with the

preceding sentence, the idea becomes

complete.

Writing Skills 205

Task 8.7

Underline the missing-subject fragment in each item. Then rewrite the part of the

item needed to correct the fragment.

1. I tried on my blouse that had been hanging in my wardrobe for quite some

time. And discovered, to my surprise, that it was too loose to be worn.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

2. When Aidan had a sore throat, his mom told him to gargle with salt water.

Or suck on an ice cube. The bizarre advice that he got was to stop

swallowing.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

3. One of my college lecturers annoyed me with her criticism. Also, seated us

in rows from the highest achiever to the lowest achiever. I can imagine

how the student in the last seat must have felt listening to her critiques.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 206

8.4 Reviewing for Fragments

How do we help ourselves to check for fragments? The following are some tips.

Read your essay aloud from the beginning until the last sentence. This is

to make sure whether you see or hear that each word group is a complete

thought.

If you feel that a word group is fragment, see whether it contains a subject

and a verb. See also whether it expresses a complete thought.

Be on the lookout of the most common fragments that you have learned.

For instance, the dependent word fragments, the –ing and to fragments,

the added detail fragments and the missing subject fragments.

Task 8.8

Turn each of the following word groups into a complete sentence. Use the

spaces provided.

1. With sweaty face

________________________________________________________

2. Even when it is flooding

________________________________________________________

3. When the alarm went off

________________________________________________________

4. In order to save some money

________________________________________________________

5. We are having a celebration

________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 207

6. During the holiday season

________________________________________________________

7. The store where I worked

________________________________________________________

8. Before the movie started

___________________________________________________________

9. Down in the basement

___________________________________________________________

10. Feeling very confident

_______________________________________________________________

SELF ASSESSMENT

Test 1

Read the passage carefully and underline the sentence which is a fragment.

Zara wasn‘t watching her plate of barbecue very carefully. So, Ashman, the family

―Denis the Menace‘, took a chicken leg hanging at the edge of the plate. As

baked beans and potato salad slid into her new sandals.

Writing Skills 208

Test 2

Rewrite the following sentence which contains a subject verb agreement.

There is many reasons as to why I love that man till I die.

___________________________________________________________

Test 3

Rewrite the following sentence so that it doesn’t become a run-on

sentence.

This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.

___________________________________________________________

Writing Skills 209

REFERENCES:

Azar, Betty Schramper. (2003) . Understanding and using English Grammar. New York: Pearson Education. Langan, J. (2002). English Skills with Readings. Boston, USA: Mc Graw Hill. Lannan, J. M. (2001). The Writing Process. 7th. Ed. New York: Longman. Meyers, A. (2003). Writing with Confidence. Writing Effective Sentence and Paragraph. New York: USA. Winkler, A.C. and Mccuen-Metherell, J. R. (2003). Writing Talk : Paragraphs and Short Essays with Readings. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.