piazzolla’s tango etude no. 3 interpretation in practice685076/s4385621_final... · ii abstract...
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Piazzolla’s Tango Etude no. 3:
Interpretation in Practice
Josephine Lagerlow
BMus (Hons)
A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy
at the University of Queensland in 2017
School of Music
ii
Abstract
This paper outlines a number of factors with relation to performance interpretations of
Astor Piazzolla’s Tango Etude no. 3. Information gathered from analysis of form and
potential interpretive practices as supported in literature was synthesised and used to aid in
a discussion of recorded performances of the work, with regard to idioms found in the
language of tango. The commentary presents each interpretation with reference to
Hellaby’s hierarchical system, focusing on broad aspects of performance which in turn
shape, and are shaped by, more detail-oriented aspects. It was found that there were
significant variations in interpretations of the same work with regard to the choices made in
performance. It is intended that this work assist performers in more effectively conveying
an informed interpretation of Piazzolla’s Tango Etude no. 3, with the potential for further
understanding of the language of tango through this piece’s function as a practical case
study.
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Declaration by author
This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published
or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have
clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in
my thesis.
I have clearly stated the contributions of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical
assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional
editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The
content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of
my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that
has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any
university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any,
have been submitted to qualify for another award.
I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University
Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the
thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968
unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I
acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright
holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained permission from the
copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis.
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Publications during candidature
No publications during candidature.
Publications included in this thesis
No publications included.
Contributions by others to the thesis
Cassandra Slater, flutist, assisted in collaborating with the author in performing Piazzolla’s
Tango Etude no. 3 as part of the performance component of this degree.
Samuel Dickenson assisted in collaborating with the author to typeset the harmonic
analysis of Tango Etude no. 3 found in the appendix section of this thesis.
Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree
None.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my supervisor, Dr. Peter Freeman, and my teacher Mr. Patrick
Nolan for their assistance, time and effort during this degree. Many thanks to Elizabeth
Farrington, who assisted greatly with the administrative aspects of the degree, and Dr.
Warwick Potter, Dr. Simon Perry and Dr. Liam Viney for their feedback.
Many thanks to all of the players who performed alongside me during the two recitals that
made up the performance component of this degree, with considerable dedication of time
and effort. Thanks to the researchers and performers at Reed College’s Tango for
Musicians, with special thanks to Paulina Fain for her valuable feedback and assistance.
Finally, the Graduate School International Travel Award contributed greatly to the
firsthand research possible during this period of study.
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Keywords
music, music performance, music analysis, performance analysis, recording analysis,
Piazzolla, tango, tango nuevo, flute, flute performance
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)
190407, Music Performance, 100%
Fields of Research (FoR) Classification
FoR code: 1904, Performing Arts and Creative Writing 100%
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Contents
Piazzolla’s Tango Etude no. 3: .......................................................................................................... i
Interpretation in Practice ................................................................................................................... i
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Life and experiences ......................................................................................................................... 5
About the tangos ............................................................................................................. 7
Musical analysis: Subjectivity and its function ............................................................ 7
Chapter 2: Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 11
Analysis of music ........................................................................................................... 11
Tango .............................................................................................................................. 13
Piazzolla’s life, works, and tango nuevo .................................................................... 14
Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................................ 17
Data collection ............................................................................................................... 19
Coding ............................................................................................................................. 21
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion............................................................................................. 23
Form and structure ................................................................................................... 23
Potential interpretive practices of tango idioms ................................................... 28
Practical execution of the work as demonstrated by recordings ........................ 33
Comparisons .................................................................................................................. 41
Chapter 5: Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 46
Personal reflection .................................................................................................... 46
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Summary ..................................................................................................................... 47
References ........................................................................................................................................ 48
Appendix A: Tango etudes and harmonic skeletons ................................................................. 53
Appendix B: Piazzolla’s Adiós Nonino: Score/performance comparison. ............................ 57
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List of Figures
Ex. 1. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Opening rhythmic motif, bar 1. ....................... 24
Ex. 2. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Secondary A motif, bar 16. ............................... 24
Ex. 3. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). B section, bars 40-42. ......................................... 25
Ex. 4. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). B section repeated harmonic outline, bars 32-
35. ...................................................................................................................................................... 25
Ex. 5. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Phrase extension and change of rhythmic
ostinato, bars 47-48. ........................................................................................................................ 26
Ex. 6, Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Harmonic skeleton of C. ................................... 26
Ex. 7, Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Bars 49-50; beginning bars of C. ...................... 27
Ex. 8, Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Bars 55-56; repetition of initial melodic material
with more complexity. .................................................................................................................... 27
Ex. 9. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987), bar 26-27. Demonstration of paired notes in
which the “inward-outward” or “semi-slurred” motion could be appropriate in execution.
........................................................................................................................................................... 31
x
List of Figures
Figure 1. Types of analysis and progression. .............................................................................. 18
Figure 3. Characteriser usage. ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2. Tempo table for sections of Tango Etude no. 3. ..... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 4: Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). ............................................................. 53
Figure 5. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Harmonic skeleton outlining chords
as written in accompaniment and accented notes within each bar. Lagerlow, Dickenson,
2016. .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 6. Piazzolla, Adiós Nonino (1959). Here shown with score reproduction as
written on top line, with transcription of one method of execution in performance by Fain
(2016). ............................................................................................................................................... 57
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
“There has been a remarkable absence of any educational systematic process of the tango language throughout the history of tango.” (Possetti, 9)
This paper will discuss the possibilities found in Piazzolla’s Tango Etude no. 3 with
respect to performance interpretation, as well as aspects of form, harmony, and historical
context. This etude is the third of six that Piazzolla wrote for the flute and is untitled other
than its tempo indication of Molto marcato e energico. As a part of the modern solo flute
repertoire, these etudes are widely performed within the classical world; however, the score
leaves significant scope for interpretation. This thesis contributes to the author performing
Piazzolla’s etudes as part of the performance component of a Masters of Philosophy.
Given the nature of tango music as a genre and Piazzolla’s methods of
embellishment in performance, interpreting the score without an understanding of its
context could be considered ill-advised from a performer’s viewpoint. Piazzolla’s blend of
jazz, classical and tango is one of the defining features of his compositional style, later
referred to as tango nuevo1. Tango Etude no. 3 functions well as a starting point for a practical
discussion of tango performance, assisting the Western classical art music player in viewing
tango nuevo works with different interpretive possibilities. This paper assists the performer in
finding a focus to view different interpretations of the score, whether it be as urtext2
through written material or as a broader guideline.
“Many performers refer to a score as “the music”. This is wrong, of course.” (Rink, ed. Hill, 129)
1 “New tango”. 2 Commonly defined as the original version of a text, to which later publications can be compared.
2
The function of performance analysis as an academic field is a continually evolving
form of research. Despite differing approaches, it is evident that most within the field agree
on the benefits of analysis with regards to artistically and musicologically satisfying
interpretations3, as discussed by Cook, Hellaby et al.
Many views exist toward the level of engagement necessary for an artistically
satisfying performance with the written score. The same applies to the objectivity of any
given musical analysis and the level of personal engagement desired on the part of the
listener; indeed, these things are by their nature subjective. Stravinsky and Lawson write of
this, suggesting:
It is taken for granted that I place before the performer written music wherein the composer’s will is explicit and easily discernible from a correctly established text. But no matter how scrupulously a piece of music may be notated, no matter how carefully it may be insured against every possible ambiguity through the indications of tempo, shading, phrasing, accentuation, and so on, it always contains hidden elements that defy definition, because verbal dialectic is powerless to define musical dialectic in its totality. (123) There has always been much detail which a composer did not trouble to write in his scores; he simply knew that certain conventions would be observed. Those elements of style which a composer found unnecessary to notate will always remain for us a foreign language, but eventually we may be able to converse freely with it as musicians, and so bring a greater range of expression to our interpretations, rather than merely pursuing some kind of unattainable “authenticity”. (Lawson, 2) The expansion of modern music styles, genres, and instrument design has led
preferred interpretations in performance to change remarkably through generations of
musicians. It can be argued that interpretive choices are best made with regard to multiple
factors: the player’s own developed musical language and ability, a full understanding of the
written score material, and an intimate knowledge of the performance conventions of the
3 For the purposes of this thesis, “interpretation” can be considered to be deliberate decisions made with relation to the execution of a piece in performance, as supported by Rink (2009).
3
time and/or culture of the work they are playing. None of these factors are able to be
applied in a vacuum.
Due to Piazzolla’s distinct separation from classical Western performance
conventions, his oeuvre draws interest when discussing interpretation and intent (Drago;
Link; Quiñones; Tsai). The discussion of unwritten stylistic elements in Piazzolla’s
compositions bears consideration for those without previous tango experience. Many of his
works were influenced by traditional tango, which brings its own set of values and
interpretations to unmarked scores that differ greatly to traditional classical interpretations
of the same work.
Piazzolla leaves a legacy of written discussion of his own works. His interviews and
letters contain a wealth of information about his stylistic influences and discussion of
intention in notation, as do recordings of his own ensembles and performances. All of
these are used as primary evidence in relation to the literature’s discussion of his methods.
As Drago writes:
The idiosyncratic and semi-improvised character of his performances, the continuous revisions to which he subjected his own compositions, the spontaneity of many of his compositional improvements, all render his performances just as reliable and inescapable a reference for the scholar as the printed scores of his compositions with their many arrangements. (28)
As such, any flutist wishing to perform Piazzolla’s music will be assisted in their
task by exploring different areas of knowledge regarding his works. This paper includes a
brief analysis of form and points of interest within Tango Etude no. 3 as a method of
contextualising written information with performance execution, discusses literature
regarding the stylistic idiosyncrasies of tango nuevo, and finishes with a hierarchical analysis
of interpretations recorded by various flutists working both within the tango tradition and
otherwise. The following issues will be discussed not as a single, defined path of “correct
4
interpretation”, but as an open-ended discussion of potential paths that a performer might
take once having assessed the multiple methods of understanding the work.
1: What is the form found in this work, and what are some of the aspects of structure that
can be highlighted in performance?
2: Is there information in the literature that suggests appropriate interpretive practices
within the style or score?
3: How is Tango Etude no. 3 interpreted by different players, and what are the factors that
differentiate their intent and execution?
5
Life and experiences
[Piazzolla]… retained tango’s poignancy and lyricism while rejecting its tendencies toward sentimentality and bouts of morbid self-pity. He revised its harmonic language by incorporating the influences of Maurice Ravel, Claude Debussy, Giacomo Puccini, and Olivier Messiaen, as well as the occasional nod to the cool jazz of Mulligan and Lennie Tristano. He moved away from the dance floor but infused the music with a new vitality by using three-part fugues, a walking bass, jazz-style improvisation, and urgent, brutish accents in echoes of Belá Bartók. (Gorin, 16)
Piazzolla, born in 1921 in Mar del Plata, Argentina, lived in New York from the age
of three until he returned to Argentina as a teenager. During his early compositional career,
he would struggle to reconcile his experiences between the disparate cultures and their
music. He began to study classical composition, while at the same time playing bandoneon
each night with Troilo’s tango orchestra. He then went on to study with the esteemed
Nadia Boulanger in Paris (Fain; Gorin).
After hearing him play his classical works, Boulanger confessed that she found no
spirit in the pieces and asked what Piazzolla wanted to do with his music. He had not told
her about his life with tango, or his bandoneon playing—an instrument deeply embedded
within the language of tango. After his confession, and a demonstration of one of his tango
works to her she famously told him “Astor, this is beautiful. I like it a lot. Here is the true
Piazzolla—do not ever leave him.” (Gorin 71).
After Nadia’s words, Piazzolla would write tango unashamedly, flavouring the
traditional method with classical forms and America’s jazz idioms until he broke away
entirely to form the controversial tango nuevo. This controversy was in part caused by
introduction of non-tango idioms, harmonic language, forms, and instruments into what
had historically been a major part of Argentine national identity (Link, 2016; Merritt;
Quinones, 2013). Though tango nuevo is also now viewed as a style of dancing, Piazzolla’s
6
music was distinctly intended to be a genre which was not created as an inseparable partner
to dance, as tango had been within its Golden Age4, but as music to listen to alone.
In his writing, he expanded upon formal structures of tango by introducing classical
forms and melodic structures, as well as encouraging more freedom within the
accompaniment in his usage of jazz-based rhythmic and improvisatory techniques (Lucas).
The controversy around his changes to what many considered an important part of their
national identity would reverberate for years to come, with traditionalists protesting his
methods (Gorin; Holten-Andersen; Nielsen). Ultimately, however, his music withstood
those criticisms and now has its credentials firmly established as an expansion of the
traditional tango style.
I made a revolution in tango. I broke the old molds; that’s why they attacked me and why I had to defend myself, saying at times a word too many. That curse made me feel bad because if there is something no one could deny, it is my roots: I have tango stamped around my edges.” (Piazzolla, qtd. in Gorin 39)
Through his life and his work, Piazzolla’s great specialty would be the music of
tango, but flavoured in a new fashion, reflecting the world around him and taking influence
from his fascination with both old and new environments. The function of the classically
trained performer, therefore, is to acknowledge this history in performance and to blend
their understanding of the music with an awareness of the traditions and idiosyncrasies of
the genre of tango nuevo. As a performer, it is possible to consider the facets of a genre and
decide to alter or reject them, but to make this judgement with artistic integrity requires
some level of prior knowledge about appropriate performance conventions.
4 The “Golden Age” is a term denoting the period roughly spanning the mid-1930s to the early 1950s, in which tango’s popularity was at its height.
7
About the tangos
Piazzolla wrote two pieces specifically for flute. First in 1986 was his work Histoire
du Tango, chronicling styles of tango through time; secondly, his six Tango Etudes for solo
flute. First published in 1987, the Tango Etudes were written relatively near the end of
Piazzolla’s life in 1992. By this time, he had premiered and led several different types of
ensemble in which he would play and compose for—his Orquesta tipica (1946); the Buenos
Aires Octet (1955), seen as the “…fault line between traditional and contemporary tango”
(Gorin 250); his first quintet (1960); a nonet entitled Conjunto 9 (1971); an electronic octet
(1971); and his second quintet (1978-1989), an ensemble very dear to his heart (Fain;
Gorin). None of the ensembles he formed or regularly played with incorporated flute,
aside from the octet as an instrument doubled rarely by the saxophonist.
This information notwithstanding, he published both flute works during later years
in his life. No research to date has shed light on this interest. Despite interviews with tango
musicians, trips to Buenos Aires and visits to archives, it remains a matter of speculation.
The closest thing to an answer on the topic is found when Quiñones (2011) writes:
In an interview in 2010, arranger and scholar Marcelo Costas in Buenos Aires suggested that the flute pieces were written because Piazzolla wanted to carry on his legacy of tango to other instruments. His supposition was that Piazzolla knew his health was failing, so he chose flute as one of the instruments to feature his music, as it is a popular instrument worldwide. (50)
This can be supported with the fact that Piazzolla would later republish the Tango Etudes for
alto saxophone; another instrument which is distinctly “not tango” in its origins.
Musical analysis: Subjectivity and its function
Musical analysis and its relation to performance is an inherently subjective
discussion. Many different performances can be equally valid, but an understanding of
8
genre conventions allow performers to make coherent artistic decisions. We must be aware
that effective performance is often reliant upon a consistent musical interpretation on the
part of the performer. If the listener’s sense of stylistic consistency or a clear interpretive
vision on the part of the performer is lacking, the interpretation may feel poorly
communicated, insincere, or emotionless. Leech-Wilkinson writes regarding this:
I’ve said that performance style is a collection of habits. What do these habits consist of? Quite simply, they consist of ways of not performing scores literally. A literal sounding… of the pitches and durations of a score is perceived as mechanical and ‘unmusical’. To say that a performance is “musical” in effect means that aspects of what is notated are performed non-literally, with some variation from the notated value which brings a sense of beauty or a feeling of communicated meaning to a performance of the score. (256)
Piazzolla’s attitude toward score reproduction was similar, if perhaps slightly more
laissez-faire—his arrangements of his works differ greatly from performance to
performance, as does his ornamentation of the written score. The skeleton of the work
remains the same, with accented pitches generally functioning as an outline of potential
rhythmic or melodic improvisations.
Initially, an understanding of the overall form and structure is vital to beginning the
interpretation of works; perhaps more so in a work performed by a single line instrument,
as interpretations of the music’s harmonic skeleton must be emphasised without recourse
to overt harmonic changes.
Next comes the knowledge contained in the literary discussion of tango nuevo and
Piazzolla’s interpretive choices in performance, as well as information from his discussions
and interviews. We are immediately presented with an issue – Piazzolla played bandoneon
masterfully, but he did not play flute. There are no performances extant that carry the
express approval or participation of the composer-performer, as we have with many of his
other works.
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Claudio Barile, Argentine flutist, presents another viewpoint on this, remarking We flute players are lucky to have music originally written by Piazzolla. I mention this because nowadays everybody plays Piazzolla, more than ever… Musicians play mostly arrangements of arrangements of those he made of his own music. And when these arrangements are “enriched” by others, the orchestration becomes absolutely random. (2009)
Tango tradition often encourages different instrumental arrangements of works,
with the fundamental style of playing preserved or altered by idiomatic execution of the
score (Fain; Possetti). Despite this, Barile affirms that with each re-orchestration or
instrumentation of a work, the intention of Piazzolla’s composition is lessened somewhat.
Piazzolla writes in the preface to his Tango Etudes: “It is advisable that the
performer should well exaggerate the accents and respirations, therefore inspiring the way
in which tangos are played on the bandoneon.” (Piazzolla, 1987). With this we have one
explicit link to the performance practice of the composer himself – the idiosyncratic sound
of his instrument. Piazzolla would declare later “I play with violence; my bandoneon must
sing and scream. I can’t conceive of pastel tones in tango.” (Gorin 144). Drago further
supports this approach to many of Piazzolla’s compositions, writing “We can be certain
that the bandoneon as a sonority is structural to Piazzolla’s music, both to his performance
style and to his aesthetic and music writing.” (32). The bandoneon as an instrument is
fundamental to traditional tango, representative as a symbol and a sound unique to the
genre. To understand the instrument, as well as the method of creating tango-specific
ornamentation, is the first step to a greater understanding of how to replicate those
qualities.
There are, of course, no recordings by the composer of Piazzolla’s flute pieces.
Thus, as a corollary to the information given from score analysis, a discussion of variations
within different recordings released by experts in the field of flute performance may assist
10
players in considering interpretive practice in their own playing, in conjunction with
information gathered from discussion of specific tango and tango nuevo idioms. Martino (ed.
Brunelli) refers to this cross-cultural discussion:
These works provide us with an exciting opportunity: to compare the phrasing and the mode to make the interpretations shared between Argentine and European flutists. There is “something” created by Piazzolla that Argentines do not find a foreign language. This small regional trait has been used by the performer-composer-director Astor to influence the subtle details. And it is in the tiny fringes – impossible to notate – that the most personal gestures of the art of tango reside.5
Piazzolla remarks on this concept of subtle detail and gesture in a personal email to
violinist Fernando Suárez Paz:
[Piazzolla] called me from San Francisco asking me to urgently travel [to the US] because the people of Kronos didn't know how to play. I told him that that was impossible, that they are one of the best quartets in the world. He insisted so much that I just had to travel. As you should have already figured out, what they did not know were the [special] effects, the tango swing, and that is something that nobody knows how to do unless he was born here [in Buenos Aires]. (143)6
A combination of this knowledge and discussion of the “special effects” of tango
as applicable to Tango Etude no. 3 may assist the performer in determining what
interpretative points would be musically significant in their own performance, and allow
them to incorporate them. As acknowledged by Cook:
…consideration of the performative effects and social consumption of recordings provides a context within which to make sense of observations resulting from close listening or computational evaluation. In short, cultural analysis can be supported
5 “Estas obras nos brindan una interesantísima oportunidad: poder comparar el fraseo y el modo de hacer de la interpretacíon entre los flautistas argentinos y los europeos. Hay “algo” de Piazzolla entre los argentinos que no encontramos el el discurso extranjero. Esta pequeñísima franja de rasgo regional ha sido explotada por el Astor intérprete-compositor-director hasta los más sutiles detalles. Y en esta pequeñísima franja – imposible de graficar – donde reside el gesto más personal del arte del tango.” Trans. Lagerlow, 2016.
6 Al siguiente dia de regresar de una gira por Europa, que eran muy cansadoras, me llama desde
S.Francisco pidiendome que viaje urgente porque los del Kronos no sabian tocar, yo le dije que era imposible, que era uno de los mejores cuartetos del mundo, insistio tanto que tuve que viajar, ya te imaginas lo que ellos no sabian, eran los efectos y el swing tanguero, que eso no lo sabe hacer nadie si no nacio aca. Trans. Drago, 2008.
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by empirical analysis, and empirical analysis given purpose by cultural analysis. It’s a win-win relationship. (2009, 245)
The recordings used within this study, due to their nature as non-live, edited
performances, can be argued to be the closest thing to the musician’s ideal “model” of the
piece – representing their concept of the music as it exists within their minds in “a perfect
soundworld” to some extent more accurately and with more finesse than a live
performance (2009). As Lawson writes, “…the possibilities of recording fundamentally
changed the character of music-making” (ed. Rink, 2002).
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Analysis of music
Musical analysis has historically been a multifaceted issue, with many scholarly
attempts made to quantify and qualify aspects of musicianship, theory, form and structure
through the years. The most basic forms of discussion deal with the score alone;
engagement with “authenticity”; the psychology or physicality of performance; and the
sounds created by the act thereof. The function of deeper analysis in this paper primarily
relates to the audio analysis of performance and the literature regarding interpretive
practice, with a brief contextualisation of score-based information.
Few scholarly works achieve the breadth of concept required to condense separate
areas of analysis into one overarching theme without diluting the supplied information.
Though all methods may overlap in some areas, the questions they raise are varied in
function, and each method in absentia leaves questions that require recourse to other
methods of discussion – a veritable ouroboros of analytics. Cook acknowledges the
drawbacks of all discussed forms of analysis, and sets some conditions on what could be
12
considered a “successful” analysis; namely, that it “…should not aim to be a carbon-copy
of the listener’s experience: rather it should simplify, clarify, and illuminate it” (229). This
paper aims to simplify the performer’s experience with tango idioms by using the Tango
Etude no. 3 as a focal point for practical discussion, thus simplifying abstraction into
performance data.
Cook’s aptly named Guide to Musical Analysis (1987) is a major work regarding the
layman’s approach to different aspects of analysis. It covers in detail several forms of
analysis, categories and methods of discussion that influence these forms, and also
discusses the researcher’s function and the differences between “…the logical structure of
music on the one hand and its expression in sound on the other” (121). Rink (2002) brings
another viewpoint to this sentiment, writing “performers are continually engaged in a
process of “analysis”, only of a kind different to that employed in published analyses. This
sort of “analysis” is not some independent procedure applied to the act of interpretation,
but rather an integral part of the performing process” (36)7.
Cook’s later collaborative work (ed. 2009) outlines potential approaches to the
method of quantifying different categories of musical information, but is limited by the
unquantifiable nature of abstract concepts (e.g. emotions) experienced by the listener;
moments of emotion can, however, be examined by a usage of his methodologies for
different factors of the music combined with an understanding of when these points occur.
A particularly moving moment, for example, may be initiated by three or four separate
musical concepts coming together; the conjunction of rubato, altered dynamic and vibrato
is a particularly common example of one method of attaining this. An analysis of emotion
7 The argument can be made that this thesis functions as a bridging point between the performer’s disparate experiences and the need for unification thereof. Rink argues that players are constantly analysing by virtue of performing, but that there is seemingly a gap between the experience of performance self-analysis and “published analyses”.
13
with regards to different methods of execution in violinists is explored further by De Poli,
Rodá and Vidolin using visualisations of audio information.
Hill (ed. Rink) brings nuance to the discussion from a performer’s point of view,
encouraging the reader to review and justify the methods by which they learn new pieces.
He finishes by reminding the reader that “literal-mindedness” in the case of score
interpretation is often painfully unmusical in intended execution. Dolan (2013) also
discusses the way in which “spontaneous” music making, or improvisation within a
framework can create a “more intuitive attitude” (32), mentioning that listeners studied had
a higher level of engagement with improvised performances than those who listened to
stricter forms of the same works; a topic very relevant to tango tradition.
In his work Reading Musical Interpretation (2009), Hellaby outlines major categories to
be used for the purposes of a formalised, empirical interpretive discussion and/or analysis
of performance, building upon the works of Clarke; Schmalfeldt; Repp; Todd; Seeger; et al.
The designated categories arrived at are similar to those discussed in Liebman (2012) and
Palmer (2015), but are segmented into separate concepts and grouped within hierarchical
levels ranging from the “executive” and comparatively objective functions of score
interpretation, to the more specific “ideals”, functioning as an expression of the
performer’s intent. This defined method of discussion with relation to recorded
performance was used to identify and compare data points between performances of the
Tango Etude no. 3 in the final section of Chapter 4.
Tango
“…It is crucial to understand the language of tango, its styles and the widest palette of resources possible in order to assimilate tango. This need… doesn’t necessarily have to turn into an archaeological process. Each musician and each new composer must re-read the different components of this music in depth, and, with these at hand, search for new possibilities, new materials, which will result in the continued enrichment of the genre.” (Possetti, 9)
14
The performance methods of tango music, primarily transferred orally, are only just
now being catalogued and identified clearly for non-Argentine performers and English
speakers. The difficulty of performing tango without a clear method of interpretation is
obvious—the methods available revolved primarily around close listening of established
artists, ensembles, or recordings. This method, though it is sufficient, is perhaps not the
most efficient manner of learning alone. There are several online resources available for
perusal of scores, recordings and historical information; cybertango.com and
todotango.com are excellent starting points, with multiple languages available and new
information consistently collected.
More practical method books for the aspiring musician are collated in their most
complete form by the Tango Sin Fin organisation under the Método de Tango series, featuring
published works focusing on the roles of individual instruments and methods of execution
of tango idioms, with audio examples and accompaniment tracks to assist.
Several works provide points of discussion for traditionalist tango styles (Merritt,
Viladrich). However, the function of the traditional tango was closely coupled with its use
in dance, and many works about tango spend a significant portion of time on that topic.
Merritt’s work is notable in part due to its extensive discussion of tango as a reflection of
Argentine society and culture, framing it within constructs of gender and sexuality in her
discussion of the dance form, with Link (2013; 2016) and Quinones (2013) also reflecting
deeply on tango’s cultural development to contextualise their research.
Piazzolla’s life, works, and tango nuevo
Piazzolla’s personal life has been researched deeply, with two works published as
biographies. The foremost works written chronicling his life and experiences could be said
15
to be Le Grand Tango: The Life and Music of Astor Piazzolla, by Azzi and Collier (2000), and
Astor Piazzolla: A Memoir by Natalio Gorin (2001).
The appropriately named Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story by Collier, Cooper,
Martin and Azzi (1995) traces the tango through time, with separate authors dealing with
clearly delineated points in its history. In this book Piazzolla’s work is given context within
the greater scope of tango history, including a discussion on the concept of tango nuevo and
its separation from tango as a genre.
Many of the articles relating specifically to analysis of Piazzolla’s compositional
output have been collated in Brunelli’s Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, or “Studies on
the Work of Astor Piazzolla” published 2008. The work opens with a discussion by Kuri on
Piazzolla’s difficult in blending two disparate parts of his life into his music. Mauriño also
discusses the influences of various tango figures on Piazzolla’s compositional and
performance output, with regard to both the techniques used by others that were adapted
into his own work and the players who would become part of his ensembles and shape
them from within. They deal in turn with points such as performance practices within
ensembles (Kutnowski; Kuss) and analysis of selected pieces (Atlas; Brunelli; Pelinski;
Krämer) often from the perspective of one already participating in the tango tradition.
Other discussions published elsewhere deal with separate works of his in terms of
structural analysis, performance practice and historical context, with reference to musicians
who have not necessarily experienced tango previously (Holten-Andersen; Drago; Koh;
Link; Molazadeh; Tsai). Quinones (2013) discusses the framing of authenticity with regard
to the Tango Etudes and approaching tango from an outsider’s perspective, with invaluable
insight into history and performance techniques discussed within this paper.
Tsai (2005) also discusses the aspects of tango nuevo as a disparate concept, using a
score analysis of Piazzolla’s work, Flora’s Game. Link’s work in the field stands out, with her
16
2009 paper providing an in-depth analysis of Piazzolla’s performance practices in his
second quintet, a 2013 thesis paper examining her own performance practise of other
tangueros8, and finally a 2016 book that contextualises the above in a larger framework. Koh
discusses both the history of traditional tango and some of the compositional aspects taken
from jazz found in Piazzolla’s music, using a comparative score analysis of the famous
traditional tango La Cumparasita with several of Piazzolla’s works to discuss differences.
Alejandro Drago’s 2008 paper Instrumental Tango Idioms in the Symphonic Works and
Orchestral Arrangements of Astor Piazzolla: Performance and Notational Problems; A Conductor’s
Perspective is a major dissertation that addresses some of the unique aspects of Piazzolla’s
notational conventions as translated to performance practice. He discusses several points
of interest with relation to this study, in a comprehensive, clear manner; however, his
dissertation primarily deals with string and piano instruments. The function of the work
revolves around the conductor’s challenge of how to best incorporate idiomatic tango
playing into classical musicianship.
8 Experienced players operating within and understanding tango tradition.
17
Chapter 3: Methodology
Musical analysis with relation to performance can be divided neatly into two
primary categories, as set down by Rink (2002). The first is analysis of the intention of a
performance. The second is analysis of a performance after the fact. Rink writes that the
first method is “…whether rigorous or more pragmatic in nature, is potentially prescriptive
with regard to performance, whereas the second type of analysis is descriptive.” The warning
he gives is with relation to the first; that a performer is aware that a systemic attempt to
convey all the information found in formal analysis could “…lead to ludicrous
results…however valuable a knowledge of the processes and relationships implicit in that
analysis might be in building the interpretation” (39).
This paper’s function fits within the first defined area of study–analysis of several
different factors that provides information which can be then used as a preliminary
approach to stylistic decision-making–but also incorporates a more detailed form of
analysis in including retrospective analysis of audio recordings done by others. This is used
to identify commonalities and provide discussion points with relation to relevant literature,
in the hope that listeners can determine whether particular interpretive choices highlighted
within this work are of interest to their own method of execution. Readers can consider the
table below (Fig. 1) as a broad overview of the steps of analysis throughout this work.
18
Figure 1. Types of analysis and progression.
The etude chosen for inclusion within this study was Tango Etude no. 3: Molto marcato
e energico, as it provides material for a discussion of contrasts in execution and style from a
performer’s standpoint. Its function as an etude is made clear through the technical
demands Piazzolla makes on the player in speed of execution, fast articulated passages in
the bottom register, and slurred large intervallic changes. The work provides both
opportunities for virtuosic technical playing, as well as semi-improvisatory melody lines
over slower phrases. It contains simple musical material, with clear form and recurring
melodic and rhythmic concepts that are made explicit to both performer and listener. The
limitation of using a single work for study is clear; however, the scope of this paper does
19
not allow for meaningful discussion of more than this without diluting or condensing
separate branches of analysis.
The function of analysis should firstly assist in identifying points of interest within
the score. In this work, one of the sources of data used was an analysis of the form and
harmonic structure of the work (Liebman; Poli), as well as a discussion of the recurring
rhythmic figures found in this work and other compositions of Piazzolla’s. The form and
harmonic analysis uses the chords as written in the accompanied publication, and places
the accented notes as written within each bar to identify the music’s harmonic skeleton.
Given the limitations of this thesis, this analysis was intended primarily to contextualise
later findings.
Data collection
The initial task was to find a range of recordings from notable artists with
professionally recorded studio interpretations of Tango Etude no. 3. Candidates chosen for
analysis included a balance of Argentine and non-Argentine players operating in different
areas of the world, all of whom are recognised in the field of solo flute performance. Of
the information collected, not all potential candidates were included in the discussion due
to the limitations of this thesis.
Candidates analysed include Claudio Barile, Argentine principal flute of the Buenos
Aires Philharmonic since 1984; Cecile Daroux, a student of Rampal and esteemed soloist
with a Masters in 20th century music; Paulina Fain, Argentine author of The Flute in Tango
(2012) and tango lecturer around the world; Patrick Gallois, another student of Rampal and
renowned soloist in his own right; Eugenia Moliner, one half of the Cavatina Duo, a
guitar/flute partnership who are currently artists in residence at Roosevelt University,
Chicago; and Irmgard Toepper, principal piccolo of the Kassel State Theater Orchestra.
20
The process of close listening was used to obtain information about each
recording9. Individual scores were marked and annotated with symbols assisting the
representation of information from each performer (Liebman) with the originally published
1987 Henry Lemoine score used as an urtext. The marked scores and coded data were
discussed with reference to Hellaby’s proposed framework and with relation to the
attributes of tango discussed previously. All performances were then cross-referenced to
find commonalities and disparities in interpretation.
The intended function of this recording analysis follows Cook’s recommendations
(2009) by functioning as an aid to the performer in identifying specific characteristics
within a subset of the musical information available in order to “…allow a great deal of
interaction between the aural experience on one hand and the analytical rationalization [sic]
on the other” (231).
9 Programs used included Audacity and Transcribe!
21
Coding
Hellaby’s categories consist of:
1. Era (Style)
2. Authorship (Score)
3. Genre
4. Topic (a type associated with the function of the music)
5. Topical Mode (performance qualifiers that do not specify tempo, but rather
“appeal to the imagination… or the emotions”) (38)
6. Characteriser (unique contextual devices that create interest)
7. Tempo
8. Duration Manipulator (rubato)
9. Sonic Moderator (dynamics predominantly, but also the individual method
by which a performer might execute the individual notes in a passage—a
“certain kind of sound” (46).)
Though not all of the categories discussed may be initially apparent, they all serve a
level of function within the performer’s intended interpretation. Hellaby proposes an
analytical framework in which the categories are qualified by their level of engagement with
the performer, using a sliding scale between score-focused concepts or attributes of
execution in performance chosen by the player. Although Hellaby refers to the categories
as moving from the “ideal” to the “executive” from top to bottom, the concept of the
score’s execution as “ideal” is a heavily problematised matter. It could be better thought of
as “informative”, providing data for execution.
22
This method employed as a form of discussion provides a division of categories
that satisfy most aspects of performance practice, which can then be used to initiate
discussion of points of interest. All findings follow and cross-reference aspects of Hellaby’s
proposed framework via synthesis of ideas. He also provides a unification of concept by
providing smaller subgroups to assist discussion. Each group informs the latter groups,
with decisions made at any lower level influencing decisions made above.
Group 1, Era and Authorship, focuses on aspects of music making that are
subjective in their interpretation; the “ideal” that Hellaby refers to is that of the composer’s
intent, and the function of data within this group is primarily to observe aspects of
performance that are referred to by literature as belonging to the tango and tango nuevo style,
as well as referring to the written information which conveys the fundamental information
of any given work.
Group 2 refers to the Genre (in this case, specifically tango nuevo, with a sub-genre
of “etude” and Topic of the piece (not relevant to the work studied here).
Group 3, Topical mode and Characterisers, relies on the broader setting of
genre as discussed in Group 2. It focuses on the specific qualities that affect emotional
impact and reference the genre of the work.
Group 4 contains Tempo, Duration Manipulator, and Sonic Moderator. It
deals with aspects that are primarily discussed with reference to quantitative analysis of
recording data, and that are a direct action of the performer.
23
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion
Form and structure
These six works are most often performed in their original context as solo etudes;
however, a year after they were published, Piazzolla’s publishing company wrote to him to
ask for a harmonised version. Piazzolla sent a manuscript one year later with the note
"Dear friend, finished the piano part of the Etudes tanguistiques for saxo alto and piano...
Good luck to Mr Delangle and please tell him to forgive my music handwriting. I was in a
hurry and could not do it better..."10
The manuscript was so difficult to decipher that the planned 1989 republication of
the works for saxophone with piano included went forward as a publication for solo
saxophone only. Indeed, Piazzolla would pass away more than a decade before their initial
publication in 2003. The existence of this harmony does make the discussion of implied
harmony lines easier on the part of the player. The performer then has the option, even if
performing alone, to create phrases that follow the implicit harmony. Appendix A: Tango
etudes and harmonic skeletonsFigure 5 shows the harmonic structure and skeleton of Tango
Etude no. 3.
The initial tempo given is crotchet = 138, with the direction of molto marcato e
energico. This etude, in A minor, is in a modified ternary form of ABCA; the A section runs
from bar 1 to 39 and then recurs from bar 61 to the end. Section A consists of an initial
eight bar phrase which sets up a characteristic rhythmic line found in many of Piazzolla’s
works—the 3-3-2 pattern which then recurs frequently through the entire piece, always
notated with accent. This rhythm was found in few works within the Golden Age of tango,
10 Taken from the notes for the Henry Lemoine edition of Piazzolla’s Tango Etudes. <https://www.henry-lemoine.com/fr/catalogue/fiche/27733>
24
and has come to be associated most prominently with Piazzolla’s works as a modified
version of the milonga tango rhythm, also influenced by the Klezmer music heard by
Piazzolla during his time in New York (Drago; Lavocah; Link; Maurino et al).
Ex. 1. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Opening rhythmic motif, bar 1.
This rhythmic figure (Ex. 1) becomes an ostinato, with non-accented notes
descending chromatically. The second half of A uses similar melodic material, now
featuring fermatas and more rhythmic complexity. A downwards chromatic glissando
replaces the original movement of E-A-C, with a written acciaccatura leading the ear back
to A minor upon release.
Ex. 2. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Secondary A motif, bar 16.
Piazzolla writes the first strong cadential point at bar 31 and repeats it once more at
39, with a decisive line of repeated semiquavers leading the listener to the highest point
encountered thus far. The sensation of “falling” established in the first phrase could be said
to be one of the major motifs in the work, with lines in the A and B sections beginning at
their highest point and descending chromatically or diatonically towards the next marked
chord. One method of outlining this in performance is to crescendo throughout the
25
subphrases, providing a sense of movement and energy toward each point of interest rather
than creating smaller phrase outlines.
The B section introduces new melodic material, with a reaffirmation of the previous
rhythmic line.
Ex. 3. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). B section, bars 40-42.
This section repeats the same underlying harmonic line (Ex. 5) four times as the
melody develops, with the “falling” motion coming back once again as the line becomes
more rhythmically complex.
Ex. 4. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). B section repeated harmonic outline, bars 32-35.
The first extension of a phrase and deviation from the established 3-3-2 rhythmic
ostinato is shown with the use of a 3/3/3/2/2/2 line as a transition into C (Ex. 5), building
rhythmic tension and interest before releasing it entirely in what becomes a melodic,
“singing” contrast.
26
Ex. 5. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Phrase extension and change of rhythmic ostinato, bars 47-48.
The C section of the work is marked meno mosso e piu cantabile. At 12 bars in length, it
is noticeably shorter than the other sections of the piece, but also provides a contrast to the
expectations already set up in earlier melodic material. The line of each bar is shaped
upwards, in contrast to the rest of the work, (Ex. 6) while the harmonic movement
continues to move down diatonically.
Ex. 6, Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Harmonic skeleton of C.
The melodic material used is in a 6-bar phrase, repeated with a direction to the
performer of “ad lib.”. Many different interpretations are possible with regards to this
section, with its notation suggesting several methods of score alteration possible to the
experienced tango player (Fain, Link, Possetti). During the repetition, the melodic skeleton
is for the most part unchanged, but Piazzolla writes with more complex rhythms and
additional grace notes.
27
Ex. 7, Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Bars 49-50; beginning bars of C.
Ex. 8, Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Bars 55-56; repetition of initial melodic material with more complexity.
The treatment which this melodic line is given upon repetition suggests that
Piazzolla’s intention is to diversify the melodic material with written embellishments similar
to those applied by performers within the tango and tango nuevo traditions. Performers
should consider this in their practice and make decisions about the level of embellishment
that they believe to be appropriate. This issue is discussed further in the next segment of
this thesis.
The final bar of C, marked accelerando, brings the listener back to the recapitulation
of the A section and the revival of the dance-like rapid shifting, with a crescendo marked to
the ending repetition of A/E in rising semiquavers. Whether Piazzolla intends the
recapitulation to be identical in execution to the beginning is unknown; however, to
maintain interest to the ear, intensification or alteration of similar performance attributes as
played in the opening section could be appropriate.
28
Potential interpretive practices of tango idioms
Fain (2009) writes:
… In the language of tango there are certain elements that are almost always interpreted in one way, and others that we are free to change quite spontaneously from one day to the next. (9) The following section gives a brief overview of selective tango performance
practices potentially appropriate for usage within the Tango Etude no. 3 and their possible
execution in practice by flutists. Exhaustive discussion of ornamentation of many kinds
with regards to notation and performance practices for other instruments can be found in
Drago (2008), Link (2009) or the Método de Tango series, with both Fain (2012) and
Quinones (2013) also offering an audio compendium of tango-specific gestures.
Arrastre
A common idiom identified throughout many different types of tango and heard in
numerous recordings is that of the arrastre; a movement increasing in intensity, whether it
be through timbre, pitch and/or volume, that provides emphasis to the arrival upon the
dominant beat by functioning as a noticeable movement from weak to strong (Possetti,
Link). The arrastre is dependent in execution on the instrument on which it is played. Both
keyed and unkeyed arrastres are common in flute playing (Fain). Piano arrastres are most
commonly seen as a chromatic semiquaver run of 4 notes, always without rubato, arriving
on the next beat on the desired pitch. This is often useful with regards to setting tempo
(Possetti). With regard to the function of a bandoneon (Drago; Fain; Lavocah), it is
produced by pressing the desired key before opening the instrument and then accelerating
the opening to a sudden stop; a similar function can be achieved in the flute by beginning
the note with low air pressure and unfocused embouchure and quickly increasing pressure
and focus before abruptly cutting off the air in whatever manner the player decides. There
29
are two potential methods by which this can be achieved; firstly, simply by arresting the
motion of the air via an application of the abdominal muscles and/or a closing of the
throat, or to replace the tongue at the top of the mouth without ceasing pressure, creating
an almost percussive effect as the air’s motion through the embouchure is ceased suddenly.
The most easily identified possibility for an arrastre is at the very beginning of the
work. A keyed arrastre establishes speed more clearly than an unkeyed arrastre, which
provides one possibility for assisting the listener’s sense of established tempo; however, an
unkeyed arrastre is also a possibility if desired. The recapitulation of A does not provide an
opportunity for an arrastre.
Articulation
As mentioned earlier, Piazzolla instructs the flutist to play in the style of a
bandoneon; a phenomenon Drago describes as “inter-idiomatic borrowing” (59).
In allegro tempi, on strong beats and/or accented notes, the attack in all tango instruments… tends to be harder and more edgy than would be considered standard for classical playing on the same instruments… in tango, a certain degree of harshness or roughness in the attack is expected, and it is surely regarded as a part of the acoustic model of this kind of attack. (60)
The desired quality of the accent (>) is generally associated when playing flute with
a strong push of the abdominal muscles, with focused tone unless the arrastre is desired.
The air is immediately present and the note is of its full length. Exercises similar to those of
vibrato studies can be used as an acoustic model, but with care to ensure that, unlike vibrato,
the pressure is not relaxed so far that the note’s pitch drops below the notated pitch.
Notably, on longer notes, the “push” is not sustained fully; each note will decay into
nothingness, unlike traditional acoustic models of the French method classical flutist. If the
note is to be sustained, both > and _ will be present to indicate tenuto playing.
30
Players may choose to use alternative syllables to vocalise more intensely the attack
of a note in whatever manner they desire, rather than the traditional tonguing methods of
“t/k/d/g”. Possible beginnings may be “sha”, “cha”, “thp”, etc, all of which create different
movements of air and can be used in conjunction with air attack or release for different
sonorities (Clarke, Dick, Fain). This syllabic air effect is also used as a substitution in flute
music for a common form of percussive accompaniment; the tambor (drum) effect. The
other function of percussion, performed by violins within tango, is known as lija or
chicharra—“sandpaper/cicada”. The bow is used with an alternate grip to produce a
scratching sound, generally of a more complex rhythm than the tambor (Drago).11
Worthy of consideration in this instance is the combination of articulation and
dynamics in another context; the motion Drago refers to as “inward-outward” when
applied to a pair of notes, or that Fain titles “semi-slurred” (64). Drago describes it with
relation to a string instrument as “The first note is attacked normally, then it is slurred,
without a break or interruption, to the second note. When this second note is reached, the
bow leaves the string, optionally with a slight slap of the wrist, as if yanking out a thread”
(66). The spirit of this instruction is easily conveyed to the flute if one considers the
column of air and the abdominal muscles associated with pressure as the bow and hand;
syllabically conveyed in articulation as similar to “TU-ru/TU-da”, with an immediate
release of pressure when reaching the second, staccato note of each pair. This articulation
can be used in a two-slurred pattern to modify an already heard phrase, create rhythmic
interest or tension, or to make accentuation more audible.
Modified articulations within the context of Tango Etude no. 3 have myriad
possibilities in application; whether the performer decides to consistently apply certain
11 Examples of the lija or chicarra as well as the tambor can be heard readily in many performances of Piazzolla’s, such as his Primavera Porteña during the opening melody.
31
aspects of articulation or to modify the A section when it returns near the end is left to
their discretion.
Ex. 9. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987), bar 26-27. Demonstration of paired notes in which the “inward-outward” or “semi-slurred” motion could be appropriate in execution.
Improvisation
Kutnowski writes on rubato within Piazzolla’s work;
How was that such transformations still belonged to the tango? It was because most of New Tango rhythmic innovations were rooted in, or simply copied, from the kinds of rhythmic irregularities present in any 'authentic' vocal performance. (108)
The individuality of rubato and improvisatory figures in any of Piazzolla’s recording
of the composer’s own work is sometimes breathtaking, almost creating a cadenza of any
given arrangement (Gorin). Appendix B shows Fain’s transcription of Piazzolla’s written
score juxtaposed with one of his many performances of his work Adios Nonino, for
consideration on this topic.
Within Tango Etude no. 3, the most potential for improvisation lies within the C
section, which is part of the groups of “expressive melody” as discussed by Fain, Link and
Possetti, and thus appropriate for melodic ornamentation of many different kinds, unlike
the “rhythmic melody” of the A and B sections. Piazzolla’s direction of ad lib. in the latter
half of the C section has similar connotations.
32
When improvising within the tango language, many options are available; the most
basic of which is the use of rubato. Of course, rubato is generally present in many styles of
music; one can hardly consider it a tango specific concept. However, the extent to which
rubato is used by tango singers and players in a solo line often displaces the melody entirely
from the bars, treating the phrase or a verse as something which can be stretched until
soloist and accompaniment are in different bars entirely, before rushing forward to meet
again at the phrase’s end12. This method can be used in a larger phrase or within single bars
to create rhythmic and melodic tension, especially with repetitive melodic lines.
If playing within a band in a soli section, the rhythm may be modified to stay within
the beats but add rhythmic interest; for example, in an expressive melody, players may
change four written quavers to two crotchet triplet notes and two quaver triplet notes, to
ensure that the strong beats of the bar are maintained in unison and that the soli line
continues together (Fain; Link).
With regards to the A and B sections, smaller modifications can be made, but the
primary function of rhythm alteration should be with respect to the melody. Any
alterations that occur are primarily to highlight the melodic line. Requena reflects, in an
interview especially with regards to tango arranging “What is arranging?... It is not difficult
to define. It is highlighting the melody and making it more beautiful without destroying
it—on the contrary, always trying to respect it above all other things” (Todotango).13
Possetti lists the common ornamentation of the broader tango language thus:
“Superior, inferior and multiple appoggiatura; Mordent; Minor second; Double non-
12 http://www.todotango.com/english/music/song/206/Naranjo-en-flor/ provides a lovely example of this effect with the recording of iconic bandleader Anibal Troilo’s orquesta tipica and Floreal Ruiz as singer.
13«¿Qué es el arreglo? Mirá, cada uno tiene su concepción al respecto, pero no es difícil definirlo. Es tratar de hermosear y destacar la melodía, sin destruirla, al contrario, tratando siempre de respetarla al máximo. Trans. Lagerlow.
33
stepwise appoggiatura; Octave; Gruppetto (turn); Repetition; Glissando; Arpeggio” (200).
Piazzolla favoured the gruppetto, mordent, or acciaccaturas when moving between larger
jumps. Filling in the space inside larger intervals with a slurred chromatic or diatonic
sequence was also a regular feature of his performances in solo sections, as well as escape
tones in downward sequences (Fain; Drago). One important consideration is that his
performances also often include an appoggiatura note directly before the presence of the
gruppetto (eg. b. 2, 5, 10 in Appendix B).
One example of a potentially appropriate addendum to the etude’s C section is
Piazzolla’s “stammering” trill, in which he would repeatedly attack a note written as a single
pitch of longer duration when playing a solo line. Execution of this method of
ornamentation would regularly follow the motion of a directed accelerando, ritardando or a
combination of both, depending on the context (Drago, Possetti). The regularly occurring
C6 found within that section have many opportunities for embellishment. Another
imitative possibility could be an appoggiatura and/or gruppetto between the first and
second notes of the bars, given the large interval movement. A glissandic sequence could
also be used. The level and function of improvisation within performance should be
considered by the performer during the preparation of this work; listening to Piazzolla’s
works and experimenting with their own melodic embellishments, large or small, is highly
recommended.
Practical execution of the work as demonstrated by recordings
As set out in Chapter 2, the aspects of performance discussed will be with reference
to Hellaby’s Reading Musical Interpretation primarily, with discussion of identified interpretive
practices. They are, as grouped in regard to discussion within this work:
34
Group 1: Era, Authorship
Group 2: Genre
Group 3: Characteriser
Group 4: Tempo, Duration Manipulator (rubato), Sonic Moderator (dynamics)
Claudio Barile
Group 1: Stylistic conventions of the era are incorporated with regards to
articulation and phrasing. Score is followed accurately for the most part, with minor
adaptations of notated rhythm and inclusion of unmarked pauses/separations of phrases in
all sections of the work. Written pitches remain unchanged.
Group 2: Genre is clear. Intended qualities of the work (marcato e energico) are
conveyed via Barile’s usage of accelerando at points of interest within the phrase and
accentuation, with the “etude” aspects apparent in the high level of clarity and speed of
execution.
Group 3: Paired quavers throughout are regularly played with strong accentuation
and an extension of the first note of each pair in performance. Semiquaver runs during the
same section (eg. bars 8, 15, 28-31) are often played unevenly, rushing toward the final note
and pausing before the next bar begins. Barile uses an arrastre-like motion in held notes
(ex. bar 18, 20, 22) using air and embouchure shape to achieve tone colour effects.
Performance qualifiers and written pitches are followed as listed within the score
during the C section. No alterations are made to the melodic line in either the first C
section or the ad lib. phrase, though rubato is prominently used. The repetition of the A
section does not differ in methods of execution of characterisers from the beginning of
the work.
35
Group 4: Tempo is consistent throughout A when viewed bar to bar, with
considerable usage of duration manipulation highlighting internal phrases within bars.
Consistent tempo sustained over measures at A is 136 beats per minute (BPM), with the B
section sustaining a prolonged accelerando from 115 BPM at the beginning of the sections to
128 in the final bars before the C section. Noticeable accentuation and forte lines that effect
a change in the timbre are made when written in the score, with dark and intense tone
colours in the lower register. Written crescendos are prominent in execution, and the C
section features usage of “echo”-like dynamic execution in the ad lib. repetition of the
melodic material. The repeat of the A section is marginally faster than the opening, with an
accelerando into the final eight bars.
Cecile Daroux
Group 1: Daroux convincingly executes stylistic conventions with regards to the
era, with clear involvement of tango idioms. The score is followed accurately with regards
to accented pitches, with genre-appropriate idioms also present in all sections.
Group 2: The genre of etude is apparent, with the speed of performance
substantially faster than marked, creating technical challenges. Intended qualities of the
work are observed with regard to accentuation and speed. Marcato accentuation is quite
noticeable, creating altered tone colour.
Group 3: Several different tango-related characterisers appear. A multi-note
chromatic arrastre is used in the beginning. The B section appears as written. Daroux plays
freely at C, with rubato and glissando usage in the first section, and additional glissando
ornamentation with more prominent rubato in the ad lib. section. Accentuation is raw and
bold, creating multiphonics through strong, focused air.
36
Extended techniques are used to create alternate articulations in the repetition of
the A section. Fermatas are also held for longer, with alternative shaping of the mouth
(“sha”, “cha”) to create a different tone colour and altered pitch upon exiting the held note.
Group 4: Tempo fluctuates internally through use of rubato, with the initial A
phrase staying between 156-160 BPM and relaxing later into 148 BPM during the B
section. There is more extreme usage of duration manipulation within the C section, with
tempo changing drastically. Dynamics are used within the upper ranges of capability, with
tone colour reflecting that intensity to the point of notes occasionally breaking into the
upper register.
Paulina Fain
Group 1: Authorship is of interest within this interpretation of the work, as Fain
plays an arrangement of the work for two flutes edited by herself and Exequiel Mantega
with flutist Patricia De Dalt. The score remains generally intact as published in its original
form, with the primary solo part being played by both in turn. Tempo marking as published
in the original score is not written; nor is the qualifier-subtitle of “marcato e energico”.
Dynamics, expression markings under the score and articulation figures remain as
written in the original work, but rhythmic accompaniment figures are added by the second
player. The figures added include a prominent arrastre at the beginning of the work, walking
bass lines (also known as marcato en cuatro), “percussive” sounds using alternate syllables in
combination with a walking bass line, semiquaver patterns underneath a melody, similar
rhythm and melodic contour accompaniment.
Pedal notes are used in the first six bars of C, with crotchet pulsed pedal notes and
keyed arrastre figures in the ad lib. bars. The initial C section and the ad lib. repeat are both
37
marked with “Frasear (use phrasing)” in the solo line and “Tempo estable (keep the
tempo)” in the accompaniment section.
Group 2: The original genre of the work is somewhat difficult to identify, with the
significantly slower tempo than marked on the original score failing to create a sensation of
“energico”. The “marcato” is very prominent in execution of written accents. The aspect of
“etude” is not prominent in the solo line due to the speed, but some aspects of technical
ability and execution are outlined in the accompaniment figure during difficult written
semiquaver passages in the lowest register of the instrument.
Group 3: Characterisers specific to tango are marked in the accompaniment
figures, including arrastre and alternative articulation methods. During the initial C section,
rubato, a glissando, and a gruppetto are used. The second repetition of the material
includes addition of repeated notes at pitch (the “stammering trill”) and prominent rubato
moving both ahead, with early phrase beginnings, and behind the rhythmic accompaniment
figure. The repetition of the A section intensifies the written articulation. Fermatas are
shaped off with altered embouchure shape and intensified air to create a different timbre.
Group 4: Minimal rubato or dynamic alteration is used in the A and B sections
outside of bars 16, 18, 20 and 22, which feature the fermatas. The fermatas, written as
minims, are always measured for 3 beats of the tempo with the altered embouchure
creating a prominent crescendo in the last beat of the held note. Tempo throughout A and
B is consistent, with the accompaniment’s tempo in C remaining consistent while the
soloist uses very free rubato above the accompaniment line. Tempos used range from 115
BPM in the A section (and recapitulation thereof) with a direct change to 109 BPM at the
B section. C is played with accompaniment at 64 BPM.
38
Patrick Gallois
Group 1: Gallois’s performance generally reflects the score as written pitch and
rhythm material during the A and B sections, with altered articulation. The C section
features alteration of rhythm and strong use of rubato, with no alteration of written
pitches.
Group 2: The genre of etude as technical challenge is noticeable, with tempo and
choices of rubato assisting in the impression of technical difficulty. Marcato as a qualifier is
present in the execution of accents without being overly prominent in the texture or
changing the timbre in execution. Energico is effectively conveyed through the execution of
technical passages and through the joining of melodic lines in the C section.
Group 3: No arrastre figures or melodic alterations are present in the work. C is
played with very strong rubato and alteration of rhythm, both in the initial section and in
the ad lib.
Group 4: Gallois takes the work at 148 BPM during the A section and includes an
accelerando into the B section, consistently sustaining a tempo of 154 BPM until C. The
recapitulation of A is repeated at the same speed. Tempo within bars is generally
consistent, with semiquavers often treated as soloistic runs with variable rubato. The
alteration of fermatas is achieved in multiple ways; both by the alteration of embouchure
and increase of air for the “overblown” effect, in the first two cases, and by vibrato in the
latter two. Interestingly, Gallois’s vibrato during the later fermata notes in bars 18 and 22
(and their repeated A section equivalents at 80 and 82) is used in such a way as to intensify
the quality of sound and create an alternate sonic moderator with which to move the
intent of the phrase forward, with no vibrato in the initial attack of the note and the speed
of the vibrato increasing towards the attack of the next internal phrase while holding the
note.
39
Eugenia Moliner
Group 1: Again, Moliner and her duo partner Azabagic have created their own
arrangement of this work; this time for flute and guitar. The flute part remains intact as
written in its original form with respect to note pitches and written rhythm, with allowance
for usage of rubato and the internal addition of two bars of music. The guitar
accompaniment begins as a percussive accompaniment on the body of the instrument, with
the rhythm used underlying the 3-3-2 pattern with accentuation in the same place as the
flute line and using two disparate percussive high/low sounds. Bar 15 is the first strong
deviation from score, as an extra four beats are added as a rest in the flute line while the
guitar plays a similar rhythmic line, now pitched. From bar 16 until the end, the guitar
functions as an embellished marcato en cuatro line played in crotchets, rarely using a crotchet-
crotchet minim line at the end of phrases. It is worthy to note that Piazzolla’s
accompaniment for this work as published for saxophone and piano lists his piano writing
during the A and B sections as prominently using variations on the 3-3-2 pattern rather
than crotchet bass line, with the exclusion of bars in the melodic line that also deviate from
the 3-3-2 pattern (eg. bars 26-30, 44-48).
Other deviations from the flute score occur at the fermata points; no fermatas as
written are held during the performance. A similar deviation as found in bar 15 occurs once
more at bar 75, during the recapitulation of the A section; both flute and guitar play a 3-3-2
held unison for four beats before continuing with the written work.
Group 2: The work’s genre as etude is made clear, with technical passages
performed clearly at speed and with flair. Moliner and Azabagic use the guitar’s percussive
accompaniment to initially support the marcato as written in 3-3-2, but with the guitar’s
departure from unison rhythms after bar 16 the flute becomes less audible in the marked
40
accentuation, taking away from the marcato as apparent to listener. The energico is assisted
by consistent flow between the pair, with the speed of the performance and interaction
between soloist and accompaniment line adding to the sensation of energy and movement.
Group 3: 2 major characterisers are audible. The accompaniment’s percussive line
at the beginning echoes the tambour function found elsewhere in Piazzolla’s works.
Moliner’s freedom of expression within semiquaver lines in the A and B sections brings a
sensation of improvisatory freedom, lingering on the first of many groups before rushing
to the next phrase. Improvisations within the C section revolve primarily around a sense of
greater continuity within the phrase, with the phrases occurring as an accelerando-ritardando
over the 6 bar segments. No pitch alterations are made within the solo line at any point.
Group 4: The tempo of the initial A section sits comfortably at 148 BPM, with
rubato movement within individual bars. The recapitulation of A begins a little slower,
consistently sitting at 140 BPM with a sudden accelerando in the final two bars. In the B
section, Moliner and Azabagic choose to sit back at 125, with a sensation of “winding up”
performed with an accelerando for eight bars, then a similar movement in the final eight
bars before C.
C’s tempo moves between 90 and 100 BPM, with the movement forwards bringing
tension and interest to the phrase and focusing primarily on arriving at the middle section
of each six-bar phrase.
Irmgard Toepper
Group 1: Accuracy of the score is highly prioritised in Toepper’s performance. No
deviations from the score’s written pitch or rhythm material are observable. The methods
of execution are appropriate with regard to the ideal method of classical flute playing.
There is little to no involvement with potential nuevo tango era idiosyncrasies.
41
Group 2: The genre of etude is apparent, with the technical challenges later in the
work observable to the listener while being performed very competently. Toepper’s intent
with regards to the work’s instruction of marcato is apparent, with written accents
performed cleanly and prominently in a way which does not interfere with the established
tone colour. The energico is readily apparent, with the tempo beginning at 138 and relaxing
gradually to 130 BPM over the A and B sections.
Group 3: Potential characterisers of tango nuevo are absent—there is no
incorporation of idiomatic features, improvisations or use of rubato within phrases in
sections A and B, with some rubato being used sparsely at C’s ad libitum section. Tone is
maintained evenly throughout with standard classical articulations.
Group 4: Energy is sustained via accentuation without extreme tempo alteration
from the marked score suggestion of 140 BPM. Rubato is used through the section marked
“ad lib.”, with minimal usage otherwise. Dynamics are performed as marked within the
boundaries of consistent sound quality, using a clear, consistent tone quality throughout.
Comparisons
Group 1: Candidates discussed had differing viewpoints with regards to adherence
to the score as authorial intent. Both Toepper and Gallois predominantly kept to score
material, with rubato present during the ad lib. C section; a method of execution considered
to be appropriate within the classical flute tradition. Barile and Daroux adapted the score as
written, including modifications as discussed with regard to potential interpretive practices
that are considered tango idioms. Finally, Moliner and Fain created or utilised
accompaniment parts, with both accompaniment lines utilising the marcato en cuatro figure
and with Moliner’s using the 3-3-2 in the beginning of the work. This stands in contrast to
Piazzolla’s published accompaniment, which predominantly reinforces the solo line’s 3-3-2
42
rhythm throughout. Overall their performances are representative of a method of thought
associated with tango. However, Fain’s performance in particular departs from the original
score’s intent with regards to tempo.
The effect of authorship with respect to written score material is considerable;
candidates were able to establish their performance as being safely within the score
material, or able to establish their interest in stepping beyond those boundaries in some
way.
Group 2: All candidates interpreted the marked qualities of the work in different
ways, generally succeeding in conveying the quality of “etude”, when viewed as a technical
work. All performers convey the qualifiers of molto marcato e energico in distinctly varying
ways, predominantly through tempo and articulation choices. However, Fain’s performance
is noticeably slower. The accompaniment can be viewed within the duo as adding some
energy to the work in complex semiquaver accompaniment, but the overall sensation of the
work is heavy rather than energetic. The marcato sensation is competently and clearly
conveyed both in the solo line and accompaniment. Moliner’s choice of execution with
regards to accents creates difficulties for the listener, as the accents are not dominant over
the guitar’s accompaniment. Consideration should be made in performances of any
arrangements as to how the solo line is prioritised over the accompaniment figures, so as to
add to the work rather than take away from its intent. The question of interpretive practice
with respect to performance often requires that the performer consider the effect of score
alteration upon the original melody; whether it is obscured or added to by the
embellishments and alterations is of primary importance.
Group 3: Of all factors, the characterisers chosen to express the tango or tango nuevo
qualities of the work were the most disparate among all performers. Toepper remains
firmly entrenched within the classical aspects of the work, with no additional interpretive
43
practices that could be seen as belonging within the tango tradition. Gallois involved
minimal interpretive practices in the A and B sections of the work. Barile, Daroux and
Moliner execute semiquaver passages in an uneven, improvisatory fashion, with Barile also
playing paired quavers in the A section with a “dragging” sensation on the first note. Fain
does not, though the accompaniment line as written in rhythmic unison could complicate
this issue, changing it from a solo line as viewed to soli.
A keyed arrastre motion was used by both Daroux and Fain at the beginning of the
work, with the arrastre-like tone colour and shaping out of fermatas in the second part of
the A section used effectively by Barile, Daroux, and Fain. The same intent was conveyed
by both the air shaping, in the first two, and by use of vibrato in the latter two by Gallois.
The B section exhibits further rubato usage in semiquaver passages by Barile, Daroux, and
Moliner.
The C section is performed by all players with usage of rubato in the ad libitum
section. Barile, Gallois, Moliner and Toepper make no melodic alterations, with Daroux
and Fain using varying melodic alterations. Rhythmic alterations are made by all players
with the exception of Toepper.
Articulation varies, with Daroux using accentuation in a raw, intense manner which
interferes with tone colour. Barile plays similarly in the lowest register of the instrument,
creating a very harsh tone colour for effect. Fain’s accents are prominent, with her
secondary un-accented notes dropping quite significantly in dynamic and changing tone
colour, with the effect of better outlining the accented notes. Toepper, Moliner and Gallois
use standard execution of classical accents to good effect, without being particularly
striking in execution.
44
The disparate choices in ornamentation and interpretation do not show any overall
support for one particular method of interpretation, with perhaps the exception of the
arrastre-like motion commonly used when coming out of held notes or used initially by
Fain and Daroux. Performers who chose to use melodic and rhythmic alterations did not
make similar choices in their placement, other than the C section being a common choice
for alteration of any kind. Performers are urged to do some listening both to Piazzolla’s
works and performances, as well as perhaps additional non-Piazzolla tango repertoire,
before making any performance decisions on their own part. Figure 2 shows a broad
classification of players’ usage of characterisers.
Figure 2: Usage of characterisers.
Group 4: Tempo is the most prominent consideration when looking at the large
scale differing factors within these performances. The chosen tempos for the opening
section, originally marked 138 beats per minute, range from Fain’s sedate 115 to Daroux’s
more daring 162. The B section features a drop in tempo and small accelerando over the
larger phrase in both Barile and Moliner’s interpretations, while Gallois chooses to take it
very slightly faster, moving from 148 to 156. Fain and Toepper choose to remain at tempo.
During C, all performances except Moliner’s drop to roughly 60-70 beats per
minute. Moliner’s phrasing of C as a larger section of work is more effective given her
usage of a slightly faster tempo, providing some impetus for the decision. The
consideration of chosen tempo has a prominent effect on the listener’s attitude towards the
performance and perceived attributes of the performer’s execution; the performer is
advised to consider the intent they plan to convey when choosing a performance tempo,
Few to no characterisers Some characterisers Prominent characterisers
Gallois, Toepper Barile Daroux, Fain, Moliner
45
and consider other factors with regards to the tempo chosen. Figure 3 shows tempo
choices made by each performer.
Tempo Table
Barile Daroux Fain Gallois Moliner Toepper
A: 136
B: 115-128
C: 55
A1: 138-142
A: 156-160
B: 148
C: 80-120
A1: 156
A: 115
B: 109
C: 64
A1: 115
A: 148
B: 154
C: 59-90
A1: 148
A: 148
B: 125+
C: 90-100
A1: 140
A: 138
B: 130
C: 59
A1: 138
Figure 3: Tempo table by performer for sections of Tango Etude no. 3.
Duration manipulation is used for all players during the C section, to varying levels
of intensity. Barile, Daroux, Gallois and Moliner all use flexible timing within the A and B
sections, specifically with regard to semiquaver runs; Barile and Daroux also use quaver-
specific rubato, with Barile’s focusing generally on lengthening the time taken to play notes
with written accents, while taking that time from the second quaver of the beat.
Vibrato is of interest specifically with regards to Gallois; his usage of prominent,
altered vibrato to create an effect of moving forward through the third and fourth fermatas
in the A section is notable, given that no other player uses vibrato in this manner. Barile
uses steady vibrato on his lengthened quaver notes to further accentuate them without
adding energy via excess air pressure, while all other players use it predominantly with
relation to the B section’s notes of more than a crotchet in length. All players use vibrato of
some kind within the C section, often in combination with a duration manipulator to affect
the intensity of the phrase.
46
Dynamics are again across a broad range, as are the tone colours created through
the player’s application of airstream and embouchure shaping. Daroux’s tone colours used
are notable, given the intense quality of sound and effective intent shown by application of
significant air pressure during accents. The effect created is of an articulation that directly
affects the sonic moderation of all accents within the piece very noticeably to the listener,
in a similar manner to that of Piazzolla’s bandoneon “screaming”.
Both duration manipulation and sonic moderation affect the listener’s experience
of the work; Daroux’s method of accentuation is particularly effective in this regard,
bringing a sense of violent attack to the performance. The less intense performance
practices of other players do not provide as strong a contrast. A strong method of
articulation, achieved in whatever manner appropriate, should be considered as appropriate
for all performances of this work.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Personal reflection
In the process of learning to understand tango, I often ran up against this idea of
“not tango”, especially when attending Reed College’s Tango for Musicians and talking to
tangueros. Often, they would explain “like this–because otherwise it doesn’t sound right!”
Although this analysis seeks to illuminate ways to assist performers in finding that
“rightness”, the sonic model of what is and what is not tango is still a difficult concept in
many ways. My own performance of the Tango Etude no. 3 was taken with consideration to
many of the aspects recommended within this paper, with especial care taken to accentuate
and shape phrases in a manner which resembled Fain and Daroux’s interpretive choices. I
also experimented with singing traditional and newer tango works, and listening to a wide
47
variety of interpretations of different tangos to identify what commonalities could be
explored and what differences were made even within the same tradition.
Summary
In completion of this analysis, I come back to the original intention of this work;
the discussion of potential paths towards an informed, coherent interpretation of
Piazzolla’s Tango Etude no. 3 through multiple methods of exploration.
This discussion has the potential to assist performers in their performance of this
work alone, but can also contextualise usage of idiomatic phrasing with regard to other
works in tango or tango nuevo works. Recording data showed precise reproduction of the
text as written for one player; others performed with traits idiomatic to the tango nuevo genre.
Aspects of each performance could be considered to be ideal or appropriate for the
performer, but the choice is left to each player with regards to final decisions made in any
performance.
This paper is one very small glimpse into exploring the possibilities and the joys
that can be found in tango. Given the extra-textual aspects of this work’s positioning
within the tango nuevo genre, multiple facets of discussion were included to provide several
methods of unpacking the work in performance. Understanding some of the factors that
can be interpreted, as well as examining where or how they are used, provides some
context for the classical flutist to approach this work with a culturally informed perspective.
This knowledge of potential interpretive practices also provides the performer with further
tools which can be used to create an artistically satisfying performance for both performer
and audience.
48
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Viladrich, Anahi. More than two to tango. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 2013.
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Figure 5. Piazzolla, Tango Etude no. 3 (1987). Harmonic skeleton outlining chords as written in accompaniment and accented notes within each bar. Lagerlow, Dickenson, 2016.
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Appendix B: Piazzolla’s Adiós Nonino: Score/performance comparison.
Figure 6. Piazzolla, Adiós Nonino (1959). Here shown with score reproduction as written on top line, with transcription of one method of execution in performance by Fain (2016).