phylogeny and the tree of life chapter 26. are they related?
TRANSCRIPT
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Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Chapter 26
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Are they related?
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Overview: Investigating the Tree of Life
• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
• The discipline of systematics classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships
• Systematists use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships
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Taxonomy
• The science of classifying organisms.
• Tells us about the degree of relation between different organisms
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Taxonomy• Developed by Swedish biologist
Carolus Linnaeus (1707 — 1778). • Binomial naming system
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Tiger ClassificationTiger Classification
Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Carnivora Family Felidae Genus Panthera Species tigris
Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Carnivora Family Felidae Genus Panthera Species tigris
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Keep PlatesCleanOrFamilyGetsSick
KingdomPhylum
ClassOrderFamilyGenusSpecies
Animalia ChordataActinopterygiiPerciformesPomocentridaeAmphirprionocellaris
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Biological Nomenclature
A species is both defined by its genus name and specific name.
Ex. Panthera tigris
Panthera- genus name
tigris- species name
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Biological Species
Organisms that are genetically similar, and have ability to interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring
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SubspeciesMight interbreed if a barrier or other challenge was removed (such as distance).
Hawaiian endemic snails (kahuli)
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Offspring is sterile
Panthera leo
Panthera tigris
tigon
Hybrids
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mule
donkey
zebroid
horse
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Polar bear: Ursus maritimus Grizzly bear: Ursus arctos
Pizzly or Grolar bear
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Wholphin- sealife park
False killer whale and dolphinPseudorca crassidens Tursiops truncatus
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Common names
Confusing
Ambiguous
Scientific names
Agreed upon system
Names
• Portuguese Man-of-War
• Bluebottle
• Physalia physalis
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Names
Language
Latin or Latinized
Giving names
A highly technical process
Name is author’s choice
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Commemorate People
Gardenia jasminoides (Dr. Alexander Garden)Camellia japonica (Joseph Kamel)Strelitzia reginae (Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz)Siegesbeckia orientalis (Dr. Siegesbeck)
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Descriptive
• Cardinalis cardinalis (red)• Railus aquaticus (watery)• Passer domesticus (house)
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Geographic Location
• Kuhlia sandwicensis (Hawaii)• Periplanata americana
(American cockroach)• Zosterops japonica
(Japanese white-eye)
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Pronunciation• Divide into syllables
• Choose where to place emphasis
Mon/a/chus schau/in/slan/diMonachus schauinslandi
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Humor in naming
• Agra vation by Terry Erwin
a tropical beetle that was apparently very difficult to collect.
• (Agra cadabra, Agra katewinslettae, Agra memnon, Agra sasquatch)
• Heerz lukenatcha. http://www.curioustaxonomy.net/puns/puns.html
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Three-domain systemExtremophilesProkaryotes Eukaryotes
Look at how this evolution happened!
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Linking Classification and Phylogeny
• Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching phylogenetic trees
• Linnaean classification and phylogeny can differ from each other
• Systematists have proposed the PhyloCode, which recognizes only groups that include a common ancestor and all its descendents
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Fig. 26-4Species
Canislupus
Pantherapardus
Taxideataxus
Lutra lutra
Canislatrans
Order Family Genus
Carn
ivora
Felid
aeM
ustelid
aeC
anid
ae
Can
isL
utra
Taxid
eaP
anth
era
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Fig. 26-5
Sistertaxa
ANCESTRALLINEAGE
Taxon A
Polytomy: more than 2 groups emerge
Common ancestor oftaxa A–F
Branch point(node)
Taxon B
Taxon C
Taxon D
Taxon E
Taxon F
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What We Can and Cannot Learn from Phylogenetic Trees
• Phylogenetic trees do show patterns of descent
• Phylogenetic trees do not indicate when species evolved or how much genetic change occurred in a lineage
• It shouldn’t be assumed that a taxon evolved from the taxon next to it
• Applications: whale meat sold illegaly in Japan
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Concept 26.2: Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and
molecular data
• To infer phylogenies, systematists gather information about morphologies, genes, and biochemistry of living organisms
• Organisms with similar morphologies or DNA sequences are likely to be more closely related than organisms with different structures or sequences
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Compare the bones
Homologous Structures
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But don’t be fooled by these…
Analogous structures• look similar on the outside• Same function• different structure & development
on the inside• different origin• no evolutionary relationship
Solving a similar problem with a similar solution
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Analogous structuresDolphins: aquatic mammalFish: aquatic vertebrate
• both adapted to life in the sea
• not closely related
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Which of the following is most closely related to the tamuanda?
tamuanda
pangolian aardvark sloth echidna
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• Analogies are also known as homoplasies ("to mold the same way")
• Homology can be distinguished from analogy by comparing fossil evidence and the degree of complexity
• The more complex two similar structures are, the more likely it is that they are homologous
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Evaluating Molecular Homologies
• Systematists use computer programs and mathematical tools when analyzing comparable DNA segments from different organisms
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Fig. 26-8
Deletion
Insertion
1
2
3
4
Orange sections no longer align
only with addition of gapswill they align
Types of mutations that notmally occur
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• It is also important to distinguish homology from analogy in molecular similarities
• Mathematical tools help to identify molecular homoplasies, or coincidences
• Molecular systematics uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships
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Concept 26.3: Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees
• Cladistics groups organisms by common descent• A clade is a group of species that includes an ancestral
species and all its descendants• A valid clade is monophyletic, signifying that it consists
of the ancestor species and all its descendants• A paraphyletic grouping consists of an ancestral species
and some, but not all, of the descendants• A polyphyletic grouping consists of various species that
lack a common ancestor
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Fig. 26-10
A A A
BBB
C C C
DDD
E E E
FFF
G G G
Group IIIGroup II
Group I
(a) Monophyletic group (clade) (b) Paraphyletic group (c) Polyphyletic group
Includes all descendants
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Shared Ancestral and Shared Derived Characters
• In comparison with its ancestor, an organism has both shared and different characteristics
• A shared ancestral character is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon (vertebrae in mammals)
• A shared derived character is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade (hair in mammals)
• A character can be both ancestral and derived, depending on the context, it is useful to know in which clade a shared derived character first appeared
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Fig. 26-11
TAXA
Lan
cele
t(o
utg
rou
p)
Lam
pre
y
Sal
aman
der
Leo
par
d
Tu
rtle
Tu
na
Vertebral column(backbone)
Hinged jaws
Four walking legs
Amniotic (shelled) egg
CH
AR
AC
TE
RS
Hair
(a) Character table
Hair
Hinged jaws
Vertebralcolumn
Four walking legs
Amniotic egg
(b) Phylogenetic tree
Salamander
Leopard
Turtle
Lamprey
Tuna
Lancelet(outgroup)
0
0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0 0 1
11
111
1
11
1
1
11
11
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• An outgroup is a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup, the various species being studied
Hair
Hinged jaws
Vertebralcolumn
Four walking legs
Amniotic egg
(b) Phylogenetic tree
Salamander
Leopard
Turtle
Lamprey
Tuna
Lancelet(outgroup)
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Phylogenetic Trees with Proportional Branch Lengths
• In some trees, the length of a branch can reflect the number of genetic changes that have taken place in a particular DNA sequence in that lineage
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• In other trees, branch length can represent chronological time, and branching points can be determined from the fossil record
PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC
542 251
65.5
Present
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Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood
• Systematists can never be sure of finding the best tree in a large data set
• They narrow possibilities by applying the principles of maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood
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• Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events (appearances of shared derived characters) is the most likely
• The principle of maximum likelihood states that, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events
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Fig. 26-14
Human
15%
Tree 1: More likely Tree 2: Less likely
(b) Comparison of possible trees
15% 15%
5%
5%
10%
25%20%
40%
40%
30%0
0
0
(a) Percentage differences between sequences
Human Mushroom
Mushroom
Tulip
Tulip
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Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses
• The best hypotheses for phylogenetic trees fit the most data: morphological, molecular, and fossil
• Phylogenetic bracketing allows us to predict features of an ancestor from features of its descendents
• This has been applied to infer features of dinosaurs from their descendents: birds and crocodiles
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Concept 26.4: An organism’s evolutionary history is
documented in its genome
• Comparing nucleic acids or other molecules to infer relatedness is a valuable tool for tracing organisms’ evolutionary history
• DNA that codes for rRNA changes relatively slowly and is useful for investigating branching points hundreds of millions of years ago
• mtDNA evolves rapidly and can be used to explore recent evolutionary events
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Gene Duplications and Gene Families
• Gene duplication increases the number of genes in the genome, providing more opportunities for evolutionary changes
• Like homologous genes, duplicated genes can be traced to a common ancestor
• Orthologous genes are found in a single copy in the genome and are homologous between species
• They can diverge only after speciation occurs
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• Paralogous genes result from gene duplication, so are found in more than one copy in the genome
• They can diverge within the clade that carries them and often evolve new functions
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Genome Evolution
• Orthologous genes are widespread and extend across many widely varied species
• Gene number and the complexity of an organism are not strongly linked
• Genes in complex organisms appear to be very versatile and each gene can perform many functions
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Concept 26.6: New information continues to revise our
understanding of the tree of life
• Recently, we have gained insight into the very deepest branches of the tree of life through molecular systematics
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Biological Kingdoms
2 Kingdoms
Traditional view
plants animals
From Two Kingdoms to Three Domains
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Biological Kingdoms
5 Kingdoms
Whittaker, 1969
Plantae Fungi Animalia
Protista
Monera
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Five kingdom system:
Monera Protista FungiPlantae Animalia
Six kingdom system:
Eu-bacteria
Protista FungiPlantae AnimaliaArchae-bacteria
Three domain system:
Eu-bacteria
Archae-bacteria
E U K A R Y A
Eight kingdom system:
Eu-bacteria
Arc
hez
oa
FungiPlantae AnimaliaArchae-bacteria
Ch
rom
ista
Pro
tist
a
Biological Kingdoms
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Fig. 26-21
Fungi
EUKARYA
Trypanosomes
Green algaeLand plants
Red algae
ForamsCiliates
Dinoflagellates
Diatoms
Animals
AmoebasCellular slime molds
Leishmania
Euglena
Green nonsulfur bacteria
Thermophiles
Halophiles
Methanobacterium
Sulfolobus
ARCHAEA
COMMONANCESTOR
OF ALLLIFE
BACTERIA
(Plastids, includingchloroplasts)
Greensulfur bacteria
(Mitochondrion)
Cyanobacteria
ChlamydiaSpirochetes
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A Simple Tree of All Life
• The tree of life suggests that eukaryotes and archaea are more closely related to each other than to bacteria
• The tree of life is based largely on rRNA genes, as these have evolved slowly
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• Some researchers suggest that eukaryotes arose as an endosymbiosis between a bacterium and archaean
• If so, early evolutionary relationships might be better depicted by a ring of life instead of a tree of life
Is the Tree of Life Really a Ring?
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Fig. 26-23
ArchaeaBacteria
Eukarya
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Fig. 26-6
Fin(Mediterranean)Fin (Iceland)
RESULTS
Unknown #10,11, 12
Unknown #13
Blue(North Pacific)
Blue(North Atlantic)
Gray
Unknown #1b
Humpback(North Atlantic)Humpback(North Pacific)
Unknown #9
Minke(North Atlantic)
Minke(Antarctica)Minke(Australia)Unknown #1a,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8