phyl 142 final exam

8/12/2019 Phyl 142 Final Exam

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Digestive System (Gastrointestinal tract)

What is the purpose of the digestive system? To obtain

1. water

2. energy substrates

3. tissue components (amino acid)

4. vitamins

5. minerals (k+, Na+)

How does it accomplish this? (IMSDAE)

Ingestion (introducing material into the mouth)

Mechanical processing (chewing, swallowing, mixing and propulsive movements)

Secretion (release of water, acid, enzymes into the gut)

Digestion (enzymatic breakdown of macro- molecules in food)

Absorption (uptake of nutrients from the gut)

Excretion (elimination of wastes in feces)

What are the layers of the GI tract?

Mu - Mucosa: lines the GI tract

Su - Submucosa (Enteric NS)

Mu - Muscularis Externa

circular

longitudinal (toothpaste)

Se - Serosa: slippery (lubrication; decrease friction)

How are these layers different in the esophagus? Stomach? Large intestines?ESOPHAGUS

Mu - ////

Su - Submucosal plexus/Meissners= secretions

Mu - (Averbachs) Myenteric Plexus= motility

Se -Tunica Adventitia Fixed

STOMACH

Mu - Mucosal

Su - submucosal plexus (Meissners)

Mu - muscularis: circular

longitudinal

oblique

Se- Serosal

LARGE INT.

Mu - absorb nutrients and water and pass to blood


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o Small intestines: enzymatic digestion & absorption of water, organic substrates, ions,

and vitamins

o Large intestines: dehydration and compaction of indigestible material for elimination

o Liver: secretion of bile (imp. for lipid digestion), storage of nutrients, and other fxns

o Gallbladder: storage and concentration of bile

o Pancreas: exocrine cells secrete buffers and digestive enzymes; endocrine cells secrete

hormones

o Gastric and enteric cells: see below

What membrane lines the abdominal cavity? Peritoneum

Parietal? lines the wall

Visceral? lines the organ

ABDOMINAL CAVITY

What is the lesser omentum? Where from and to?

part of peritoneum that extends from the liver to the stomach What is the greater omentum? Where from and to?

fold of peritoneum that extends from the stomach to the colon

hangs down from the stomach

What is the mesocolon? Where from and to?

fold of peritoneum connecting the transverse colon to the posterior wall of the

abdomen

What is the mesentery? Where from and to?

a fold of the peritoneum that attaches the stomach, small intestine, pancreas,

spleen, and other organs to the posterior wall of the abdomen

Salivary glands: parotid, sublingual, submandibular

Teeth: (How many on top? On bottom? Of an adult?)

CHILD: (20)

Incisors: TOP: 4 //BOTTOM: 4 = 8 (2 central//2 lateral)

cuspids: 2 // 2 = 4

premolars: none

molars: 4 // 4 =8

ADULT: (32)

Incisors: TOP: 4 //BOTTOM: 4 = 8

canines: T: 2// B: 2 =4

premolars: 4 // 4 =8

molars: 6 // 6 =12

ESOPHAGUS


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o Which part has skeletal muscle (voluntary)? Upper third (middle part is mixed)

Smooth muscle (involuntary)? lower third

o Where do you find glandular epithelium? Stomach or esophagus? Why?

Esophagus;glandular epithelium secretes goblet cells that secretes mucus making it

easier for the transportation of food

o Where do you find stratified squamous epithelium? Stomach or esophagus? Why?

Esophagus: for protection from abrasion of material

o What is the lower esophageal sphincter also called?

cardiac sphincter/gastroesophageal

What happens when the LES does not do its job?

GERD occurs (Gastroesophageal Reflux disease)

heat burn

indigestion

acid reflux

stomach acid moving to esophagusSTOMACH:

o Parts

What are rugae? (temporary) series of expandable folds located on the interior surface of

the stomach.

flatten for expansion

What is the sphincter at the bottom of the stomach? Pyloric sphincter

What attaches to the lesser curvature?lesser omentum

Greater curvature?Greater omentum

o Which of the 4 layers of the GI tract are different in the stomach? muscularis externa

o What do these cells secrete?

Parietal: HCl acid, IF (intrinsic factor)

Chief:pepsinogen (need acid), pepsin

Mucous: mucus

G cells: stimulate chief and parietal cells

o What is the function of:

HCl (hydrocholic acid):Kills many organisms, Denatures (unravels) proteins,

Inactivates most enzymes in food, Activates pepsinogen to pepsin, Partially breaks down plant

cell walls and breaks bonds between connective proteins

Pepsinogen/pepsin: digests proteins and pep

Intrinsic factor: absorb Vitamin B12 loss of IF can result in pernicious anemia

Gastrin:stimulate chief and parietal cells; acid production

Mucus: (most abundant)protecting epithelium from acid and other stuff

o What drugs are used to reduce acid production?


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antacids

PPI; -prazole(omeprazole) alleviate acid prod

-tidine (cimetidine); H2 receptor antagonist

tums

prilosec

cut vagus

o What occurs in the:

Cephalic phase (know image) stomach ON

prepare stomach for arrival of food

sight, smell, taste, thought of food

short duration (min)

Primary action: increase vol. of gastric juice by stimulating mucus, enzyme, acid

prod.

Secondary action: stimulation of gastrin by G cells Gastric phase(know image) stomach ON

enhance secretions started in the cephalic stage, homogenize and acidify chyme,

initiate digestion of proteins by pepsin

Duration: long (3-4 hrs)

Mechanisms: Neural (stretch and chemoreceptors), Hormonal (stimulate gastrin

by G cells), Local (release of histamine)

ACTION: increased acid and pepsinogen production, increased motility

MIXING WAVES

Intestinal phase (know image) stomach OFF

control rate of chyme into duodenum long (hrs)

Mechanisms: Neural, Hormonal (primary & secondary) stimulation of

cholecystokinin (CCK), GIP (Gastric inhibitory pep), and secretin (released by

presence of acid, carbs, and lipids

ACTIONS: feedback inhibition of gastric acid and pepsinogen prod., reduction of

gastric motility

Small intestines:

o What are the three parts? Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum

o Where does the ampulla of Vater empty into? Duodenum

o Where is the head of the pancreas found? Right side of the abdomen, connected to the

duodenum

o What are plicae (circulares)?

permanent folds of submucosa, to increase surface area

o How does the small intestines increase surface area?

Plica


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Villi

Microvilli

o What is the difference between capillaries and lacteals? Where are products transferred to

after they enter either one?

capillaries: carbs and proteins (absorb?)

lacteals: absorb fats (lymph system)

o What are goblets cells and what do they secrete?

mucous cells: secrete mucus

Pancreas:

o What are the two parts? Head and Tail (caudate)

o Endocrine Cells: PIG: Pancreas: insulin, Glucagon

Islets of Langerhan:hormone producing cells ^^^

o Exocrine Cells: PAL (Protease, Amylase, Lipase) ; Protein, carb, lipids

Acini: cell island that produce exocrine cells^^^

Liver:

o Parts? Right and Left Lobes

o Hepatic ducts, common hepatic duct (leaving): Drain bile from liver

Hepatic Artery Proper enters liver (supply oxygenated blood to liver)

Hepatic Portal Vein enters liver (same as artery)

Bile duct: exit (transport bile)

Hepatic vein carries deoxygenated blood to heart

o Portal triad: distinctive arrangement in the liver (triangular shape)

consists of Hepatic Artery Proper, Hepatic Portal Vein, and Bile duct

Gallbladder

o Parts?

Fundus

Body

Neck

o Cystic duct:by the neck of the gallbladder (joins gallbladder with the common bile duct)

and connects with the common hepatic duct (problem: gallstones)

common bile duct: where the common hepatic and cystic duct join; fxn to conduct bilefrom gallbladder to duodenum (problem: gallstones choledocholithiasis)

o Function

What 2 ducts empty into the ampulla of Vater (duodenal ampulla)?

1. common bile duct

2. pancreatic duct

What is the function of the sphincter of Oddi (hepatopancreatic sphincter)?


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houses the ampulla of Vater, and made up of smooth muscles that contracts to make sure

contents of pancreatic and common bile duct dont enter duodenum. The sphincter

controls flow of bile and pancreatic juices into the duodenum and prevents reflux of

duodenal content into the ducts.

Large intestines:

o Parts:

1. cecum

2. ascending colon

3. transverse colon

4. descending

5. sigmoid

6. rectum

o Function

Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then topass uselesswaste materialfrom the body.

o How is vitamin K produced? by the bacteria in the large intestine

o What valve is found between the small and large intestines? Ileocecal valve

o What is the gastrocolic reflex?

physiological reflexes controlling themotility,orperistalsis,of the

gastrointestinal tract (stimulation is from eating). It involves an increase in

motility of thecolon in response to stretchin thestomach and byproducts of

digestion in thesmall intestine.Thus, this reflex is responsible for the urge to

defecate following a meal. The gastrocolic reflex helps make room for morefood.

Substrates:

o Where does fat digestion begin? mouth and stomach

o Where does carbohydrate digestion begin? mouth

o Where does protein digestion begin? stomach

o Where is fat transported? Capillaries or lacteals? LACTEALS

o Where is protein transported? Capillaries or lacteals? CAPILLARIES

o Where are carbohydrates transported? Capillaries or lacteals? CAPILLARIES

o How are fats digested/broken down? What enzymes or molecules are involved?

utilizes lingual, gastric, pharyngeal, and pancreatic lipases

bile salts (emulsifies lipid drops) micelles formed glycerol and

monoglycerides from micelles diffuse into intestinal epithelia

resynthesize tryglycerides into lymph

fat lacteals lymph thoracic junction b/w left subclavian and left

int. jugular vein heart lungs (bypass liver)

o How are proteins digested? What enzymes or molecules are involved?
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digested when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by HCl

Low pH, pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase

Key to turning on everything is TRYPSIN

following activation by enteropeptidase, trypsin activates other enzymes

o How are carbohydrates or sugars digested? What enzymes or molecules are involved?

digested by salivary and pancreatic amylase

gets hydrolyzed to monosaccharides

o What are amino acids?

organic compounds containing a carboxyl group and amino group

o What are fatty acids?

carboxylic acid

essential fats good for health

result of fats breaking down

o What are monosaccharides?

simple sugar (building blocks) glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharrides?

2 monosacch groups

maltose, sucrose, lactose

Fluids:

o Intake

o Secretion

o Absorption

o Excretiono Where is most fluid absorbed? JEJUNUM

Acid or base (pH)? Why?

o Mouth: Base

o Esophagus: Base ?

o Stomach: Acid

o Small intestines: Base

Secretions/Functions:

o Amylase

breakdown of starch

o Lipase

breakdown lipids

o Pepsin

breakdown protein/peptides

released in stomach


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o HCl (hydrochloric acid)

activate pepsinogen to pepsin

o IF

Absorb Vitamin B12

can result in pernicious anemia if loss of IF

o Mucus

secrete mucus

protect epithelium linings

o Gastrin

stimulates Chief (pepsinogen prod.) and parietal cells (HCl acid, IF)

o Secretin (basic)

brushborder enzymes of the small intestine

stimulate pancreas to secrete digestive fluids rich in bicarbonate; neutralize acids

from the stomach

turn stomach off increase bile from liver

release HCO3-

o CCK

brushborder enzyme

contracts GB to release bile

relax sphincter of Oddi

release PAL from pancreas

turns stomach off

o GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide)

peptide secreted from the stomach that stimulates insulinrelease and inhibitspepsin and acid secretion

o Enterokinase

enzyme produced by the mucosa of the small intestine

mainly functions to activate trypsin to trysinogen

o PAL: (breaks internal or external bonds?) EXTERNAL

Trypsin (protease enzyme)

activates all other enzymes in the cascade (turns everything on)

hydrolyzes peptides

Chymotrypsin (protease enzyme)

activate chymotrypsinogen

breakdown peptides

Carboxypeptidase

protease enzyme

breakdown protein/peptides


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Elastase

hydrolyzes protein and elastin

Nuclease

breakdown DNA or RNA into their bases

o Bile

emulsifies fat (fat droplets breakup into tiny droplets (micelles)

o HCO3- (bicarbonate)

neutralizes HCl from the stomach

What is cirrhosis? What causes it? What problems may result?

abnormal liver condition in which there is irreversible scarring of the liver.

marked by degeneration of cells, inflammation, and fibrous thickening of tissue.

The main causes are sustained excessive alcohol consumption, viralhepatitis B and C,

and fatty liver disease

People with cirrhosis may developjaundice (yellowing of the skin, eyes and tongue),itching and extremetiredness.

What is cholecystitis?

inflammation of the gallbladder

caused by gallstones (cholesterol and bilirubin in bile)

What is pancreatitis? What causes it? What problems may result?

inflammation of the pancreas

due to pancreatic duct obstruction and/or alcoholic abuse

enzymes get backed up in ducts and activate can cause vasodilation, increased permeablility, DIC, and circulatory collapse

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Kidney:

Anatomy:

o Review the anatomy of the kidney, ureters, bladder, and urethra

What is the difference between male and female urethras?

-Male (longer)-Both urinary and reproductive functions. Semen and urine pass through.

-Female (Shorter)- Separate from the reproductive organs. Solely Urinary function

What problems are seen?

o What are the 2 major layers of the kidney?

-Renal Cortex

-Renal Medulla

o Where are the kidneys located?

-Retro peritoneal (abdominal cavity behind peritoneal) under diaphragm near back of body.

-Left kidney (T12) is higher than right (L1) due to liver placement
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o What vessels supply and remove waste from the kidneys?

-ureter

-bladder

-urethra

-renal artery

-renal vein

o What is the pathway of blood supply to and from the kidneys?


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o What is the internal anatomy of the kidneys?

Examples: Renal cortex and medulla, renal pyramid, minor calyx, major calyx, renal

pelvis, hilus, ureter, bladder, urethra, etc. Glomerulus, Bowmans capsule, proximal convoluted tubules, Loop of Henle (descending

loop, ascending loop), distal convoluted tubule, collecting ducts


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o What are the parts of the nephron? What is the flow of fluid through the nephron?

-Renal Corpuscle Proximal Convoluted Tube Loop of Henle Distal Convoluted Tube

Collecting Duct-Pappilary Duct

What part is water permeable?

-Proximal Convoluted Tube

-Descending Limb of loop of Henle

Impermeable?

-ascending limb of Loop of Henle

Dependent on ADH for permeability?

-Distal Convoluted Tube

-Collecting Duct

-TAL (thick ascending limb)

What are the 2 types of nephrons?

Cortical(85%)-Found Superficially in the cortex. Short loop of Henle. Less concentrated urine

Juxtamedullary(15 %)-Found deep in the cortex. Have long loop of Henle. Allow kidneys to

produce concentrated urine (more water you can conserve)

o What is the glomerulus?

-part of renal corpuscle


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-filters blood to form urine

What are the 3 layers between the glomerulus and the nephron?

-Endothelium of BV(glomerulus); inside. Protein (albumin), Na+, K+ pass.

-Basal Lamina(glue)-Na+, K+ pass. Negatively Charged (no protein)

-Epithelium (Podocytes)-connected to outside of Bowmans Capsule

o What is the:

Bowmans capsule?

Collects blood filtered by the glomerulus and directs it to the proximal tubule

Visceral (What are podocytes?)

-Podocytes(or visceral epithelial cells) are cells in the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys that

wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus.

Parietal

parietal layer of Bowmans capsule consists of modified simple squamous epithelium.

PCT/PT?

-absorption of ions, organic molecules, vitamins, and water.

Loop of Henle? Descending, Ascending, thin, thick?

-Descending(thin): permeable to water

-Ascending(thin): impermeable to water. Permeable to ions-Na+ and K+

-Ascending (thick)-reabsorbssodium, potassium, and chloride ions from the filtrate

DCT?

-secretion: ions, acids, drugs, toxins

-variable reabsorption of water, Na+, CL- (with the induction of ADH)

Collecting ducts?

-variable reabsorption of water (with induction of ADH)

-reabsorption or secretion of Na+, K+, H+, and bicarbonate ions

o What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus (macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells)?

-Function: maintains BP, NA+, and H20 with renin*** if urine is clear and good, you can pee renin out

-Juxtamedullary Cells (Responders):secrete renin and regulates GFR

-Macula Densa: monitors osmolarity in DCT


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Physiology:o What is the basic functional unit of the kidney?

-nephron

o What is ADH? What does it do? Where does it affect?

-ADH causes the DCT and collecting ducts to be permeable to water, increasing water

reabsorption and reducing urine output

-released in response to low blood volume, high osmolarity, and AII

1) conserve H20

2) Thirst

3) vasoconstrict

o What is aldosterone? What does it do? Where does it affect?

-steroid hormone produced in the zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex

-released in response to AII (increase BP) and high plasma potassium

-Stimulates sodium potassium pump (increased reabsorption of sodium and increase secretion of

pottasium)

-also increases retention of sodium and water and loss of potassium

-targets distal tubules and collecting ducts

o What is RAAS? What and where are these hormones converted?

-hormone system that regulatesblood pressure and water (fluid)balance.-Renin: enzyme released from macula densa cells in response to low BP or sodium. ACtivates

angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (AI)

-Angiotensinogen: produced as the precursor to angiotensin in the liver, activated to AI by renin

and converted to AII by ACE(angiotensin converting enzyme)

-AII : 1) brain induces thirst (ADH)

2) Adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
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3) vasoconstrict (increase resistance and BP)

o What are the major functions of the kidney? (Remember: acid-base balance and

osmolarity?)

-eliminating metabolic waste products (example: urea)

-conserving nutrients (as much as possible)

-balancing output with input of water and electrolytes

-Regulation of Blood Volume and Blood Pressure

-Regulation of plasma pH

-Participates in amino acid catabolism

o How does the nephron (kidney) regulate osmolarity? AKA: What are the 3 active

functions of the nephron?

1) Filtration of solid wastes in the blood

2) Reabsorption of essential nutrients from the fluid before it becomes urine

3) Excretion of urine as body waste.

What is the passive result of these 3 functions?

o What is Starlings law of the capillaries? (Jv = Kf [(PcPi)s(pc - pi)] )

o FILTRATION:

o What is GFR? What is the average GFR per minute?

-GFR=filtration

-125 ml/min

What is the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole?

-afferent arteriole: each supplies a renal corpuscle to form the capillary network (glomerulus)(glomerular filtrate formed here)

-efferent arteriole: blood leaves the glomerulus through this arteriole

How is GFR affected by changes in the afferent and efferent arterioles?What happens to

GFR when the diameter of the...

Aff. art. is

o Increased? increase filtration

o Decreased? decrease filtration

Eff. art. is

o Increased? decrease filtration

o Decreased? increase filtration What does Angiotensin II do to the aff and eff arterioles?

-efferent: constricts (more)

-afferent: constricts

What does ANP do to filtration?

-increases filtration

o What else does ANP do?


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-inhibits reabsorption of sodium causing natriuresis ( increase urine output)

o What triggers its release?

- small peptide hormones produced in the heart

-released due to stretch or injury of atrial or ventricular myocytes (muscle cells)

o What is renal autoregulation?

-kidneys themselves help maintain a constant renal blood flow and GFR despite normal,

everyday changes in blood pressure

What is the myogenic mechanism?

-how arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease of blood pressure to keep the blood

flow within the blood vessel constant.

What is tubuloglomerular feedback?

-principle mechanism responsible for renal autoregulation

-helps maintain a stable GFR

-utilizes JGA(responder) and macula densa (sensor)

o What is the JGA? Macula densa?JGA=Responder

Macula Densa=Sensor

What does the JGA and macula densa do?

Macula densa= monitors osmolarity of DCT

JGA=secretes renin

What does the macula densa measure in the nephron?

-osmolarity of DCT(concentration of solution)

What hormone is released from the JGA?

-Renin

o REABSORPTION AND SECRETION:

What part of the nephron reabsorbs the most (60-70%) solutes and fluid?

-Proximal Convoluted Tube

What does the Na+ symporter cotransport?( AKA: what does Na+ bring into the body with

it? )

-H20, K+, CL-, Glucose (I think its just water?) -Mirie

What does the Na+/H+ antiporter countertransport?

What occurs in the descending loop (of Henle)? Is it water permeable?

-reabsorption of water

What occurs in the thin ascending loop?Is it water permeable?

-reabsorption of Na+ and CL-

-impermeable to water

What occurs in the thick ascending loop? Is it water permeable?

-reabsorption of Na+, Cl-

-in exchange of K+ (sodium pottasium pump)

-impermeable to water


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What symporter is found there?

-Na-K-Cl cotransporter is located there (NA/k pump)

How does this create the different layers of osmolarity in the kidney?

-the regulation of

What occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?

--secretion: ions, acids, drugs, toxins

-variable reabsorption of water, Na+, CL- (with the induction of ADH)

What symporters are found in the apical membrane?

-Sodium Chloride Symporter (NaCL co-transporter)

What occurs in the collecting duct (CD)?

--variable reabsorption of water (with induction of ADH)

-reabsorption or secretion of Na+, K+, H+, and bicarbonate ions

What are principal cells?

-predominantly responsible for sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the kidney

What are intercalated cells?

-intercalated cells-secrete acid and reabsorb bicarbonate

-intercalated cells-secrete bicarbonate and reabsorb acid

Where do potassium (K+) sparing diuretics work?

-furosemide: thick ascending limb

-thiazide: distal convoluted tubule

o What is the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System? (RAAS)

--is ahormone system that regulatesblood pressure and water (fluid)balance.

-Renin: enzyme released from macula densa cells in respose to low BP or sodium. ACtivates

angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (AI)

-Angiotensin:produced as the precursor angiotensinogen in the liver, activated to AI by renin

and converted to AII by ACE(angiotensin converting enzyme)

-AII is a potent vasoconstrictor, elicits thirst, and causes release of ADH and Aldosterone

Where is angiotensinogen made?

- liver

Where is it converted to angiotensin-I (AI)? What enzyme does this?

-Renin (kidneys)+ Angiotensinogen (liver) = Angiotensin I

-renin is the enzyme

Where is it converted to angiotensin-II (AII)? What enzyme does this?
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What is renal plasma clearance?

-volume of plasma completely cleared of a specific compound per unit time

-used to measure kidney function

What is dialysis?

-the filtering of circulating blood through a semipermeable membrane in an apparatus

(haemodialyser or artificial kidney) to remove waste products: performed in cases of kidney

failure.

Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

What are the different fluid compartments?

-intracellular: fluid found within body cells plasma membrane

-Extracellular: body fluid outside of cells*interstitial compartment: the space that surrounds the cells of a given tissue. Filled with

interstitial fluid

*plasma: extracellular portion of the blood

*transcellular compartment: fluid outside normal compartments (CSF, Digestive juices,

Mucous)

o What are the percentages of fluid found in each compartment?


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What is metabolic acidosis?

o Definition: low plasma pH

o What is the cause?

-increase in H+ production

-decrease H+ excretion

-Decrease HCO3- production

-increase HCO3- excretion

o What is the compensation?

-Respiratory compensation:

hyperventilation

-Renal compensation: H+ ions secreted and

HCO3- reabsorbed

What is metabolic alkalosis?

o Definition: High plasma pH

o What is the cause?

-decrease H+ production

-increase H+ secretion

-increase HCO3- production

-decrease HCO3- excretion

o What is the compensation?

-Respiratory compensation: hypoventilation

-Renal Compensation: H+ ions reabsorbed

and HCO3- secreted

How do the lungs regulate CO2? How does the kidney trap acid? Control or regulate base

(HCO3-)?

-Lungs regulate CO2 by controlling breathing rate. Hyperventilation reduces PCO2 andhypoventilation increase PCO2.

-Kidneys trap acid by keeping the particles charged

-the kidneys will regulate pH through the reabsorption of of HCO3-. Reabsorption of HCO3-

predominantly occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule


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Nutrition and Metabolism:

Metabolism?

-refers to all chemical reactions in an organism

Catabolism?

- breakdown of organic substrates

-releases energy used to synthesize high energy compounds (ex ATP)

Anabolism?

-synthesis of new organic molecules

How is ATP regenerated?

Creatine phosphate (immediate source of ATP)

-ATP-----ADP + P + energy release

-regeneration: ADP + P-----ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)

Glycolysis

-breaks 6-carbon glucose

-into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid

-investment of 2 ATP, 6 carbon glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD, 4 ADP, 2 Pi

-Product: 2, 3 carbon pyruvate, 4 ATP (net 2 ATP), 2 NADH

TCA

-function: to remove hydrogen atoms from organic molecules and transfer them to coenzymes

-Pyruvate is oxidized and decarboxylated------> Acetyl-Coa

-Acetyl-Coa to oxaloacetic acid----->citric acid--->isocitric acid---->alpha-ketoglutarate----

>succinal-Coa---->Succinic acid--->fumeric acid---->malic acid---->oxaloacetic acid ----> repeat-Products per 2 molecules of pyruvate = 8 NADH, 2 FADH, 2 CO2, 2 GTP

ETC

-generation of ATP within inner mitochondrial membrane

-key is oxidative phosphorylation

-Coenzymes (NADH and FADH) drop off electrons

-transfer of electrons creates gradient causing H+ ions to diffuse through membrane

-H+ ions return through ATP synthase, thus catalyzing the reaction of ADP+P---> ATP

-NADH=3 ATP

-FADH=2 ATP

-28 from ETS (32 if including NADH from glycolysis)

-36 ATP total

What is:

Oxidative phosphorylation?

Is the generation of ATP within mitochondria in a reaction requiring coenzymes and oxygen


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-produces more than 90% of ATP used by body

Carbohydrate (glucose) metabolism:

o Catabolism:

- breakdown of organic substrates

-releases energy used to synthesize high energy compounds (ex ATP)

How many ATP are generated per glucose molecule in glycolysis? TCA (or Krebs) cycle?

ETC (eletron transport chain)?

Glycolysis = 2 net ATP

TCA=2 GTP

Kreb = 28 ATP (from TCA) + 4 ATP (from NADH generated in glycolysis)

Total = 36 ATP (32 from ETC, 2 from kreb, 2 from glyocolysis)

How many steps are involved in glycolysis?

1) As soon as a glucose molecule enters the cytoplasm, a phosphate group is attached to the

molecule

2) A second phosphate group is attached. Together, steps 1 and 2 cost the cell 2 ATP

3) The 6 carbon chain is split into 3 carbon molecules, each of which then follows the rest of this

pathway

4) Another phosphate group is attached to each molecule, and NADH is generated from NAD

5) One ATP molecule is formed for each molecule processed (2 ATP produced)

6) The atoms in each molecule are rearranged, releasing a molecule of water

7) A second ATP molecule is formed for each molecule processed. Step 7 produces 2 ATP

molecules

At what steps of the glycolytic cycle is ATP used up? Generated? Total?

-2 ATP used in steps 1 and 2- 2 ATP gained in step 5 and step 7 (4 total)

What is the final electron acceptor? O2

What are the steps in the TCA (or Krebs) cycle?

From citrate to _isocitrate____ to _alpha-ketogluterate_____ to _succinal-coa_____ to

_succinic acid____ to _fumeric acid_____ to _malic acid____ to _oxeloacetic acid___

What product from glycolysis goes into the TCA cycle? What does it go in as?

-Pyruvate (2)-----> Acetyl-Coa (2)

How is ATP generated in the electron transport chain? 28 ATP (TCA) + 4 ATP (NADH

produced in glycolysis) = 32 total

What is NADH? NAD+? Which carries electrons (via H+ or hydrogens) to the electron

transport chain to generate ATP in aerobic respiration?

-NAD+=Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

-NAD+ = coenzyme responsible for picking up a hydrogen ion

-NADH = coenzyme carrier that brings H+ to ETC

Where does NADH + H+ come from? (hint: what pathways)

-Glycolysis and intermediate


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(IDLs): intermediate-density lipoproteins

- b/w LDLs and VLDLs

LDLs: Low-density lipoproteins

- bad

- take to fat cells, storage

HDLs: High-density lipoproteins

- good

- clean out bloodstream take back to liver and 1) turn into bile, or 2) return to body

What is the difference between each?

-

Which form has a higher amount of protein than the others and is capable of removing

excess cholesterol from boy cells and the blood (to transport to the liver for elimination)?

- HDL (High-density lipoproteins)

After lipids are transported across the GI tract (as micelles and chylomicrons) how they

are transported to the liver? How are lipids transported in the blood?- Intestinal tract Lacteals Thoracic Duct Circulatory system Capillaries liver cells

Apoproteins (Apo)

What are the 2 essential fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize?

- linolenic and linoleic acid cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained from food;

these basic fats are used to build specialized fats called omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids

What does adipose tissue remove from chylomicrons and VLDLs?

-

o What is lipolysis? What enzymes do this function?

- Lipolysis AKA lipid catabolism breaks lipids down into pieces that can be 1) converted to

pyruvic acid, or 2) channeled directly into TCA Cycle-

What is beta oxidation?

- A series of reactions

- Breaks fatty acid molecules into 2-Carbon fragments

- Occurs inside mitochondria

- Each step, 1) generates molecules of Acetyl CoA and NADH, and 2) leaves a shorter carbon

chain bound to coenzyme A

o What is lipogenesis? When does this occur?

- Lipogenesis AKA Lipid synthesis can use almost any organic substrate because lipids, amino

acids, and carbohydrates can be converted to acetyl-CoA

-

What is ketosis?

- a condition characterized by raised levels of ketone bodies in the body, associated with

abnormal fat metabolism and diabetes mellitus.


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- ketone body: any of three relates compounds (acetone, acetoacetic acid, beta-hydroxybutyric

acid) produced during the metabolism of fats.

Protein metabolism:

o What is the end product of protein metabolism? (hint: ammonium)

- ammonium ions converted to urea

o What is ammonium converted to in the urea cycle?

- urea

o How are these excreted from the body?

- in urine

What are the fat soluble vitamins?

- A, D, E, K

Reproductive: Male:

Anatomy:

o Review the anatomy of the male:

o Internal: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, seminal vesicle, prostate,

bulbourethral glands, etc.

o External genitalia:

Penis, corpus sponsiosum, corpora cavernosum, pampiniform plexus, testicular artery,

scrotal sac, cremaster muscle, etc.

o What structure produces sperm?

- seminiferous tubules

o Where does sperm mature?

- epididymis

o Where is non-viable sperm reabsorbed?- epididymis

o What are stereocilia?

- The stereocilia are long cytoplasmic projections that act more like microvilli than cilia at all.

They increase the surface area to greater exhibit secretion and absorption of the cell. Unlike

true cilia, they have no microtubules, which means they are non-motile. From the stereocilia,

large amounts of fluid are secreted to propel the spermatozoa. In turn, the stereocilia will then

reabsorb around 90% of that same fluid.

o What are the 3 parts of the urethra?

- 1) prostatic 2) membranous 3) penile/spongy

o What are the accessory glands?- 1) Prostate gland 2) Cowpers (Bulbourethral glands) 3) Seminal vesicles

o What are the 2 cells that assist in growth and maturation of the spermatogonia?

- Sustentacular (Sertoli) cells and Interstitial (Leydig) cells

o What are Sertoli cells also called?

- Sustentacular cells (respond to FSH)

o What are Leydig cells also called?


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- Interstitial cells (respond to LH)

o How do the testes get to the outside of the body? When does this occur?

- Movement of testes through inguinal canalinto scrotum and testes remain connected to internal

structures via thespermatic cords

- Occurs during fetal development

o What is the potential space that internal organs such as the GI tract can pass through?

What is this problem called?

- inguinal canal

- hernia: when a structure thats not supposed to be there, pushed through

o What is the anatomy of the spermatozoon?

- 1) Head: nucleus and densely packed chromosomes 2) Middle piece: mitochondria that produce

the ATP needed to move the tail 3) Tail: the only flagellum in the human body

Physiology:

o What occurs in the seminiferous tubules?

- the production of sperm, contain spermatogonia: stem cells involved in spermatogenesiso What cells are present?

- Sustentacular cells (Sertoli) and Interstitial cells (Leydig)

o What is spermatogenesis?

- 1) Mitosis 2) Meiosis (I & II)

o What is spermiogenesis?

- maturation of secondary spermatocytes


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o What is mitosis? Meiosis? What are the phases?

o What are the stages of sperm development in meiosis?

- refer to above picture

How is it different from oogenesis (female egg development)?

- Spermatogenesis: after the two meiotic divisions in a single spermatogonium, there are 4

spermatids which then go on to form 4 sperm cells or spermatozoa.

- Oogenesis: after the two meiotic divisions in a single oogonium, you get one ovum and 3 polar

bodies. Each time the oocyte divides, most of the cytoplasm goes into one product and the other

one (the polar body) just gets a set of chromosomes.o What is the function of Sertoli cells?

- Helps to control the composition of the jelly surrounding the spermatids (help w/nourishment

of sperm)

o What is the function of Leydig cells?

- They produce testosterone, which is essential to spermatogenesis. (matures and helps sperm

grow)


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o Hormones:

GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone)

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)

LH (Leutinizing Hormone)

Testosterone

Inhibin

What hormones are secreted from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary that act on the

male gonads?

- Hypothalamus: releases GnRH Anterior Pituitary: releases LH and FSH

o What hormones regulate the male gonads and sperm production?

- FSH and LH

What is their target organ and what is their function?

o Accessory glands: What does the seminal vesicle secrete?

- seminal fluid: a distinct ionic and nutritive glandular secretion

- contributes 60% total volume of semen

- secretions contain fructose, prostaglandins, and fibrinogen

What do these products do?

What does the prostate gland secrete?


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- slightly acidic prostate fluid


What does the bulbourethral gland secrete?

- Secrete alkaline mucus with lubricating properties


o What is negative feedback and how does it affect this system?

- Sustentacular cells secrete inhibin which then inhibits secretion of FSH. It could also feed

back to the hypothalamus inhibiting the secretion of GnRH inhibition of LH & FSH

- If there is too much testosterone being produced, inhibin could signal to the hypothalamus to

stop the production of GnRH which would then stop the production of LH and FSH. (Refer to

above picture)

Reproductive: Female:

Anatomy:

o Review the anatomy of the female: Internal:

Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, etc.

External:

Vagina, labia major, labia minor, mons pubis, vestibule, clitoris, etc.

o What structure produces eggs?

- Ovaries (ovarian follicles)

o Where do eggs mature?

- Ovaries

o What is the follicle?

- egg and nesto What is the corpus luteum?

- yellowbody; a hormone secreting structure that develops in an ovary after an ovum has been

discharged but degenerates after a few days unless pregnancy has begun

o What is the corpus albicans?

- white body; the regressed form of the corpus luteum. As the corpus luteum is being broken

down by macrophages, fibroblasts lay down type I collagen forming the corpus albicans

o What are the 2 cells that assist in growth and maturation of the egg?

- Granulosa & Theca cells

o What are Granulosa cells?

- Granulosa cells make estrogen from androgens by Theca cells

o What are Theca cells?

- Theca cells make androgen

o What are the different supporting ligaments?

- 1) broad ligament 2) 3 pairs of suspensory ligaments 3) ovarian ligament


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o Major anatomical landmarks of the uterus

Body

Isthmus

Cervix

Cervical os (internal orifice)

Uterine cavity

Cervical canal

Internal os (internal orifice)

Uterine wall: myometrium, endometrium, perimetrium

Physiology:

o What is oogenesis?

- ovum production, occurs monthly in ovarian follicles, part of OVARIAN cycle (Follicular

phase: preovulatory, Luteal phase: postovulatory)

What stages are halted (frozen) and when does this occur?

- Meiosis I: (Prophase I: completed after puberty) AND Meiosis II: (Metaphase II: completed

after fertilization)

o What is mitosis? Meiosis?

- Mitosis: a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number

and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.


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- Meiosis: a type of cell division that results in 4 daughter cells each with half the number of

chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes.

o What are the 2 cycles for the female?

- 1) Uterine cycle 2) Ovarian cycle

What occurs during the uterine cycle?

- (0-5: Menses) Proliferative phase: Estrogen Estrogen Peak LH Surge (14)

Ovulation: release of egg from ovaries Secretory phase: Progesterone

What are the phases?

o Menses (1)

o Proliferative (2)

o Ovulation (3)

o Secretory (4)

What occurs during the ovarian cycle?

- Hypothalamus: GnRH Anterior pituitary: FSH Follicular phase: estrogen Estrogen

peak LH surge Ovulation Corpus luteum Luteal phase: progesterone (to fluff) What are the phases?

o Follicular phase

o Ovulation

o Luteal phase

o Hormones:

GnRH

FSH

LH

Estrogen

Androgens Progesterone (progestins)

hCG

What hormones are secreted from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary that act on the

female gonads?

- Hypothalamus: GnRH

Anterior Pituitary: FSH & LH

What hormones are secreted from the ovaries before and after ovulation?

- before: estrogen (proliferative phase & follicular phase), LH (LH surge)

- after: progesterone (luteal phase & secretory phase)

What hormones act on the uterus during the different phases of the uterine cycle?

- Estrogen, LH and progesterone

o Where does fertilization most commonly take place?

- in the fallopian tubes AKA the uterine tubes

o Cells:

What is the function of Granulosa cells?


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- to make estrogen (from Theca cells)

What is the function of Theca cells?

- to make angrodens (used in making estrogen)

What happens after ovulation to these cells?

- They form the corpus luteum

o Adrenal cortex pathway: remember the diagram from before?

o What hormone acts on the granulosa cell?

- FSH

What does this cell make (or convert)?

- makes Estrogen from androgen (by theca cells)

o What hormone acts on the thecal cell?

- LH

o After ovulation these 2 cells combine to form corpus luteum, which begins to secrete

(produce) progesteroneand estrogen.

phyl 142 final exam

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