philosophy of education module -...
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RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT CENTER
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
MODULE
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OVER VIEW OF THE MODULE
Given that philosophy is not taught at pre-university levels in many countries, it is necessary
to provide you with an elaborate overview.
This module provides a background to the nature of philosophy and its purpose in the
process of education. It brings into focus various insights that have characterized developments
in educational theory and practice through the ages. As you study this module, you will
realize that philosophers and educators share important concerns in human life.
Philosophy is a rational thought about all issues that influence human life. Have you ever
realized that you have certain beliefs and opinion based on important ideas such as the
purpose of life, purpose of education, a need for religion, if any, and your destiny, for
instance? Have you taken your time to analyze possible basis for the beliefs and opinions
you hold? Such beliefs control and create a pattern in your life and an attempt to understand
the as- assumptions on which they are based creates a philosophy. As you analyze and
question your beliefs and the basis of the systems in which they are rooted, you generate
your personal philosophy. It is possible that you have done so, either consciously or
subconsciously. You have, for instance, chosen to study this module based on some belief
about your possible contribution in the process of education. To philosophize, therefore, is to
use reason to ascertain the efficacy of principles that govern your belief systems.
As you study this module, you will be encouraged to enjoy philosophical de- liberation by
questioning the assumptions upon which important decisions are based. The module sets the
stage for sustaining a questioning attitude in order to, not only, understand the educative
process but also justify its theory and practice.
INTENT OF THE COURSE
Philosophy of Education is currently at an intersection of incredibly rich and diverse visions
and arguments concerning aims, values, methods, and assumptions underlying education.
This course introduces students to a broad range of philosophical viewpoints, for example,
feminist, ecologist, spiritualist, multiculturalists, critical theorist, and so on. Through the
lens of these diverse viewpoints, we will explore and examine conceptions of education
(what should our aims be in education?), curriculum (what shall students study?),
pedagogy (what does it mean to be a teacher and to teach?), knowledge (what is
knowledge and what is it for?), and ethics (what morals and values shall we teach our
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young?). It is the intent of this course that our students come away with a comprehensive
picture of the kinds of philosophical debates waged in education around the above
themes. Moreover, we intend that our students become thinkers who are able to think
about question, and interpret any educational issue from multiple perspectives. And lastly,
we promote that the students emerge from the course with a strong but informed
personal voice and stance, capable of entering into dialogue and debate with confidence.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Education in the classroom is bound to be a disaster without prior reflection on Theories of
Knowledge and Theories of Education. Thus, definition, nature and scope of
Epistemological and Academic essentials need to be de-lineated. There is also the need to
differentiate Education from Indoctrination. This course aims to address these key issues
and provide a systematic introduction to major questions of Education. The two major
paradigms of educational theory Perennialism and Progressivism will be considered.
MODULE DESCRIPTOR
BAED Module Descriptor
Title: Philosophy of Education
Programme: Bachelor of Arts with Education
Description:
BAED Stage: Undergraduate/ Foundation phaseReference:
Prerequisites: Diploma or certificate in education with three (3) years experience
Module Leader:
Tutor:
Teaching Hours: Approximately:
45 hours class contact time or equivalent
120 hours of independence study
General
objectives
As an educator, have you ever realized that your beliefs in life and
the role of education in shaping them may need to be identified,
examined, justified, defended and perhaps modified to establish their
coherence with other competing beliefs? An opportunity to do so
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arises as you choose to study this module. The development o f such a
disposition would generate more questions than answers. As you
grapple with attempts to raise and answer educational philosophical
questions in this module, you will be able to:
Goals Education has primarily focused on what to learn rather than how
to learn. Philosophy of Education is an inherent extension of
epistemology (Theory of Knowledge) and the continuing debate of
how we know and what we know. This course considers the
validity and the utility of concepts and methods used in
Educational Theory and Practice. It also analyses what is only
Education-so-called and a threat to real education. The students
focus on the educational agendas around the world and critically
evaluate the two major paradigms of Perennialism and
Progressivism.
Learning
Outcomes: 1. Establish a link between philosophical deliberation and
educational theory and practice.
2. Expose and analyze assumptions underlying theory and
practice of education.
3. Develop
(a). Problem-solving and critical thinking skills
(b). An ability to think independently
(c). An ability to analyze current educational issues, practice and ideology
(d). An understanding of philosophical basis for the practice of
education
4. Foster an appreciation of the power of philosophical
deliberation and application of philosophical methods a
way of resolving issues in education.
5. Inquire into questions of value, meaning and truth as they
relate to education
6. Reflect on the extent to which philosophical
deliberation might inform policy and the politics of
education
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7. Ability to examine their own and others'
experiences in light of concepts and theories, and
vice versa;
8. Ability to engage in productive dialogues with other
interlocutors in convivial manner by offering and
receiving critically assessed points of view;
9 Ability to employ philosophical vocabulary
pertinent to educational issues;
10 Ability to compose carefully conceptualized and
reasoned arguments;
11. Ability to play an informed and active role in the public domain.
Lecturing:
There will be one (1) three (3) hour lecture per week. Alternatively group discussion,
visitation to schools and other institutions and tutorials may be arranged.
Assessment:
Two Assignments: 40 Marks
One Examination: 60 Marks
Developed by Prof. Dr. Hassan Kasolo. Mphande (BA-ED, MSC, Econ, PhD, DBA)
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Table of Contents COURSE DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................................................... 3
MODULE DESCRIPTOR .................................................................................................................................... 3
Goals ........................................................................................................................................................... 4
UNIT 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHY ........................................................................................ 8
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 8
1.1.1. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHY .................................................................................... 8
1.1.2. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? ...................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.3 Philosophy of Education ....................................................................................... 10
1.1.4 PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM .......................................................................... 11
UNIT 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 13
MEANING, SCOPE & FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ........................................................ 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY & EDUCATION ............................................................................................. 14
2.3. MEANING OF EDUCATION ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.4 CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ..................................................................................... 16
2.5 SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ......................................................................................... 19
2.5.1 Nature of Philosophy of Education .................................................................................................. 21
2.6 FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ........................................................................................ 23
2.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING AND TEACHING STYLES ..................................... 24
Activity .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
UNIT 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 28
MAJOR EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES ................................................................................................... 28
3.1 PERENNIALISM........................................................................................................................................ 29
3.1.2 AIM OF EDUCATION ............................................................................................................................ 30
3.1.3 THE PERENNIALIST CURRICULUM ........................................................................................................ 30
3.1.4. TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD .............................................................................................. 33
3.2. ESSENTIALISM ........................................................................................................................................ 33
3.2.1 WHAT IS ESSENTIALISM? ................................................................................................................. 33
3.2.2. AIM OF EDUCATION........................................................................................................................ 34
3.2.3 THE ESSENTIALIST CURRICULUM .......................................................................... 35
3.3. PROGRESSIVISM .................................................................................................................................... 39
3.3.1 WHAT IS PROGRESSIVISM? .............................................................................................................. 39
3.3.2 AIM OF EDUCATION ............................................................................................ 40
3.4. RECONSTRUCTIONISM ........................................................................................................................... 43
3.4.1 WHAT IS RECONSTRUCTIONISM? .................................................................................................... 43
3.4.2 AIM OF EDUCATION ....................................................................................................................... 44
3.4.3 THE RECONSTRUCTIONIST CURRICULUM ............................................................. 44
4.0. EXISTENTIALISM .............................................................................................................................. 46
4.1.2 AIM OF EDUCATION......................................................................................................................... 46
4.1.3. CURRICULUM ....................................................................................................... 46
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Activity: ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.0. CONFUCIUS ............................................................................................................................................ 48
5.1 CONFUCIUS AND EDUCATION ............................................................................................................ 48
5.2 CONFUCIUS ON CURRICULUM............................................................................................................ 49
UNIT 4 .................................................................................................................................................... 51
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CURRICULUM .......................................................................... 51
4.0. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 51
4.1. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY ................................................................................................................ 52
4.2 AREAS OF PHILOSOPHY ...................................................................................................................... 52
Activity .......................................................................................................................................................... 53
4.3. FOUNDATION PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION ....................................................... 54
UNIT 5 .................................................................................................................................................... 66
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION ...................................................................... 66
5.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 66
5.1. THREE CONCEPTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY ....................................................................................... 67
5.1.2. PHILOSOPHY AS IDEOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 69
5.1.3 PHILOSOPHY AS CRITICAL INQUIRY ...................................................................... 70
5.2. FOCUSSING OUR PHILOSOPHY: QUESTIONS OF CRITERIA .............................................................. 72
5.3. KEY DISTINCTIONS AND SIMILARITIES ............................................................................................. 74
5.4. CONCEPTUALIZING THE RELATIONSHIP OF PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION ................................... 78
5.5. IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION ............................................................................... 78
5.6. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY .............................................................................. 79
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................................... 81
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................................. 85
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UNIT 1
DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHY
This unit presents to you some definitions and concepts in
philosophy of education so you will be able to operationally
define philosophy in your field of endeavor. Specifically you will
be able to:
1. conceptualize the meanings of philosophy;2. State your own view of philosophy.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this module, we discussed the different definitions of curriculum. We also briefly
discussed the foundations of curriculum, the curriculum development process and the
relationship between curriculum and instruction. In this chapter and the following two
chapters, we will examine in greater detail the foundations of curriculum. In other
words, how different traditional disciplines have influenced curriculum. A curriculum is
developed based on certain beliefs and orientations, conceptions of learning and the
demands of society. In this chapter, we will focus on the philosophical beliefs that
influence curriculum and in Module 3 we will focus on the psychological perspectives
that impact curriculum. In Module 4 we will discuss the role of society in determining
what is to be included in a curriculum as well as the legacy of significant historical
events.
1.1.1. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy has been defined by authors who were cited by others and who in
turn based their own definitions on them. Gregorio and Gregorio (1979) cited
two definitions of E. S. Amos and William James. The former defined philosophy
as “the endeavor to achieve a comprehensive view of life and its meaning, upon
the basis of the results of various sciences.” The latter defined philosophy as “a
usually stubborn attempt to think clearly.” Moreover, J.A. Leighton was cited as
stating, “a complete philosophy includes a world view, a doctrine of values,
meanings and purpose of human life.”
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From their understanding of the above citations, Gregorio and Gregorio (1979)
concluded that “philosophy is a study of life and the universe as a whole to frame a
logical and necessary system of general idea, so that every element of human
experience may be interpreted.” As a generalized theory of education, philosophy is
assumed not to be defined in terms of subject matter according to John Dewey. Since
education is not distinct from total life situation, the educational philosophy cannot be
bound by the limitations of the subject matter content.
More definitions were cited by Calderon (1998). He cited Good’s definition of
philosophy as the “science that seeks to organize and systematize all fields of knowledge
as a means of understanding and interpreting the totality of reality.” Moreover, W. P.
Montagne and Lacuesta, et. al view philosophy as the “attempt to give a reasoned
conception of the universe and of *human’s+ place in it. For Weber as cited in Lacuesta,
et. al, philosophy is a “search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a
universal explanation of the nature of things.”
These definitions were synthesized by Calderon (1998). He summed all these by stating
that philosophy “means a systematic and logical explanation of the nature, existence of
purposes, and relationships of things including human beings in the universe.”
To Gregorio and Gregorio (1979), philosophy is a generalized theory that aims to
identify problems and suggest ways of handling these problems. Its purpose is to
analyze and classify human actions and aims, problems, and ideals … change the world
in the direction of these ends and values … integrating human conduct with work scale
of values, supremely worthwhile and desirable. To make education effective, it must be
based on human values. Philosophy in education is an attempt to formulate a critically-
built general outlook upon life in the light of the evaluation of values which people prize
in the educative process.
By these definitions and concepts, philosophy has shown its importance in building a
strong foundation for a person to cope with the demands of his/her profession and the
problems in life. Also, these imply the important role philosophy plays in education,
that of providing the student “the ability to synthesize, criticize, assimilate, and evaluate
various and voluminous knowledge (Zulueta and Maglaya, 2004) brought about by
human society, its processes and activities. For according to Socrates, “the life
unexamined is not worth living.”
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1.1.2. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
Let’s begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek word
Reference and citation?“philos” (love) and “sophia” (wisdom) which translated means
“love of wisdom”. Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and curious about
the world seeking to understand the nature of things. Oftentimes, the result of
philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but making
existing philosophies or propositions clearer. Philosophers study the works of other
philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as well as proposing new
philosophies. A philosopher can be a person who knows philosophy even though he or
she engages in little or no philosophising. Philosophy also refers to the collective works
of other philosophers. It can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised
by philosophers.
For centuries philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality,
goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions
philosophers ask are:
What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?
How do we know what we know?
What is reality? What things can be describe as real?
What is the nature of thought and thinking?
What is special about being a human being?
Is there anything special about being alive at all?
What is ethics?
What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?
What is beauty?
How do beautiful things differ from others?
Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as
problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing. Popularly, the
word philosophy may also refer to someone’s perspective on life (philosophy of life) or
the underlying principles or method of achieving something.
1.1.3 Philosophy of Education
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Now, let’s examine a branch of philosophy, namely; philosophy of education. What is
philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of questions such as
‘What is education?’ ‘What is the purpose of education?’, ‘What does it mean to know
something?’ ‘What is the relationship between education and society?’ The philosophy
of education recognises that the development of a civil society depends on the
education of the young as responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which is a
challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values,
political theory, aesthetics and economics; not to mention an understanding of children
themselves.
Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of
education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of
education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al
Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education later in
the chapter]. These philosophers have been key voices in philosophy of education and
have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and can be. They have
also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the problems in education.
1.1.4 PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM
What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when you
propose the teaching of a particular body of knowledge, course or subject, you will be
asked, “What is your philosophy for introducing that content?” If you are unable to
answer the question, you may not be able to convince others to accept your proposal.
Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is the basis for all
subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy becomes the criteria for
determining the aims, selection, organisation and implementation of the curriculum in
the classroom.
Philosophy helps us answer general questions such as: ‘What are schools for?’ ‘What
subjects are of value?’, ‘How should students learn the content?’ It also helps us to
answer more precise tasks such as deciding what textbooks to use, how to use them,
what homework to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results.
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SELF-TEST 1
1. What do philosophers do?2. List the concepts philosophers have been interested in.3. What is philosophy of education? How is it related to the
Curriculum of a school system?
Activities
1. Having read these definitions and concepts of philosophy,
state your own view of philosophy.
2. Explain your answer to this question, “Why is it important
to know these definitions and concepts of philosophy?”
3. You may read more definitions and concepts of
philosophy from other sources. Try surfing in the internet
reading other materials. Do you find any difference from
those given? Please provide your tutor with those that
you got from other sources.
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UNIT 2
MEANING, SCOPE & FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
After reading this unit you will be able to:
1. Discuss the meaning of philosophy of education,
2. Explain the unlimited scope of philosophy of education.
3. Enumerate the various functions of philosophy of education.
4. State the various methods of Philosophical inquiry
5. Describe the relationship between philosophy of teaching and teaching styles.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is a search for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly
speculative rather than observational means. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in
human beings to know themselves and the world in which they live and move and have
their being. Western philosophy remained more or less true to the etymological
meaning of philosophy in being essentially an intellectual quest for truth. Hindu
philosophy is intensely spiritual and has always emphasized the need for practical
realization of Truth. Philosophy is a comprehensive system of ideas about human nature
and the nature of the reality we live in. It is a guide for living, because the issues it
addresses are basic and pervasive, determining the course we take in life and how we
treat other people. Hence we can say that all the aspects of human life are influenced
and governed by the philosophical consideration. As a field of study philosophy is one of
the oldest disciplines. It is considered as a mother of all the sciences. In fact it is at the
root of all knowledge. Education has also drawn its material from different philosophical
bases.
Education, like philosophy is also closely related to human life. Therefore, being an
important life activity education is also greatly influenced by philosophy. Various fields
of philosophy like the political philosophy, social philosophy and economic philosophy
have great influence on the various aspects of education like educational procedures,
processes, policies, planning and its implementation, from both the theoretical and
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practical aspects.
In order to understand the concept of Philosophy of education it is necessary to
first understand the meaning of the two terms; Philosophy and Education.
2.2 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY & EDUCATION
Meaning of Philosophy
The word philosophy literally means love of wisdom; It is derived from two Greek words
i.e. 'phileo' (love) and 'Sophia' (wisdom). Reference? This tells us something about the
nature of philosophy, but not much, because many disciplines seek wisdom. Since times
immemorial there have been various pursuits for unfolding the mystery of the universe,
birth and death, sorrow and joy. Various ages have produced different thoughts
throwing light upon the mystic region. The ultimate truth is yet to be found out. This
eternal quest for truth 'lends the origin of philosophy. A love of wisdom is the essence
for any philosophy investigation.
On the standard way of telling the story, humanity's first systematic inquiries took place
within a mythological or religious framework: wisdom ultimately was to be derived from
sacred traditions and from individuals thought to possess privileged access to a
supernatural realm, whose own access to wisdom, in turn, generally was not
questioned. However, starting in the sixth century BCE, there appeared in ancient
Greece a series of thinkers whose inquiries were comparatively secular (see "The
Milesians and the Origin of Philosophy"). Presumably, these thinkers conducted their
inquiries through reason and observation, rather than through tradition or revelation.
These thinkers were the first philosophers. Although this picture is admittedly simplistic,
the basic distinction has stuck: philosophy in its most primeval form is considered
nothing less than secular inquiry itself.
The subject of philosophical inquiry is the reality itself. There are different schools of
philosophy depending on the answers they seek to the question of reality. It is the
search for understanding of man, nature and the universe. There are different branches
of philosophy-Epistemology, Metaphysics, etc. There are different fields of philosophy
such as educational philosophy, social philosophy, political philosophy, economic
philosophy etc. There are also different philosophical approaches such as idealism,
naturalism, pragmatism, materialism, and so on.
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2.3. MEANING OF EDUCATION
Etymologically, the word education is derived from educare (Latin) "bring up", which is
related to educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and
educere, "to lead". Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a
formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its
technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its
accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.
Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching (now that's really
useful, isn't it?) Educate is further defined as "to develop the knowledge, skill, or
character of..." Thus, from these definitions, we might assume that the purpose of
education is to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of students.
In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was
already within the student. (As many of you know, the word education comes from the
Latin e-ducere meaning "to lead out.") At the same time, the Sophists, a group of
itinerant teachers, promised to give students the necessary knowledge and skills to gain
positions with the city-state. Thus we see that there are different views and
understandings of the meaning of the term education. In the modern times it has
acquired two different shades of meaning namely:
(1) An institutional instruction, given to students in school colleges formally; and
(2) A pedagogical science, studied by the student of education.
The words of Adam education are the dynamic side of philosophy. Philosophy takes into
its orbit, all the dimensions of human life. Similarly education also reflects the
multifaceted nature of human life. Therefore, education is closely related to various
aspects of human life and environment. Hence, the term education has a wide
connotation. It is difficult to define education by single definition. Philosophers and
thinkers from Socrates to Dewey in west and a host of Indian philosophers have
attempted to define education. However education can be understood as the deliberate
and systematic influence exerted by a mature through instruction, and discipline. It
means the harmonious development of all the powers of the human being; physical
social, intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual.
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The essential elements in the educative process are a creative mind, a well integrated
self, socially useful purposes and experience related to the interests of the individual,
needs and abilities of the individual as a of a social group.
In the historical development of man, education has been the right of a privileged few. It
is only in recent centuries that education has come to be recognized as a human right.
All have equal right to be educated as education has become sine qua non of civilization.
Our discussion of the concept of education and the concept of philosophy form the basis
of arriving at the definition of philosophy of education.
2.4 CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
All human societies, past and present, have had a vested interest in education; and
some wits have claimed that teaching (at its best an educational activity) is the second
oldest profession. While not all societies channel sufficient resources into support for
educational activities and institutions, all at the very least acknowledge their
centrality—and for good reasons. For one thing, it is obvious that children are born
illiterate and innumerate, and ignorant of the norms and cultural achievements of the
community or society into which they have been thrust; but with the help of
professional teachers and the dedicated amateurs in their families and immediate
environs (and with the aid, too, of educational resources made available through the
media and nowadays the internet), within a few years they can read, write, calculate,
and act (at least often) in culturally-appropriate ways. Some learn these skills with more
facility than others, and so education also serves as a social-sorting mechanism and
undoubtedly has enormous impact on the economic fate of the individual. Put more
abstractly, at its best education equips individuals with the skills and substantive
knowledge that allows them to define and to pursue their own goals, and also allows
them to participate in the life of their community as full-fledged, autonomous citizens.
Paragraph too long?
Equips individuals with the skills and substantive knowledge that allows them to define
and to pursue their own goals, and also allows them to participate in the life of their
community as full-fledged, autonomous citizens.
But this is to cast matters in very individualistic terms, and it is fruitful also to take a
societal perspective, where the picture changes somewhat. It emerges that in pluralistic
societies such as the Western democracies there are some groups that do not
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wholeheartedly support the development of autonomous individuals, for such folk can
weaken a group from within by thinking for themselves and challenging communal
norms and beliefs; from the point of view of groups whose survival is thus threatened,
formal, state-provided education is not necessarily a good thing. But in other ways even
these groups depend for their continuing survival on educational processes, as do the
larger societies and nation-states of which they are part; for as John Dewey put it in the
opening chapter of his classic work Democracy and Education (1916), in its broadest
sense education is the means of the “social continuity of life” (Dewey, 1916, 3). Dewey
pointed out that the “primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the
constituent members in a social group” make education a necessity, for despite this
biological inevitability “the life of the group goes on” (Dewey, 3). The great social
importance of education is underscored, too, by the fact that when a society is shaken
by a crisis, this often is taken as a sign of educational breakdown; education, and
educators, become scapegoats.
It is not surprising that such an important social domain has attracted the attention of
philosophers for thousands of years, especially as there are complex issues aplenty that
have great philosophical interest. Abstractly, at its best education equips individuals
with the skills and substantive knowledge that allows them to define and to pursue their
own goals, and also allows them to participate in the life of their community as full-
fledged, autonomous citizens.
But this is to cast matters in very individualistic terms, and it is fruitful also to take a
societal perspective, where the picture changes somewhat. It emerges that in pluralistic
societies such as the Western democracies there are some groups that do not
wholeheartedly support the development of autonomous individuals, for such folk can
weaken a group from within by thinking for themselves and challenging communal
norms and beliefs; from the point of view of groups whose survival is thus threatened,
formal, state-provided education is not necessarily a good thing. But in other ways even
these groups depend for their continuing survival on educational processes, as do the
larger societies and nation-states of which they are part; for as John Dewey put it in the
opening chapter of his classic work Democracy and Education (1916), in its broadest
sense education is the means of the “social continuity of life” (Dewey, 1916, 3). Dewey
pointed out that the “primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the
constituent members in a social group” make education a necessity, for despite this
biological inevitability “the life of the group goes on” (Dewey, 3). The great social
importance of education is underscored, too, by the fact that when a society is shaken
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by a crisis, this often is taken as a sign of educational breakdown; education, and
educators, become scapegoats.
It is not surprising that such an important social domain has attracted the attention of
philosophers for thousands of years, especially as there are complex issues aplenty that
have great philosophical interest. The following are some issues that philosophers have
deeply thought about and philosophy is still in the process of answering these
questions.
Is Education as transmission of knowledge versus education as the fostering of inquiry
and reasoning skills that are conducive to the development of autonomy (which,
roughly, is the tension between education as conservative and education as progressive,
and also is closely related to differing views about human “perfectibility”—issues that
historically have been raised in the debate over the aims of education); the question of
what this knowledge, and what these skills, ought to be—part of the domain of
philosophy of the curriculum; the questions of how learning is possible, and what is it to
have learned something—two sets of issues that relate to the question of the capacities
and potentialities that are present at birth, and also to the process (and stages) of
human development and to what degree this process is flexible and hence can be
influenced or manipulated; the tension between liberal education and vocational
education, and the overlapping issue of which should be given priority—education for
personal development or education for citizenship (and the issue of whether or not this
is a false dichotomy); the differences (if any) between education and enculturation; the
distinction between educating versus teaching versus training versus indoctrination; the
relation between education and maintenance of the class structure of society, and the
issue of whether different classes or cultural groups can—justly—be given educational
programs that differ in content or in aims; the issue of whether the rights of children,
parents, and socio-cultural or ethnic groups, conflict—and if they do, the question of
whose rights should be dominant; the question as to whether or not all children have a
right to state-provided education, and if so, should this education respect the beliefs
and customs of all groups and how on earth would this be accomplished; and a set of
complex issues about the relation between education and social reform, centering upon
whether education is essentially conservative, or whether it can be an (or, the) agent of
social change. Paragraph too long?
It is here that that philosophy of education plays an important role in providing direction
to education on the following issues as well as providing a theory of knowledge for
education to work upon.
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Philosophy of education is essentially a method of approaching educational experience
rather than a body of conclusions. It is the specific method which makes it philosophical.
Philosophical method is critical, comprehensive and synthetic.
Therefore,
1] Philosophy of education is the criticism of the general theory of education.
2] It consists of critical evaluation and systematic reflection upon general theories.
3] It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values.
In brief, it is a philosophical process of solving educational problems through
philosophical method, from a philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical
conclusions and results. Thus, it aims at achieving general as well as comprehensive
results.
2.5 SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
The scope of philosophy of education is confined to the field of education. Thus, it is
philosophy in the field of education. The scope of philosophy of education is concerned
with the problems of education.
These problems mainly include –
• Interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe and their relation with man,
• Interpretation of aims and ideals of education, • The relationship of various components of the system of education, • Relationship of education and various areas of national life [economic system,
political order, social progress, cultural reconstructions etc.], • Educational values, • Theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.
The above mentioned problems constitute the scope of philosophy of education and
explain its nature. Thus, the scope of philosophy of education includes following.
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a] Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy
Education critically evaluates the different aims and ideals of education. These aims and
ideals have been prorogated by various philosophers in different times. They are
character building, man making, harmonious human development, preparation for adult
life, -development of citizenship, -utilization of leisure, training for civic life, training for
international living, achieving social and national integration, -scientific and
technological development, education for all, equalizing educational opportunities,
strengthening democratic political order and human source development.
These and other aims of education presented by educational thinkers in different times
and climes are scrutinized and evaluated. Thus, philosophy of education critically
evaluates different aims and ideals of education to arrive at.
b] Interpretation of Human Nature:-
A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis of the facts
borrowed from all the human science with the values discussed in different normative,
sciences. The philosophical picture, therefore, is broader as compared to the picture of
man drawn by biology, sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology and other
human science.
c) Educational Values:-
Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract, integral and universal.
Philosophy-of education not only critically evaluates the values but also systematizes
them in a hierarchy. Educational values are' determined by philosophical values.
Educational values propagated by different philosophers have been derived from their
own world, view and their outlook on the purpose of human life. Therefore, a scrutiny
of the world views, outlook, and beliefs is the specific function of philosophy and it is
necessary for the philosophical treatment of the values.
d] Theory of Knowledge:-
Education is related to knowledge. It is determined by the source, limits, criteria and
means of knowledge. The discussion of all these falls within the jurisdiction of
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epistemology, one of the branches of philosophy, therefore, an important area of the
functioning of philosophy of education is related to theory of knowledge.
e] Relationship of education and various area of national life and various components
of the system of education:-
One of the most important contributions of the philosophy of education to the cause of
education is the provision of criteria for deciding the relationship of state and education,
economic system and education, curriculum, school organization and management,
discipline etc. These problems have led to the evaluation of different philosophies of
education. The criteria of judgment everywhere are determined by philosophy;
therefore, philosophy of education provides the criteria for critical evaluation and
judgment in these fields.
2.5.1 Nature of Philosophy of Education
Philosophy of education is one of the areas of applied philosophy. There are three
branches of philosophy namely 'metaphysics, epistemology and axiology.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world. Metaphysics is the study of the nature of things. Metaphysicians ask what kinds of things exist, and what they are like. They reason about such things as whether or not people have free will, in what sense abstract objects can be said to exist, and how it is that brains are able to generate minds.
Axiology: the branch of philosophical enquiry that explores:
o Aesthetics: the study of basic philosophical questions about art and beauty. Sometimes philosophy of art is used to describe only questions about art, with "aesthetics" the more general term. Likewise "aesthetics" sometimes applied even more broadly than to "philosophy of beauty”: to the "sublime," to humour, to the frightening--to any of the responses we might expect works of art or entertainment to elicit.
o Ethics: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of right action can be applied to special moral problems. Sub disciplines include meta-ethics, value theory, theory of conduct, and applied ethics.
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It attempts to answer
the basic question: what distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false
(inadequate) knowledge? Practically, this question translates into issues of scientific
methodology: how can one develop theories or models that are better than competing
theories? It also forms one of the pillars of the new sciences of cognition, which
developed from the information processing approach to psychology, and from artificial
intelligence, as an attempt to develop computer programs that mimic a human's
capacity to use knowledge in an intelligent way. When we look at the history of
epistemology, we can discern a clear trend, in spite of the confusion of many seemingly
contradictory positions. The first theories of knowledge stressed its absolute,
permanent character, whereas the later theories put the emphasis on its relativity or
situation-dependence, its continuous development or evolution, and its active
interference with the world and its subjects and objects. The whole trend moves from a
static, passive view of knowledge towards a more and more adaptive and active one.
As you can tell, the different branches of philosophy overlap one another. A philosopher
considering whether people ought to give excess wealth to the poor is asking an ethical
question. However, his investigations might lead him to wonder whether or not
standards of right and wrong are built into the fabric of the universe, which is a
metaphysical question. If he claims that people are justified in taking a particular stance
on that question, he is making at least a tacit epistemological claim. At every step in his
reasoning, he will want to employ logic to minimize the chance of being led into error by
the great complexity and obscurity of the questions. He may very well look to some of
the ethical, metaphysical, and epistemological writings of past philosophers to see how
his brightest predecessors reasoned about the matter.
Aspects of each branch of philosophy can be studied in isolation, but philosophical
questions have a way of leading to other philosophical questions, to the point that a full
investigation of any particular problem is likely eventually to involve almost the whole of
the philosophical enterprise.
One view on education believes or subscribes to the view that philosophy of education
comes under the umbrella of axiology. As a branch of philosophy it utilizes philosophical
methods for the solution of philosophical problems with a philosophical attitude to
arrive at philosophical conclusion. In this comprehensive process it includes facts
concerning education and synthesizes them with values. The other school of thought
believes that education as a discipline utilizes or needs to incorporate all modes of
philosophical inquiry; metaphysical, axiological and epistemological. As individuals
involved in the process of education right from the aims, purpose, functions and
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building theory we need to look at any body of knowledge or generate new knowledge
based on the three modes of philosophical inquiry.
2.6 FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Philosophy of education performs various functions. They are discussed below:
a] Determining the aims of education
Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all aspects of education
particularly educational aims. It is said that educational philosophy gives different views,
but this situation is not harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to the
need of society. The difference in view of philosophy of education reflects the
multiplicity and diversities of human life. Philosophy of education guides the process of
education by suggesting suitable aims from the diversities of life and selecting the
means accordingly.
b] Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education
In the process of social development the old traditions become outdated for the people.
They are replaced by the new traditions. But this process of replacement is not always
smooth. It is faced with lots of opposition from certain orthodox sections of the society.
At the same time it must be kept in mind that every 'old' is not outdated and every
'new' is not perfect Therefore, there is a need of co-coordinating the two in order to
maintain the harmony between both. This function can be performed by philosophy of
education.
c] Providing the educational planners, administrators and educators with the
progressive vision to achieve educational development:-
Spencer has rightly pointed that only a true philosopher can give a practical shape to
education. Philosophy of education provides the educational planners, administrators
and educators with the right vision which guides them to attain the educational goals
efficiently.
d] Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of the modern time:-
Social commentators have given many labels to the present period of history for some it
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is the information age and for others it is post modernity, later modernity, high
modernity or even the age of uncertainty. One more addition to this list may be that
'present age is an age of Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on the economic scene
in the 1990 in India. This watchword has had its implications in the social political,
economic fabric of the country of which education is a part. Philosophy of education is a
guiding, steering and liberating force that helps young people to and society at large to
face the challenges of the modern time.
2.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING AND TEACHING STYLES
Philosophy guides the process of education in different ways. A teacher approaching
education philosophically needs to answer four basic questions that guide the teaching
learning process. They are:
I. What is the nature of the learner? II. What is the nature of subject matter?
III. How should one use the subject matter to guide students towards meaningful learning activities?
IV. What behavior trend should one exhibit in order to carry out one’s philosophical position?
The answers to these questions only will help the teacher to identify a series of
preferences, as opposed to a set of behavior that belong to mutually exclusive
categories for the following questions. An attempt to answer these questions is nothing
but philosophy of teaching.
Philosophy and various philosophical view points inform us that each of these questions
have different philosophical perspectives that can be considered as extremes in a
continuum.
o Nature of the Learner For the question about the nature of Learner, It will be defined in terms of extremes of
the continuum by using the terms “Lockean” (passive) and “Platonic” (active)
“Lockean” is a position because it was John Locke, in his Essay Concerning Human
Understanding, who first wrote about mind, is a tabula rasa. He envisioned the
operation of the mind as similar to a blank wax tablet on which data taken in through
the senses would make “impressions”. Sensory data which a learner absorbed formed
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the true source of knowledge. Any complex mental operations involving association,
interpretation, or evaluation of secondary data led to the formulation of increasingly
complex knowledge.
“Platonic” Image is that of a teacher who has so much respect for what the learner can
contribute to the learning environment that he or she definitely does not want them to
“absorb” prescribed subject matter, as the teacher sees the subject matter. Under such
circumstances learners are viewed as the most important ingredient of the classroom
environment because they teach each other and their teacher about problems which
are meaningful to them. It is almost that learners have the knowledge which is locked
inside them which is released through interaction. Platonic concept believes in the
doctrine of Reminiscence.
o Nature of Subject Matter The terms “Amorphous” or “Structured” are used to delineate extremes on the
continuum of teacher’s view on the nature of subject matter. The term ‘amorphous
label has been reserved for rote learning, which emphasizes that each item to be
learned is equal in importance to every other item to be learned ; hence youngsters are
not encouraged to find relationships among items to be learned and no item is seen to
be more important than the other.
The other extreme “structured” we may expect to find a position represented by those
who have a quite realistic view of what the subject matter can never accomplish. The
term “Structured” as used in this context, is from Bruner’s understanding that any
subject matter should be viewed as having a natural structure which can help to explain
relationships among its components and which can be used to find new information.
o How should Subject matter guide students learning activities? The two end points of the continuum is “cognitive” and “affective”.
These concepts are not mutually exclusive categories, but rather matters of emphasis
and preferences. In order to illuminate factors involved in any teacher’s decision to
emphasize cognitive or affective learning activities it is useful to consider the following
addendum.
Cognitive Domain – fact, concept and generalization
Affective Domain- belief and value
Evidence abounds that students bring into the classroom attitudes which influence the
way they perceive facts, concepts and generalizations. Sometimes teachers are
fortunate to have students who bring with them positive attitudes towards the subject
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matter at hand. Most often we have students who bring with them not very positive
attitudes. In such situations the teachers’ role will be to help students think critically by
transforming generalization, beliefs and values into hypotheses that can be tested. Then
the teacher resorts to the affective domain.
o Behavior trend in order to carry out one’s Philosophical Position The terms authoritarian and non-authoritarian are two extremes of the continuum, but
should be understood as not merely being ‘strict’ or ‘permissive’. These words should go
beyond the aspect of classroom management as it is more inclusive approach to
classroom management. It is an over view of the student and the subject matter which
this indicator has been designed to examine.
For instance, suppose some teachers encourage students to view subject matter only as
experts in that field might view it; hence these teachers habitually accept for each major
question under examination only one right answer which all students are excepted to
adopt and understand. We can thus say that these teachers are said to encourage
convergent thinking and hence in this context we can term them as ‘authoritarian’
teachers.
The converse can be said of ‘non authoritarian teachers’
Teacher need to be aware of the ‘Philosophical Positions’ that they take and have taken
while they enter into classrooms or plan to enter into classrooms Philosophical positions
affect the way they interact with students and facilitate learning in learners individually
or collectively.
Thus we see that the way we answer the questions of nature of learner, subject matter
etc. definitely affects our teaching style. Whether a teacher is authoritative or non
authoritarian, whether teaching methods are constructivist or lecture method are
influenced based on the philosophical position that they hold.
Background for approaching the educational problems effectively. Therefore, it is
essential for the educators to have the deep insight into the philosophy of education.
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Activity
1. What is the meaning of the term philosophy? 2. Discuss and elucidate, "All educational questions are ultimately questions of philosophy"-Ross. 3. Why should a teacher study philosophy of education? 4. Define education in your own words based on the various definitions of educational thinkers. 5. “The scope of philosophy of education is unlimited” Critically evaluate this statement. 6. Discuss the relationship between Philosophy of teaching and teaching styles tutor with those that
you got from other sources.
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3.1 PERENNIALISM
What is Perennialism?
Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that blooms year after year.
Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in
the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of perennialism are
Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans are
rational and the aim of education is “to improve man as man” (Hutchins, 1953). The
answers to all educational questions derive from the answer to one question: What is
human nature? According to them, human nature is constant and humans have the
ability to understand the universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to
develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect.
Towards developing one’s moral and spiritual being, character education should be
emphasised.
Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are
as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in
school. A list of the ‘Great Books’ was proposed covering topics in literature, art,
psychology, philosophy, mathematics, science, economics, politics and so forth.
Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, War and Peace
written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville, Euclid’s book Elements
on geometry, Newton’s book on Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by
Sigmund Freud, An inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam
Smith and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that
is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book should
espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals in the last
2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again and again and benefit from
it. The perennialists believed that these are history's finest thinkers and writers. Their
ideas are profound and meaningful even today as when they were written. When
students are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring ideas, they will
appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and
moral qualities.
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“Human nature never changes; therefore good education should
not change either”.
The perennialist believes that the great ideas, which have lasted for centuries, are still
relevant today and should be the focus of education. Perennialism is an educational
theory that is greatly influenced by the principles of realism. It has a
conservative/traditional view of human nature and education. Perennialists contend
that truth is universal and unchanging, and, therefore, a good education is also universal
and constant.
3.1.2 AIM OF EDUCATION
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire
understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the
potential for solving problems in any era.
The perennialists have for their aim the education of the rational person. The central
aim of education should be develop the power of thought. They view the universal aim
of education as the search for and dissemination of truth. They look up to the school as
an institution designed to develop human intelligence.
Robert Hutchins, a most articulate spokesperson of perennialism, argued that education
ought to cultivate the intellect as well as the harmonious development of all human
faculties. The central aim of education should be to develop the power of thought. He
also described the ideal education as one that develops intellectual power.
3.1.3 THE PERENNIALIST CURRICULUM
The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are
constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds as their most essential level,
do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational
beings, and their minds need to develop. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest
priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining
cultural literacy, stressing students’ growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest
accomplishments of humankind are emphasized – the great works of literature and art,
the laws or principles of science.
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The perennialist view education as a recurring process based on eternal truths; thus, the
school’s curriculum should emphasize the recurrent themes of human life. It should
contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationality and the study of moral, aesthetic,
and religious principles to develop the attitudinal dimension. The perennialists prefer a
subject matter curriculum which includes history, language, mathematics, logic,
literature, the humanities, and science.
Robert Hutchins’ educational philosophy is based on the premise that human nature is
rational, and knowledge resides in unchanging, absolute, and universal truths. He
stressed that education must be universal because the rationality of human nature is
universal. Hutchins advocated a curriculum that consisted of permanent, of perennial
studies. He strongly recommended the study of the classics, or the great works of
Western Civilization. He believed that reading and discussing great books cultivated the
intellect and prepared students to think carefully and critically. In addition to these
classics he advocated the study of grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and
philosophy.
Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following
characteristics:
The ‘Great Books’ programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced mathematics and philosophy (Hutchins, 1936).
The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This was because they wanted students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.
At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students. The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools.
Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects. They argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to fully develop their rational powers.
The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information that educators have required students to absorb. They urge that teachers should spend
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more time teaching concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students.
Since, enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings.
At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. Emphasis should be on teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogue; and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding of the great ideas and concepts that have stood the test to time. Student should learns to learn, and not to be evaluated
Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake. “University students may learn a few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions “ (Hutchins, 1936)
Teaching reasoning using the ‘Great Books’ of Western writers is advocated using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students. Emphasis should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach science but not
technology, great ideas rather than vocational topics.
Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American society. Students must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because they reflect real disagreements between persons. Students must think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.
School should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right and wrong should be emphasized so that students will have definite rules that they must follow.
Summing up, perennialism represents a conservative theoretical view centered in the
authority of tradition and the classics. Among its major educational principles are:
1. Truth is universal and does not depend on the circumstances of place, time,
or person;
2. A good education involves a search for and an understanding of the truth;
3. Truth can be found in the great work of civilization; and
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4. Education is a liberal exercise that develops the intellect.
3.1.4. TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD
The curriculum of a perennialist education would be subject-centered, drawing heavily
upon the disciplines of literature, mathematics, language, history and the humanities.
The perennialists suggest that the best means to attaining this enduring knowledge is
through the study of the great books of Western Civilization.
The method of study would be the reading and discussion of these great works which, in
turn, discipline, discipline the mind.
The teacher, accordingly, must be the one who has mastered discipline, who is a master
teacher in terms of guiding truth, and whose character is beyond reproach. The teacher
is to be viewed as authority and his expertise not to be questioned.
The role of the school becomes one of training intellectual elite who will one day take
charge of passing this on to a new generation of learners.
Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed
a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further developed this
curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.
SELF-TEST 1. Identify the main features of the perennialist curriculum. 2. According to perennialism, what should be emphasised in the classroom?
3.2. ESSENTIALISM
3.2.1 WHAT IS ESSENTIALISM?
Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main things or the basics.
As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students with the "essentials" or
“basics” of academic knowledge and character development. The term essentialism as
an educational philosophy was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley and
later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. When it was first introduced
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as an educational philosophy in American schools, it was criticised as being too rigid. In
1957, the Russians launched Sputnik which caused a panic in educational circles as
Americans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of
education followed that led to interest in essentialism.
Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should
not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they should transmit traditional moral
values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens.
Essentialists believe that teachers should instill traditional virtues such as respect for
authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality. Essentialism placed
importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation.
To convey important knowledge about the world, essentialist educators emphasised
instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or
comparative religion.
Essentialism is a traditional approach to education that is often referred to as “Back to
the Basics”. Basically, the essentialists were concerned with a revival of efforts in the
direction of teaching the fundamental tools of learning as the most indispensable type
of education. Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs
to be transmitted to student in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should
teach.
3.2.2. AIM OF EDUCATION
The essentialists have as there ultimate aim “to fit the man to perform. Justly, skillfully
and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war”.
The indispensable cultural objectives of humanity, the essentials are goals that must be
achieved – sometimes incidentally – but more often by direct instruction. Informal
learning helps, but this should only be supplementary and secondary. The essentialists
believe that the essential skills, knowledge and attitude needed by the individual in
making has adjustment to the realities of life should be systematically planned so that
these recognized essentials will be recognized. They emphasize the authority of the
teachers and the value of a subject matter curriculum.
The essentialists prescribe the following rubrics for their educational program:
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1. A fix curriculum
2. Certain minimum “essentials” literature, mathematics, history, etc
3. Preconceived educational values; and
4. Education as individual adaptation to an absolute knowledge which exists
independently of individuals.
3.2.3 THE ESSENTIALIST CURRICULUM
The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor.
Although, this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to perennialism.
Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be
practical, preparing students to become valuable members of the society. It should be
focus on facts – the objective reality out there – and “the basic”, training students to
read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not to set or
influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and
discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check,
such as aggression or mindlessness.
The essentialist curriculum includes the traditional disciplines of math, history, natural
science, foreign languages and literature. Vocational education and philosophy are
considered unnecessary. An essentialist curriculum emphasizes the importance of
traditional moral values that students need to become upstanding citizens. The
essentialist academic program is quite rigorous.
The essentialists believe that the intellectual disciplines are the necessary foundations
of modern life. The school has the responsibility to channel the accumulated
experiences of humankind into organized, coherent and differentiated disciplines.
Mastering these basic disciplines will enable the student to use them in solving personal,
social and civic problems.
Among the common themes found in the essentialists point of view are: (1) the
elementary school curriculum should aim to cultivate basic tool skills that contribute to
literacy and mastery of arithmetical computation; (2) the secondary curriculum should
cultivate competencies in history, mathematics, science, English and foreign languages;
(3) schooling requires discipline and a respect for legitimate authority; and (4) learning
requires hard work and disciplined attention.
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Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following
characteristics:
The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature. Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content.
Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, and measurement. Even while learning art and music (subjects most often associated with the development of creativity) students are required to master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for their grade level are students promoted to the next higher grade.
Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student ability.
It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role model for students.
Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress.
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and extensive knowledge, but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge in real world settings.
Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to respect authority in both school and society.
Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well and can transmit their knowledge to students.
3.2.4. TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD
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Classrooms are oriented around the teacher with little concern for student interests.
Achievement test scores are relied on as a means of evaluating progress. The intent of
an essentialist curriculum is to mold students, who upon graduation, will possess basic
skills, have knowledge of a variety of subjects and be ready to apply what they have
learned to the real world.
Essentialists do not believe in building up generalization by the slow method of
induction, but rather in properly guiding pupils in a few hours or days in the acquisition
of general laws and principles then using these laws and principles in the solution of
immediate and pressing problems. The essentialists are concerned with the most
effective methods of forming habits and developing skills; thus, drill has a definite place
in the classroom.
The essentialists emphasize the necessity of teaching pupils how to think systematically
and effectively. They believe that effective thinking cannot take place by looking at the
world en masse or by picking up knowledge piecemeal. Methods of systematic analysis
and systematic synthesis must be used; the essential elements of knowledge must be
separated from the worthless chaff, and these essentials must be organized into
meaningful wholes, with close attention to the interrelationships of each these entities.
The essentialists recognize that interest is a strong motivating force in learning.
Learning, however, that is not immediately appealing and interesting to the child should
not be totally eliminated from the child’s education. The more valuable and more
permanent interests may grow out of efforts that are at first disagreeable and
monotonous. It is the duty of the teacher to help the learner grow into these higher
interests rather than limit all school activities to those ephemeral things that appeal
only to natural and childish interest. During the immature years of childhood and youth
there is a need for competent, sympathetic and firm teachers to help them see the truth
and to help them adjust themselves to inexorable facts.
In this view, teachers should be restored to instructional authority. They must be well-
prepared, and held accountable for the children’s failure to learn. Instruction should be
geared to organized learning. The method of instruction should center on regular
assignments, homework, recitations, and frequent testing and evaluation.
Proponents of Essentialism are: William Bagley, James D. Koerner, H.G. Rickover, Paul
Copperman, and Theodore Sizer.
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SELF-TEST
1. What are THREE main features of the essentialist classroom?
2. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of an essentialist curriculum?
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3.3. PROGRESSIVISM
3.3.1 WHAT IS PROGRESSIVISM?
Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based on the
fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other
people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952).
The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum,
making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Dewey wrote
extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and
democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism. In
1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous
Laboratory School to test his educational ideas. His writings and work with the
Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement.
According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society’s identity by preparing
young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy and for it to flourish,
he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and potential.
Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the
mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a
group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class
by encouraging communication between various social groups (Dewey, 1920). He
described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and
reason are applied to the solution of problems. Children should learn as if they were
scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920):
1. To be aware of the problem (eg. plants need sunlight to grow) 2. Define the problem (eg. can plants grow without sunlight) 3. Propose hypotheses to solve it 4. Test the hypotheses 5. Evaluate the best solution to the problem
Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems; reconstructing their
experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed five steps. Teachers should
not only emphasise drill and practice, but should expose learners to activities that relate
to the real life situations of students, emphasising ‘Learning by doing’.
The educational theory of progressivism is in contrast to the traditional views of essentialism
and perennialism. Thaïs movement was a part of a larger sophisticated movement of general
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reform that characterized American life in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement
often associated with John Dewey’s pragmatism or experimentalism, stressed the view that all
learning should center on the child’s interests and needs.
In Dewey’s “Democracy and Education” he expounded that a truly progressive education
needed a philosophy based upon experience, the interaction of the person with his
environment. Such an experiential philosophy should have not set of external aims, but, rather,
the end product of education was growth-an-on-going experience which led to the direction and
control of subsequent experience. Truly progressive education should not ignore the past but
use it to direct future experiences.
3.3.2 AIM OF EDUCATION
The aim of progressive education is to meet the needs of a growing child. The school should be a
pleasant place for learning. While the progressivists differed in many of their theories and
practices, they were united in their opposition to the following:
1. Extreme reliance on bookish methods of instruction
2. Obtaining learning by memorization of factual data
3. The use of fear as a form of discipline; and
4. The four-walled philosophy of education that isolated the school from the realities
of life.
3.3.3 THE PROGRESSIVE CURRICULUM
Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is
used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically and
first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. John Dewey was its foremost
proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens
through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of
teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than
authority.
Progressivists generally were not interested in a prepared, prescribed curriculum to transmit
knowledge to students. Rather, the curriculum was to come from the child so that learning
would be active, exciting and varied. The content of subject matter was done by the teacher and
the students as a group project or cooperative effort. Students’ projects were based of their
common shared experiences thereby rejecting barriers of class, race, or creed. The teacher
served as facilitator while the students worked on their projects and suggested other ways of
pursuing the project.
Progressive education left a legacy characterized by:
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1. Emphasis on the child as the learner, rather than on the subject matter;
2. Stress on the child as the learner, rather than on textbook reliance and
memorization;
3. Cooperative learning, rather than competitive lesson learning;
4. Absence of fear and punishment for disciplinary purposes.
Based on the beliefs of Progressivists, the curriculum proposed has the following
characteristics:
Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the experiences, interests, and abilities of students.
Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and society.
Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.
Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender. addition,
By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school.
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3.3.4. TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the other
content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by
active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through
experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who
make meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context.
Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.
SELF-TEST – Exercise 1
1. What are the main arguments of the progressive movement? Exercise 2
. 2. List some of the main features of the progressive curriculum
Exercise 3
3. What are the main differences between the progressive
curriculum and the essentialist curriculum?
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3.4. RECONSTRUCTIONISM
3.4.1 WHAT IS RECONSTRUCTIONISM?
Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the 1930's
through the 1960's. It was largely the brain child of Theodore Brameld from Columbia
Teachers College. He began as a communist, but shifted to reconstructionism.
Reconstructionists favor reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring
about change. Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social
and cultural infrastructures. Students are to study social problems and think of ways to
improve society. Another proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932)
who in a speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools
become the agent of social change and social reform. Students cannot afford to be
neutral but must take a position.
Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and
differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief
called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory, designed by
Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of revolutionary literature
in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation." Radical in its conception, critical pedagogy
was based on Marxist ideology which advocates equality in the distribution of wealth
and strongly against capitalism. More recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in
his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for
poor students in which people can move through different stages to ultimately be able
to take action and overcome oppression. He argued that people must become active
participants in changing their own status through social action to change bring about
social justice.
While the progressivists emphasized the individuality of the child, the reconstructionists
were more concerned with social change. Reconstructionists believe that schools should
originate policies and progress which would bring about reform of the social order, and
teachers should use their power to lead the young in the program of social reform.
Reconstructionists agree the educational philosophies are culturally based and grow out
of a specific cultural pattern conditioned by living at a given time in a particular place.
They believe that culture is dynamic, that man can re-shape his culture so that it
promotes optimum possibilities for development.
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Reconstructionists say that mankind is in a state of cultural crisis. If schools are to reflect
their culture, then education will merely transmit social ills. As society moves from the
agricultural and rural to the technological and urban, there is a serious lag in cultural
adaptation to the realities of a technological society.
Society has to reconstruct its values, and education has a major role to play in bridging
the gap between the values of culture and technology. It is the school’s task to
encourage the critical examination of the cultural heritage and find the elements that
are to be discarded and those that have to be modified.
3.4.2 AIM OF EDUCATION
Education, for the reconstructionists, aims awaken the students’ consciousness about
social problems and to actively engage them in problem solving. Teachers and schools
should initiate a critical examination of their own culture.
The schools should identify controversies and inconsistencies and try to solve real life
problems. Reconstructionists believe that there is now a need for international
independence. Pollution and nuclear wars are not restricted to a single place but are
international in scope.
3.4.3 THE RECONSTRUCTIONIST CURRICULUM
The reconstructionist curriculum should include learning to live in a global milieu. As a
result of this orientation, reconstructionists propose educational policies related to
national and international problems as a means of reducing world conflict.
The school, therefore, becomes the center of controversy where students and teachers
emphasize and encourage discussion of controversial issues in religion, economics,
politics and education; these discussions are not simply intellectual exercises.
In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change.
The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the local, national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty,
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environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, hunger, etc.
There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues and so group work was encouraged.
The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society. Students be aware of global issues and the interdependence between nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be the focus of the curriculum.
Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may be utopian in nature.
In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, and philosophy), rather than the sciences.
3.4.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD
The reconstructionist generally would seek to internationalize the curriculum so that
men and women would learn that they live in a global village. Schools and teachers
become social engineers plotting the course of action to arrive at the defined goal.
Classroom methods will be problem oriented – students are asked to critically examine
cultural heritage. Teachers as well as students discuss controversial issues and they are
encouraged to commit themselves and become active in social change. Students and
teachers participate in a definite program of social, educational, political and economic
change as a means of total cultural renewal. The classroom becomes s laboratory to
experiment on school practices which will enable man to deal with problems of acute
cultural crisis and social disintegration.
SELF-TEST 1. What is the main argument of proponents of reconstructionism? 2. What are the recommendations of the reconstructionists with regards to the curriculum?
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4.0. EXISTENTIALISM-
Existentialism is a way of viewing and thinking about life in the world so that priority is
given to individualism and subjectivity. The existentialists believe that the human being
is the creator of his own essence; he creates his own values through freedom of choice
or individual preference. The most important king of knowledge is about the realities of
human life and the choices that each person has to make. Education is the process of
developing awareness about the freedom of choice and the meaning and responsibility
for one’s choice.
4.1.2 AIM OF EDUCATION
Education should cultivate an intensity of awareness in the learner. Students should
learn to recognize that as individuals they are constantly, freely, baselessly, and
creatively choosing. Education should be concerned with effective experiences, with
these elements of experience which are subjective and personal. The goals of education
cannot be specified in advance nor can they be imposed by the teacher of the school
system. Each man has the responsibility for his own education.
4.1.3. CURRICULUM
Subjects are merely tools for the realization of subjectivity. Learning is not found in the
structure of knowledge nor in organized discipline, but in the student’s willingness to
choose and give meaning to the subject. Literature and the humanities are important in
the existentialist curriculum. Literature is useful and relevant for awakening choice-
making in basic human concerns. History is important in finding out how men in the past
have faced and answered recurrent human questions like guilt, love, suffering or
freedom. The arts stimulate aesthetic expression, not merely imitate styles of selected
models. Humanistic studies are rich sources of ethical values.
4.1.4. TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD
Stressing individual subjectivity, the existentialist educator aims to develop a sense of
awareness and responsibility in students. The teachers may choose a variety of
methods, although whatever method is used should not obscure the relationship
between teacher and learner.
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In questions and answers, sometimes the teachers does not know the answer, but the
best question would be one that awakens the students’ awareness of the ethical and
aesthetic aspects of existence.
The school, therefore, is a place where teachers and learners discuss human life and
where they are given opportunities to choose solutions.
Activity: Identify the Educational Philosophies
Which of the following statements reflect the four philosophical traditions that have been
discussed? Mark:
‘E’ for essentialism,
‘P’ for progressivism,
‘PN’ for perennialism and
‘R’ for reconstructionism. Check your answers for your score. Since the statements are subjective, it is possible that you may
disagree with the classification. Support your argument.
1. A school curriculum should include a common body of knowledge that all students should know
2 The curriculum should focus on the great ideas that have survived through time and related to present
day challenges.
3 Schools should prepare students for analyzing and solving the social problems that they will face as
adults.
4 Each student should determine his or her individual curriculum, and teachers should guide and help
them.
5 Students must be taught about change and how to bring about change.
6. Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour, discipline, hard work and respect for authority.
7 Students must be questioned and probed until they discover the truth in the texts selected.
8. Schools should develop students’ ability to think deeply and analytically rather than focus on temporary
issues such as social skills and current trends.
9. For a country to be competitive in the global marketplace, schools should seek to produce more
competent workers.
10 Since students learn effectively though social interaction, schools should plan for increased social
interaction in the curriculum.
11. Students are too immature to decide what they need to learn and so the school should decide for them.
12 Teaching should emphasise relating what is learned to the real-world through field trips and internship.
13 Education is not primarily concerned with producing future workers but should emphasise learning for its
own sake and students should enjoy reading, learning and discussing interesting ideas.
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5.0. CONFUCIUS
Confucius (551-479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of China’s most
famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching. He stated that
education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and of individuals
alike. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals which will alter human
nature. By raising individual moral standard, society will become more virtuous and the
country will be well-governed and its citizens law-abiding. He rejected feudalism in
which the status of an individual was passed from one generation to the next based on
birth which was prevalent during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects
(Lun Yu) which is a record of his speeches and his disciples, as well as the discussions
they had. It literally means “discussions over words”. Confucian thought was not
confined to China. It spread to Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and parts of
Southeast Asia.
5.1 CONFUCIUS AND EDUCATION
According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals (ziancai) whom he called shi (gentlemen) or junzi (men of quality) who combined competence with virtue. They would serve the government and bring about an ideal managed by men of virtue. The cultivation of virtue was to be through observation, study and reflective thought.
Among the virtues given priority are: filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly (ti), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan); fidelity (xin), diligence (min), altruism (hui), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance (rang), wisdom (zhi) and courage (yong).
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Education was to be made available to all, regardless of socioeconomic status or social standing. He denounced favouritism and the passing of office from one generation of nobles to the next (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
According to Confucius, ‘Study without thought is labour lost; thought without study is dangerous’. He saw learning as a process of observation of some type of subject matter, whether it be books, objects or people, followed by reflection.
He saw learning as a highly personal and individual activity but when awakened by real learning would be repeated by the student. Teachers should be committed to their work and have good mastery of the knowledge to be imparted.
A good teacher must love his students, know them well, understand their psychological uniqueness, give thought to ways and means of facilitating their access to knowledge (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
A mistake is acting on premature knowledge based on insufficient observation and insufficient processing. A lie is having full knowledge and deliberately misrepresenting that knowledge.
5.2 CONFUCIUS ON CURRICULUM
Confucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should be moral instruction and the imparting of knowledge. Moral education was thus for Confucius the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be realised.
Content to be taught as proposed by Confucius o His six books; the Book of Odes, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the
Book of Music, the Book of Changes and the Spring and Autumn Annals – which dealt with subjects such as philosophy, politics, economics, culture and musicianship.
o Music, o The Code and Manner of Proper Conduct (Li), o Poetry, o Literature o History.
His emphasis on political and moral principles led to ignoring the natural sciences, trade and agriculture.
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His curriculum served as the curriculum for 2000 years in feudal China and the following pedagogical strategies were proposed:
o to match learning with the aptitudes of students (consider the age of learners)
o to inspire and guide learners by stages o to instruct oneself while teaching others o to explain the present in the light of the past o to combine theory with practice o to encourage independent thought o to set a good example o to correct one’s errors and improve oneself o to welcome criticism o to curb evil and exalt the good.
SELF-TEST 1. What are the main features of the Confucian system of
education? 2. How relevant are the ideas of Confucius in today’s
schools?
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UNIT 4
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CURRICULUM
After reading this unit you will be able to:
1. Know and understand the major philosophies and
theories of education.
2. Analyze the major philosophies and theories of
education in three aspects: aim, curriculum, and methods
of instruction.
3. Explain the relationship between the philosophical
foundation of education and the curriculum.
4. Answer the questions found at the last page of this
module number.
4.0. INTRODUCTION
A critical function of the philosophy of education is to give guiding principles and
directives to knowledge concerning the aims of education by which they are actualized.
Such a philosophy should necessarily give the basic principles to give an answer to the
philosophical question, “What subject matter, experiences, and worthwhile activities
are essential to realize the raison d’etre (reason for living) of the school?”
The curriculum is considered an important aspect of the science of education. It
is the content of education. It is the medium through which a philosophy of life is
transformed into reality. It converts potency into act. It mirrors the wisdom of the ages
and the findings of thinkers, educators, and researchers in the field of education. The
curriculum is held to reflect the values of society and the medium through which those
values are being transmitted from one generation to the next.
The curriculum includes all the experiences of the learner for which the school
assumes responsibility. In its broadest sense, the curriculum can be defined as the
organized experiences that a student has under the guidance and control of the school.
In a more precise and restricted sense, the curriculum is the systematic sequence of the
courses or subjects that form the school’s formal instructional program.
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For the traditional philosophies, the major goal of education is the transmission and
preservation of the cultural heritage. A curriculum consists of skills and subject matter,
the necessary tools in transmitting, in learnable units, to the immature for the survival
of civilization. The subject matter is arranged in a hierarchy, with priority given to
subjects regarded as more general, hence, more significant. The more recent
philosophies are more concerned with the process of learning. The curriculum which
follows this idea makes use of activities and projects, and experimental and problem
solving modes that are determined by the learner’s interests and needs.
4.1. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy in its literal sense means love of wisdom. In its broadest sense, philosophy is
man’s attempt to think most speculative, reflectively, and systematically about the
universe in which he lives and his relationship to that universe. Its remarkable feature is
its effort to evaluate the sum total of human experience. Philosophy adds no new facts
to existing knowledge. It examines the facts provided by scientists and analyzes the
meaning, interpretation, significance and value of these facts. Most will accept the ideas
that philosophy is a systematic and logical examination of life so as to frame a system of
general ideas of which the sum total of human experience may be evaluated.
If education is to promote change for the better, than education has to turn to
philosophy to determine what that “better” is for a particular segment of society or for
society as a whole. Educational philosophy then is the application of philosophy to the
study of all factors affecting the aims and goals of education, its method, content and
organization in terms of human values as they affect the nature and purpose of man and
society.
4.2 AREAS OF PHILOSOPHY
Metaphysics deals with the nature of reality and existence. Idealists see reality in non-
material or spiritual terms; realists see reality in an objective order in educational
philosophy; metaphysics relates reality to the content, experiences and skills in the
curricula. The social and natural sciences are good venues in teaching reality to the
learner.
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Epistemology deals with the nature of knowledge and knowing and is closely related to
methods of teaching and learning. Idealists see knowing or cognitive learning as the
recall of ideas that are latent in the mind. The most appropriate method is the Socratic-
method where the teacher stimulates the students by asking leading questions which
elicit, ideas hidden in the learner’s mind. A teacher who used the realist’s formula of
sensation and abstraction would develop classroom activities that utilize sensory
stimuli. The pragmatists believe that people learn by interacting with the environment;
hence, problem solving is a very appropriate method of teaching and learning.
Axiology deals with values. Axiology is divided into ethics and aesthetics. Ethics
examines moral values and the rules of right conduct. Aesthetics deals with values, in
beauty and art Parents, teachers and society reward certain preferred behavior and
punish behavior that deviates from the concept of what is good, right and beautiful.
Idealists and realists agree that the good, the beautiful and the right are universally valid
in all places at all times while pragmatists believe that values are relative and vary in
time and place.
Logic is concerned with correct and valid thinking. It examines the rules of inference
that enable us to correctly frame our propositions and arguments. Deductive logic
moves from general to particular instances and applications. Inductive logic moves from
the particular instance to tentative generalizations subject to further verification.
Curriculum and instruction are both on conceptions and logic. Does something in the
subject itself logically dictate how a material should be organized and presented to
students (the deductive approach), or should teachers take their cue from students
interest, readiness, and experience in deciding how to present instruction (inductive
approach)?
Activity
How do you illustrate these areas of philosophy in the
classroom setting aside from what were given considering your
field of specialization?
metaphysics
epistemology
axiology
logic
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4.3. FOUNDATION PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
4.3.1 IDEALISM
Idealism is a philosophy that proclaims the spiritual nature of men and the universe. Its
basic viewpoint stresses the human spirit, soul or mind as the most important element
in life. It holds that the good, true, and beautiful are permanently part of the structure
of a related coherent, orderly, and unchanging universe. In idealism, all of reality is
reducible to one fundamental substance-spirit. Matter is not real. It is only the mind
that is real.
This is a philosophical theory that recognizes reality as the nature of thought or that the
object of external perceptions consists of ideas (Zulueta and Maglaya, 2004). To the
idealist, reality is the mind and idea; matter is only the creation of the mind or its own
by- product. What is real is the mind; matter is only an appearance.
Plato is the oldest advocate of idealism in ancient Athens. He regards ideas as the real
and significant things in the world.
Meanwhile in Germany, George W. F. Hegel “created a comprehensive philosophical
world view based on idealism. In the US, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David
Thoreau developed a transcendentalist variety of idealism while Frederich Freobel
based his kindergarten theory on idealist metaphysics. Hinduism and Buddhism are
seemingly *anchored+on the spiritual outlook associated with idealism” (Ornstein and
Levine, 2000).
Furthermore, the idealist holds that ideas are not evident and independent of the
human experience about them. As such, it is the teacher’s responsibility to “bring this
latest knowledge to consciousness”. That goal of education is to help students arrive at
a broad, general and unifying perspective of the universe (Ornstein and Levine, 2000).
An idealist curriculum is hierarchal. Considered most important subjects are the most
general disciplines such as philosophy and theology. Being general and abstract, these
subjects “transcend the limitations of time, place, and circumstance, and they transfer
to a wide range of situation”
Another very important subject is mathematics because “it cultivates the power to deal
with abstractions”. Other subjects of equal importance are history and literature that …
serve as sources of moral and cultural models”, and language because it is an “essential
tool at all levels of learning”.
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Of lesser importance in the curriculum are the natural and physical sciences that
‘address particular cause and effect relationship.” Anyhow, for the idealist, the highest
level of knowledge is the recognition of the “relationships among these subject matters
and integrating them”.
In terms of values, the idealist prescribes values that have withstood the test of time
and are “applicable to all people”. Philosophy, theology, history, literature, and art are
rich sources for transmitting this heritage of values. The kind of education requires that
students be exposed to worthy models especially the classics. These are great works
that “have endured over time”.
(Note: All directly quoted lines on this page were lifted from Ornstein and Levine, 2000).
Some Basic Questions and the Idealist’s Answers (Ornstein and Levine, 2000)
What is knowledge?
To the idealist, “knowledge concerns the spiritual principles that are the base of reality.
This knowledge of reality takes the form of ideas. If knowledge is about universal idea,
then education is the intellectual process of bringing ideas to the learner’s
consciousness.”
What is schooling?
The idealist’s answer to this question is that “school is a social agency where students
seek to discover and pursue truth. It is an intellectual institution where teachers and
students explore the questions Socrates and Plato asked: “What is the truth?” “What is
beauty?” “What is the good life?” Answers to these questions are present in our minds,
and we need to reflect deeply to bring them to our consciousness. Nothing should be
allowed to distract us from the intellectual pursuit of truth.
Who should attend school?
The idealist would say everyone. While all learners do not have the same intellectual
aptitude, they need to cultivate their minds to the limits of their capacities. So gifted
students need the greatest intellectual challenges that the teacher can provide.
Educational Implications of Idealism:
Aim of Education – to contribute to the development of mind and self, the school
should emphasize intellectual abilities, moral, judgments, aesthetics, self-realization,
individual freedom, individual responsibility and self-control.
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Curriculum – a body of intellectual subject matter which is ideational and conceptual on
subjects which are essential for the realization of mental and moral development.
Subject matter should be made constant for all. Mathematics, history, and literate rank
high in relevance since they are not only cognitive but value-laden.
Methodology – methods to be used in instruction should encourage accumulation of
knowledge and thinking and must apply criteria for moral evaluation. Although learning
is a product of learner’s own activity, the learning process is made more efficient by the
stimulation which comes from the teacher and school environment. The idealist teacher
should be conversant with a variety of methods and should use the particular method
that is most effective in securing the desired results. Suggested methods are questioning
and discussion, lecture and of course, the project, whether done singly or in group.
Teacher-Learner Relationship. The teacher must be excellent mentally and morally in
personal conduct and convictions. The teacher must exercise creative skills and
providing opportunities for pupil’s minds to analyze, discover, synthesize and create.
The learner is immature and is seeking the perspective into his own personality. The
teacher should see his role in assisting the learner to realize the fullness of his own
personality.
Focus of teaching is intellectual development not vocational training. Teachers are seen
as vital agents in helping learners realize their fullest potential. Teachers and students
acquire themselves with the finest elements of cultural heritage to prepare learners in
contributing to the heritage in their own right.
Idealists use certain subjects to stimulate thinking and develop identification with the
cultural heritage. They use mathematics to develop student’s powers of abstraction,
history to show the contributions of great men and women; the classics in art,
literature, and music to make the learners experience and share with the time tested
values conveyed by these cultural works.
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An idealist lesson may be illustrated this way.
A history teacher may illustrate the power of ideas and the higher ethical
law by a unit in the life and works of Dr. Jose Rizal, the Philippine national
hero. Students are made to study the biography of Dr. Jose Rizal and seek
to discover the principles of non - violence and justice that guided him in
his writings and decisions to seek his country’s independence from Spain.
The students would study and recite his “My Last Farewell” to discover the
power of ideas in shaping behavior. Finally, Dr. Rizal would serve as a
model worthy of imitation.
Activities
1. Interview two colleagues each from the department of
mathematics, language, and science about their focus of
teaching. Find out who among them are inclined to
idealism. Explain your classifications (as to why you find
them as idealist teachers).
2. What about you? Are you an idealist as a person and a
teacher? Explain your answer.
3. Give other examples of idealist lessons in your own field/
situation.
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4.3.2. REALISM
Realism may be defined as any philosophical position that asserts:
1. The objective existence of the world and begins in it and relations between these
begins independent of human knowledge and desires;
2. The know ability of these objects as they are in themselves;
3. The need for conformity to the objective reality in man’s conduct.
Realists refer to those universal elements of man that are unchanging regardless
of time, place and circumstance. It is these universals that make up the elements in the
education of man. According to the realists, education implies teaching, teaching implies
knowledge, knowledge is truth and truth is the same everywhere. Hence, education
should be everywhere the same.
Realism stresses objective knowledge and values. It traces its roots from the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle. The doctrines of realism are:
1. There is a world of real existence that human beings have not made. 2. The human mind can know about the real world 3. Such knowledge is the most reliable guide to individual and social
behavior According to the realist, a material world exists independently of and external to the
mind. All objects are composed of matter which in turn assumes the structure of
particular objects.
Humans can know these objects through their senses and their reason knowing is a
process in valuing two stages: sensation and abstraction. First, an object is perceived by
the knower who records sensory data about it such as color, size, smell, weight, or
sound. These data are sorted by the mind into qualities which are always present in the
object and those sometimes present. By abstracting the necessary qualities (those
always present), the knower forms a concept of the object and recognizes it as
belonging to a certain class. With this classification, the knower understands that it
shares certain qualities with other members of the same class but not with objects of a
different class.
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In terms of curriculum, the realist is similar to the idealist because both believe in the
curriculum of organized and separate subjects as the most effective way of learning
about reality. Hence, classifying objects is organizing these as a body of knowledge. For
example, experiences of human kind can be organized into history; systematic study of
plants via classification into botany, and units of political organization into political
science. The realist way of knowledge acquisition about “what is real?” is through
systematic inquiry into these subjects.
The realist believes that certain rules govern intelligent behavior. For example, human
beings should behave in a rational way according to how objects behave in a reality.
From the realists’ point of view, people can develop theories based on natural, physical,
and social laws. Since natural laws are universal and eternal, so are the values based on
them.
The Basic Questions (Ornstein and Levine, 2000)
What is knowledge? To the realist, knowledge is our physical world, the environment,
what we see, feel, taste and think. What we know is always about an object so that
concepts are valid when they correspond to objects that exist in the world.
Formal education to the realist is the study of subject matter disciplines into which
knowledge has been organized and classified. History, language, science, and
mathematics are organized bodies of knowledge. If we know them, we will know
something about the world we live. This knowledge is our best guide in conducting our
daily affairs.
The realist says schools are established primarily to provide learners with knowledge
about the objective world. Since learners have rational potentials, schools should be
available to all with the same curriculum to prepare them for rational decisions. Realist
teachers should be subject–matter specialists who combine their disciplinary expertise
with effective teaching methods.
Educational Implications of Realism
Aim of Education
The aim of the education is to provide the student with the essential knowledge he will
need to survive in the natural world.
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Curriculum
The realists believe that the most efficient and effective way to find out about reality is
to study it through organized, separate, and systematically arranged subject matter. This
is called the subject-matter approach to curriculum which is composed of two basic
components, the body of knowledge and the appropriate pedagogy to fit the readiness
of the learner. The liberal arts curriculum and the math science disciplines consist of a
number of related concepts that constitute the structure of the discipline.
Methodology
The teacher is expected to be skilled in both the subject matter that he teaches and the
method of teaching it to students. Formal schooling means the transmission of
knowledge from experts to the young and immature. The school’s task is primarily an
intellectual one. The administrator’s role is to see to it that the teachers are not
distracted by recreational and social functions from performing their intellectual task of
cultivating and stimulating the learning students. In the elementary level, emphasis is on
the development of skills for reading, writing, arithmetic and study habits. In the
secondary and collegiate level, the body of knowledge regarded as containing the
wisdom of the human race will have to be transmitted in an authoritarian manner.
Students will be required to recall, explain, compare, interpret and make inferences.
Evaluation is essential, making use of objective measures. Motivation will be in the form
of rewards to reinforce what has been learned.
Teacher-Learner Relationship
The teacher is a person who possesses a body of knowledge and who is capable of
transmitting it to students. This is the kind of relationship stressed in realism. Teaching
should not be indoctrinating. Learning should be interactive. The teacher utilizes pupil
interest by relating subject matter to student experiences. The teacher maintains
discipline by reward, and control the pupil by activity.
A realist teacher teaches some skill as reading, writing, or computation, or some body of
disciplined knowledge as history, mathematics, or science. To do this, he/she must be
expert in these disciplines aside from having general education in the liberal arts and
sciences as background for teacher to demonstrate relationships between her/his area
of expertise and other subject matter. So mastery of content is most important in
realist teaching. Methodology is necessary but secondary to content as means to reach
the goal of education.
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An example of a realist approach in teaching high school students about Newton’s laws
of motion goes this way (Ornstein and Levine, 2000).
The emphasis of realists on teacher’s expertise and academic learning of students shows
their belief on “competency testing for both teachers and students”. Also, they
seemingly require school administrators and school boards to “maintain high academic
standards and encourage a high level of achievement” (Ornstein and Levine, 20000).
First, teacher historically locates Newton and comments on
his/her scientific contributions. Second, he illustrates the
laws of motion – a laboratory demonstration. Third, the
students are made to discuss the demonstration and frame
the scientific generalization that it illustrates. Finally,
students are tested to demonstrate their understanding of
Newton’s laws of motion.
Activity
Look for at least two realist teachers and discuss your
reasons for the classification.
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4.3.3. PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word pragma, meaning ‘a thing done, a fact that
is practiced’. This doctrine claims that the meaning of a proposition or idea lies in its
practical consequences. This philosophy stresses that education has been in vain if it
does not perform the social functions assigned to it, and unless it is considered as a
social institution in itself.
The pragmatists claim that society cannot fulfill an educational task without an
institution designed for this purpose. The school must maintain intimate relations with
society if its role is to be played well. They also assert that the school should aim to be
specialized institution with three features: (1) designed to represent society to the child
in simplified forms; (2) selective in a qualitative, if not ethical, manner as it represents
society to the young; and (3) responsible in giving the child a balanced and genuinely
representative acquaintance with society.
Educational Implications of Pragmatism
Aim of Education
The aim of education, as far as the pragmatists are concerned, is the total development
of the child either through experience, self-activity, or learning by doing.
Curriculum
The pragmatists suggested that the curriculum must offer subjects that will provide
opportunities for various projects and activities that are relevant to the needs, abilities,
and interest as well as the socio-economic conditions of the learners.
Methodology
Pragmatists believed that the learner must be made the center of all educative
processes – a concept based on Dewey’s tenet that education is life, education is
growth, education is a social process, and education is the construction of human
experience.
SUMMARY
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Philosophy provides a framework for organizing schools and individual learning
activities. It answers questions about the school’s purpose, subjects, and how students
learn. Moreover, it is the base or starting point in curriculum development.
There are three major branches or areas of philosophy; metaphysics, epistemology, and
axiology.
Metaphysics is concerned with questions about the nature of reality. Metaphysics
literally means “beyond the physical”’ and deals with such questions as, “What is
reality?” Metaphysics is the attempt to find coherence in the whole realm of thought
and experience.
In the world of the classroom teacher, classroom management is probably most
affected by metaphysical beliefs.
Epistemology is concerned with questions about the nature of knowledge.
Epistemologist attempts to discover what is involved in the process of knowing. Is
knowing a special type of mental act? Can people know anything beyond the objects
with which their senses acquaint them?
Epistemological beliefs surface in curricular and instructional decisions. Teachers must
understand how students learn and what the curriculum dictates they need to learn.
Axiology is concerned with questions about the nature of values. This study of values is
divided into ethics (moral values and conduct) and aesthetics (values in the realm of
beauty and art).
Classroom teachers must decide if ethics should be taught in school. Teachers’ ethical
beliefs effect decisions concerning discipline and grading. Aesthetics can effect decisions
concerning what types of art/artistic endeavors should or should not be a part of the
curriculum.
There are eight major philosophies and theories of education: Idealism, Realism,
Pragmatism, Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, Reconstructionism, and
Existentialism.
Idealism. Idealists believe that the material word is constantly changing, that ideas are
not only true reality, and that ideas endure through time.
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Idealist teachers see certain subjects as especially powerful in stimulating thinking and
developing identification with cultural heritage. A body of intellectual subject matter
which is ideational and conceptual on subjects which are essential for the realization of
mental and moral development. Subject matter should not be made constant for all.
Mathematics, history, and literature rank high in relevance since they are not only
cognitive but value-laden.
Realism. Realists refer to the universal elements of man that are unchanging regardless
of time, place and circumstance. Education implies teaching, teaching implies
knowledge, knowledge is truth and truth is the same everywhere.
The realists believe that the most efficient and effective way to find out about reality is
to study it through organized, separate, and systematically arranged subject matter. This
is called the subject-matter approach to curriculum which is composed of two basic
components, the body of knowledge and the appropriate pedagogy.
Pragmatism. The pragmatist teacher believes strongly the importance of the practical
application of knowledge. Students in a pragmatic classroom demonstrate success
through such skills as problem solving and application of the scientific method.
Constructivism is based on pragmatism.
Perennialism. Perennialism represents a conservative theoretical view centered in the
authority of tradition and the classics. Among its major educational principles are: (1)
truth is universal and does not depend on the circumstances of place, time, or person;
(2) a good education involves a search for and an understanding of the truth; (3)
truthcan be found in the great work of civilization; and (4) education is a liberal exercise
that develops the intellect.
Essentialism focuses on teaching whatever academic and moral knowledge is needed
for children to become productive citizens. Essentialism is another conservative
educational theory and arose in opposition to progressive education. Essentialists urge
that schools get back to the basics. They believe in the strong core curriculum and high
academic standards. Essentialism’s goals are to transmit the cultural heritage and
develop good citizens. School is s place where children come to learn what they need to
know, and the teacher is the person who can best instruct students in essential matters.
Concentrates on subject matter that includes literature, history, foreign languages,
mathematics, natural sciences, and religion.
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Progressivism is based largely on the belief that lessons must seem relevant to the
students in order for them to learn. Consequently, the curriculum of a progressivist
school is built around the personal experiences, interests, and needs of the students.
The teaxher is the “guide on the side”, not the “sage on the stage.” Progressivists favor
instructional strategies such as cooperative learning and stimulations where students
take the lead.
Reconstructionism is an educational theory that calls on schools to teach people to
control institutions and to be organized according to democratic ideals. Contemporary
reconstructionists view schools as vehicles for social change. Students should be taught
to analyze world events, explore controversial issues, and develop a vision for a new and
better world.
Existentialism. The existentialists believe that the human being is the creator of his own
essence; he creates his own values through freedom of choice or individual preference.
The most important kind of knowledge is about the realities of human life and the
choices that each person has to make.
Education is the process of developing awareness about the freedom of choice and the
meaning and responsibility for one’s choice. Subjects are merely tools for the realization
of subjectivity. Learning is not found in the structure of knowledge nor in organized
discipline, but in the students’ willingness to choose and give meaning to the subject.
Literature and the humanities are important in the existentialist curriculum.
SELF-TEST
1. How does philosophy influence the curriculum?
2. What are the principles of educational philosophies such as
Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Perennialism, Essentialism,
Progressivism, Reconstructionism, and Existentialism?
3. Which educational philosophy is best suited of today’s curriculum
in the elementary, secondary schools? Why
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UNIT 5
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION
After reading this unit you will be able to:
1. identifying the nature of philosophy vis-à-vis education; 2. illustrating the relationship of the two; 3. identifying the role philosophy plays in education; 4. drawing some implications of philosophy in education.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
We should never be ashamed to approve truth or acquire it, no matter what its source might be, even if it might have come from foreign peoples and alien nations far removed from us. To him who seeks the truth, no other object is higher in value. -- Rasa'il al-Kindi (810-873) Arab philosopher and physician
As a matter of daily practice, educators formulate goals, discuss values, and set
priorities. Anyone who gets involved in dealing with goals, values and priorities soon
realizes that in a modern society such as ours there are many competing choices. Some
are incompatible with others. Hard decisions have to be made. Here, for example, are
some everyday dilemmas that educators confront: How do we treat a specific student's
needs, yet deal fairly with a class of students as a whole? When, if ever, should we bend
the rules? Should a teacher ever emphasize good behavior over subject skills?
It is in trying to resolve such questions that the discussion becomes philosophical, even
though it may not be recognized as such. And it is philosophy that can help us make
better choices among goals, values and priorities. But what exactly is this "philosophy?"
And how does it help?
In daily use the term, "philosophy," is not clear-cut. TV programs offer us the personal
philosophies of various religious or political leaders. Other people talk about their
philosophy in choosing a kindergarten or a college. Some people believe a difference in
philosophy distinguishes between Roman Catholic and public schooling practices. Still
others talk about Progressive or Back-to-Basics philosophy.
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We see then, that the word "philosophy" is vague, yet, asking someone for her
philosophy on something is different from asking her how she feels about it. "How do
you feel about divorce?" we ask. "I don't like the idea," comes the reply; "but my
philosophy on divorce is that you have to consider whether it might not be better to
give up rather than stay in a bad relationship."
What, then, is philosophy? To shortcut discussion we can borrow distinctions made by
philosopher John Passmore 2 and separate out three common conceptions of
philosophy: philosophy as wisdoms; philosophy as ideology; and philosophy as critical
inquiry. These distinctions help us sort out different traditions within what is called
philosophy by the man-on-the-street (although only critical philosophy is understood to
be philosophy in Passmore's own academic tradition).
5.1. THREE CONCEPTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
Although three conceptions of philosophy can be distinguished, there are many
common elements shared by them. A person may derive an ideology from a wisdom,
and then subject it to critical philosophy. A truth discovered through critical philosophy
may come to be uncritically venerated, as, for example, was the insight in America that
education should center on the child. The three conceptions of philosophy, in practice,
are found in a mix in the day-to-day practice of the schools. Almost every major
philosopher in the critical tradition -- famed philosophers like Socrates, Aristotle,
Aquinas, Locke, Kant and others-- have had much to say in the way of wisdoms about
education and much in the way of ideology to say about how we should go about
schooling.
Our primary interest in this essay is in philosophy as critical inquiry. Wisdoms and
ideologies are usually inculcated into us in a way which gives us little opportunity for
reflection and criticism: we are taught them as absolute truths as children. But critical
philosophy, as we will see, is characterized by an attitude of critical reflection and a
practice of analysis that inculcators of wisdoms and ideologies avoid. However,
wisdoms, ideologies and critical inquiry are intimately and importantly related,
especially in educational practice. Let's examine more closely the difference between
these three ideas of philosophy and how each relates to educational practice.
5.1.1. PHILOSOPHY AS WISDOMS
Philosophy, however one conceives it, is expected to be more than a passing feeling or a
kneejerk opinion. It's supposed to be a thoughtful response to a question or situation.
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The response may not be very extensively thought out, but it's got some element of
reflection in it. Philosophy as wisdom incorporates, at the very least, this notion of
reflection, of thoughtful response.
This conception of philosophy as wisdoms includes two related ideas: personal
reflections on broad questions, and prophetic wisdoms. Such philosophy is generally
seen as arising out of personal experience or as having sacred origins. For these reasons
we tend not to challenge them with a critical question such as, "How do you know
that?"
For example, you have probably read or have heard people say things like
a. You can't expect too much from life without being disappointed
sometimes; or
b. Live and let live, that's what I say;
c. Don't smile until Christmas (common advice to new teachers).
Such statements are thought to be philosophical. They are general, they are often
offered as reasons for acting, and they have a certain air of thoughtfulness about them.
We generally concede people the right to these sorts of reflective opinions and do not
press them for further justification.
Then there are the statements or writings of prophetic individuals many of us have been
taught to consider both wise and worthy of veneration:
a. Do not covet the favors by which Allah has exalted some of you above
others. (Koran, Women 4:30)
b. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. (Exodus, 20:16)
c. Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not
depart from it. (Proverbs, 22:6)
Such wisdoms form the core of religious movements and are treated as sacred scripture.
It is important to notice that when people offer philosophy in the form of sacred
writings they do not welcome challenge. Indeed, a questioning or skeptical attitude is
often thought to be rude or even blasphemous. Similarly, in education we frequently
encounter some statements so deeply embedded in schooling culture that they are
treated as religious fundamentals. For example:
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a Every person should be educated to his or her fullest potential.
b. Always treat a child so as to bolster his or her self-esteem.
c. Practice makes perfect.
5.1.2. PHILOSOPHY AS IDEOLOGY
Philosophy can also be thought of as ideology. An ideology is, by comparison with
wisdoms, a more highly organized body of opinion. It usually serves programs of action
and organizational needs. Philosophy as ideology is what we normally find in schools.
For licensing purposes, state departments of education require schools, public and
private, to have available a document that states the school's "philosophy" of education.
Significantly, such school philosophies can be acquired pre-packaged. Educational
accrediting agencies publish books of them that school planners and directors can use to
choose among different philosophies of education like so many items on a menu.3 Here
is an example of such an educational ideology:
The social development of elementary school students proceeds as the
child becomes aware of the various authority structures that operate
throughout the school, the community, the region, and the nation. We
believe the school must help the child establish a perspective on the
responsibilities and opportunities inherent in the multitude of authority
systems in a democratic social order.
The point of ideology is to provide extensive suggestion as to how to structure and
control an organization. This may be subject to debate. Although the example above
mentions a “democratic social order," given its emphasis on authority, one could
imagine that with this ideology, a school run like a miniature police-state could be
rationalized.
In developing an ideology, the wisdoms of individuals, prophetic or otherwise, is called
on to justify policies and day-to-day procedures. But did Moses, Jesus or Mohammed
ever talk or write about hall passes, or detentions? No. What philosophy as ideology
requires is an imagination that stretches the original intents and statements into
broader or novel applications. Sometimes this imagination goes far beyond any
reasonable interpretation. Indeed, deeply pious people may complain that the ideology
of a church organization violates the essential spirit of the prophetic teachings, as when
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they complain that teachers in their schools fail exercise forgiveness as often as they
should. A key point here is that organizational demands often substantially change the
spirit of the original philosophy. Deep moral concerns may be lost in service of
expediency.
5.1.3 PHILOSOPHY AS CRITICAL INQUIRY
The American Philosophical Association, which represents professional academic
philosophers in the critical tradition, characterizes the activities of philosophy this way:
Properly pursued, philosophy enhances analytical, critical and interpretive
capacities that are applicable to any subject-matter, and in any human
context. It cultivates the capacities and appetite for self-expression and
reflection, for exchange and debate of ideas, for life-long learning, and for
dealing with problems for which there are no easy answers.
The distinguishing characteristic of philosophy as critical inquiry is its focus on careful
questioning and systematic appraisal, with no special respect given to the sources of the
opinions examined. It doesn't matter who said or wrote what. Nor does it matter what
effect critical inquiry might have on an organization. The point of the activity is not to
honor individuals or to bolster organizations, but to try to get to the truth.
Most importantly, in philosophy as critical inquiry, any statement purporting to be truth
is challengeable. But what are the rules for making such a challenge more than just an
expression of dislike? What rules there are have been developed through millennia in a
literature tracing back to Plato and earlier. We will look more closely at these rules for
challenge and investigation later.
Assumptions of the Tradition of Critical Inquiry. Early on in critical philosophy, Greek
philosophers distinguished between what they saw as "received opinion" and "truth."
This distinction mirrors the difference between what we are calling wisdoms -- and their
derived ideologies -- on the one hand, and critical inquiry on the other. Received opinion
might be true, but it was the task -- those ancient philosophers believed -- not of
traditional or religious authorities but of critical analysis to determine if it was so. There
is a potential here for significant conflict. It is important that a central story in the
history of philosophy is that of Socrates. He was condemned to death by the Athenian
Court for "impiety" and "corrupting youth" by teaching them critical inquiry.
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To emphasize an important point, however, critical inquiry is not confined to the
irreligious. The tools of critical inquiry have long been recognized as useful by religiously
committed philosophers in their struggle with the wisdoms of competing religious
groups. There are recognized critical philosophers in many major religions. Islamic,
Jewish and Christian philosophers have practiced in the tradition of critical inquiry.
Philosophy as critical inquiry treats knowledge as tentative. For practical purposes we
might accept something as true, yet later change our mind if the evidence warrants.
Notice how different this is from the conceptions of philosophy as wisdoms or
ideologies. Wisdoms and ideologies present what they offer as absolutes. Those who
offer us such absolutes insist at some point that inquiry must stop, questioning is no
longer allowed. Critical inquiry, by contrast, will always -- in theory, at least -- allow
questioning to proceed. For critical inquiry it is not acceptable to say, "This is so because
I (or my prophet) says it is." Something different is required. These are reasonableness
and evidence. What this specifically means, we will see later.
To reiterate, just because something is commonly believed to be true, is not considered
in critical philosophy to be an adequate reason for accepting it. Since it is method, not
personal authority that establishes truth, critical philosophy does not encourage us to
become followers, or true believers. Rather, each person is required to think for himself
or herself, following certain procedures which do not prejudice the outcome. Educators
are well-served by learning these procedures, especially in a pluralistic society like ours
where so many wisdoms and ideologies compete.
How does critical philosophy help with educational decisions?
We live in a society where wisdoms and ideologies compete. Educators must be able to
fairly select among them in a way which they understand to enhance their practice.
Such a selection among competing wisdoms should be as reasonable and as unbiased as
possible. Critical philosophy has at its disposal a wide variety of tools for analyzing and
appraising educational debates. Educational disputes in our society tend to be
particularly ideological. Practitioners need tools which are neutral to these disputes in
order to deal with day-to-day problems in schools. Here, for example, is a list of the
kinds of questions educators confront on a day-to-day basis, and, in effect, decide upon,
whether thoughtfully or not
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1. Should a talkative student be silenced for the sake of the class?
2. Should student infractions of the rules ever be overlooked?
3. Should grading be based purely on achievement or should effort be
factored in?
These first three questions bring up the issue as to how the needs of individuals should
be balanced against the needs of managing a group. Philosophy as ideology provides
answers here; but there are competing ideologies. Philosophy as critical inquiry enables
a reasoned choice. There are many other questions of similar importance that raise
other philosophical issues. Consider these, for example:
4. Should students be taught to tolerate those things their parents
believe are immoral?
This question comes up, for example, when sexual preference or practice
is a curriculum issue.
5. Should a teacher always follow administrative policy?
This may be an issue of how to handle a conflict between personal morality and school
rules. The many wisdoms and ideologies of our pluralistic society offer competing, even
contradictory answers to such questions. For question 5, for example, one ideology
might state that a teacher's primary duty is to the school and the policies that govern it;
therefore, the teacher should always follow policy. Another ideology might hold that the
needs of the child come first in any educational organisation, therefore, there will be
occasions when policies have to be ignored. Who is to say which of these two ideologies
is better and why? Critical inquiry gives us the tools to answer this question.
5.2. FOCUSSING OUR PHILOSOPHY: QUESTIONS OF CRITERIA
Critical philosophy is multi-faceted and always evolving. But because of its educational
utility, we will focus on a major emphasis of critical philosophy: philosophy as
criteriology, the study of the sources, justifications, and forms of criteria for decision-
making. Educational criteriology preserves the commitments of the critical tradition in
that its inquiry is not restrained by any of the absolutes recognized by traditions of
wisdom or ideology. And for educators, educational criteriology provides a powerful
tool for decision-making amidst a plurality of competing wisdoms and ideologies.
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Most, if not all, of the big educational questions can be recast as questions about the
choice of criteria for decision-making. Consider the following chart which recasts vague
philosophical questions into questions about criteria. Questions about what something
is are replaced with questions as to how we identify, determine, recognize or know
something.
General Questions Recast as Questions of Criteria
1. What is the primary goal of education?
1. What criteria can we use to identify educational goals? What are the criteria for ranking them? Why those and not others?
2. Should individual needs take precedence?
2. What are the criteria of need? What are the criteria of precedence? Why those and not others?
3. What should be taught in the schools?
3. What criteria should we use to identify possible school subjects? On what basis would we select some over others?
Chart 1
Note that there can be several ways of formulating questions of criteria, for example:
from the question, "What is academic achievement?" we can easily form "What are the
criteria by which we identify academic achievement?" But rather than always using the
formulation, "What are the criteria by which we identify ..." we can use such common
variations as,
a "What makes something an academic achievement?" or
b. "How can you tell when something is an academic achievement." or
c. "What are the standards that define academic achievement?" or
d. "What are some conditions necessary for being an academic
achievement?"
e. "On what basis do we decide that something is an academic
achievement?"
Remember: an important reason for reformulating the questions is to help us identify
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not only criteria, but to enable us to ask "Why these criteria rather than some others?"
Our concern is not only with criteria themselves, but with their sources and
justifications.
Limiting the possibly broader scope of critical philosophy to educational criteriology is a
cautious way to start. However, it avoids some of the common pitfalls of a broader
conception: vagueness and consequent inapplicability. When the need arises to broaden
our conception, we will. But simple beginnings are, perhaps, best.
5.3. KEY DISTINCTIONS AND SIMILARITIES
Education and philosophy, the two disciplines, are very closely related and in some areas they overlap each other. It is quite often said that, 'Philosophy and Education are two sides of the same coin'. 'Education is the dynamic side of philosophy'. To elaborate further, 'Philosophy and Education are the two flowers of one stem, the two sides of one coin. One can never be thought of without the other. The presence of one is incomplete without the other.
The art of education cannot be completed without philosophy and philosophy cannot convert others to its aims and values without education. There is a close interaction between the two; one without the other is unserviceable.'
Education is practical in nature and philosophy is theory. It is not vague to say that theory and practical are identical. The educator, who has to deal with the real facts of life, is different from the arm chair theorist who is busy in speculation. But a close observation of the various interpretations of philosophy will prove that these two are nothing but the one and same thing seen from different angles. Philosophy is the study of the realities, the pursuit of wisdom.
It is not mere theorizing but something which comes naturally to every individual. A person who goes deep into the reason and nature of things and tries to arrive at certain general principles with a view to apply them in his daily life, is a philosopher.
Philosophy is a way of life. In a wider sense philosophy is a way of looking at life, nature and truth. It sets up the ideals for an individual to achieve them in his life time.
Education on the other hand is the dynamic side of philosophy. It is the active aspect and the practical means of realising the ideals of life. Education is a sacred necessity of life, both from the biological and sociological point of view.
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It is true that education works like a catalyst for a better life, a social desirable life. As a pot is made out of clay and a finished product comes out of raw material, so also from the immature child comes out the civilized man through education.
Education renews and re-builds the social structure in the pattern of philosophical ideals. Human being, who is born and grows up with inherited propensities, determines the basic trails of man, but education paves a long way for his success in life.
Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means to earn living, nor is it only a nursery of thought or a school for a citizenship. Rather, it is the initiation into the life of spirit, a training of human souls in pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue.
The basic relationship between philosophy and education can be analysed as follows. It is philosophy, that provides the purpose or the aim and it is education which makes it practical.
Philosophy shows the way and education moves on in that direction. When we define education as the modification or behaviour, the direction in which, modification to be carried out is determined by philosophy. Thus philosophy deals with the end and education with the means. In fact, we can observe that the great philosophers of all times have been also great educators. For example, Socretes and Plato, the great philosophers, were also famous educators.
A teacher is not a teacher, in true sense of the term, if he/she is not able to discover the relationship between philosophy and education. According to Thomson, every teacher should realize the importance of philosophy in education.
Good philosophy thus would not only conceive the type of society which is needed in the society. It is philosophy which would give to the teachers a sense of adventure.
A true teacher should have knowledge of the subject he/she teaches the pupils and the society. He/she should also have the moralistic sense which comes from philosophy.
The choice of students must cater to the principles and purposes of philosophy. Choice of curriculum needs philosophers or leaders of thought. With the change of time and circumstances, the curricula also changes and this change can be brought out by philosophers alone.
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The necessary conditions should be fulfilled so that the child is allowed to go in a free atmosphere with the ultimate aim of becoming a happy and a rightly adjusted person of the society.
The learning process is an active way of doing things; hence the curriculum for the child should concern itself with the realities of life.
As far as the methods of teaching are concerned, it can be said that the child is influenced; to give a particular shape to his life by the way he is taught.
The philosophy of the teacher is reflected in the child by his method of teaching. So the course of life of the child is definitely influenced by philosophy. Here comes the utility of philosophy.
The Education- philosophy relationship may be further pointed out as given below:
According to Alfred Weber "Philosophy is a search for comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a universal explanation of the nature of things a person who searches into the reason and nature of things, who tries to arrive at a general principle, and who attempts to apply those principles to daily conduct of life, acts like a true philosopher. According to John Dewey, philosophy is "critical reviewing of just those familiar things."
Raymont argues, ' Philosophy is an unceasing? To discover the general truth that lies behind the particular facts, to discern also the reality that lies behind appearances.
" What is life? What is man's origin? What is man's destiny or goal? These are some of the questions of philosophical enquiry. Different philosophers try to answer these questions according to their own mature reflection and thinking. These different answers lead to different philosophies.
The Major Branches of Philosophy are: (a) Metaphysics or the discussion about the nature of ultimate reality and the cosmos, (b) Epistomology or the theory of knowledge, (c) Ethics, the theory of morality, (d) Aesthetics or the discussion of beauty, (e) Logic or the study of ideal method of thought and reasoning. Philosophy influences even the daily life of every individual.
An educator not only holds certain beliefs and ideals of life, he also tries to convert his pupils to his own views and his own way of life.
The influence of a person, holding a vital belief, brought to bear upon another person with the object of making him also to hold that belief, is education. Thus
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education means to lead out, through the modification of the native behaviour of the child.
Education is a laboratory where philosophic theories and speculations are tested and made concrete. Education may, therefore, be rightly called applied philosophy.
Philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from one generation to the other.
Philosophy is in reality the theory of education. In other words, education is the dynamic side of philosophy, or application of the fundamental principles of philosophy.
Philosophy formulates the method, education its process. Philosophy gives ideals, values and principles, those ideals, values and principles.
A philosopher tries to live in accordance with those aims and values and also wants others to be converted to his beliefs and live according to them. This he can achieve through education which is the best means for the propagation of his philosophy.
Neo-Darwinism gave rise to the Prominence of the principles of struggle for existence, cut-throat competition, gradual process of adaptation of the purposiveness of life (or elanvital), intellectualism and man's faith in reason.
Emphasis on knowledge received universal acceptance. In 20th century, the two world wars, and the consequent mass destruction wrought by the application of science, gave rise to less of faith in mere intellect.
Humanism, faith in higher principles and values of life, character development and emotional integration gained greater impetus.
Note:
Education is practical while philosophy is theoretical and speculative. Education is a process actively dealing with teaching, organizing programs,
administering organizations and building curricula. Philosophy asks questions, examines facts of reality and experience, many of which are involved in the educative process.
Education involves nurturing the young along the phases of reality considered in making philosophical judgments. Philosophy yields a comprehensive understanding of reality, a world view touch which when applied to educational practices leads direction and methodology which are likely to be lacking otherwise.
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While philosophy is a guide to educational practice, education as a field of investigation yields certain data as basis for philosophical judgments.
5.4. CONCEPTUALIZING THE RELATIONSHIP OF PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION
(Gregorio and Gregorio, 1979)
Philosophy and education have been claimed to be related to each other. The two
complement and supplement each other since philosophy is a “generalized theory of
education that makes students understand the implications to education of the various
systems of philosophy underlying educational policy and practice”.
For John Dewey, “the purpose of philosophy is to identify problems and suggest
ways of handling these problems.” He believes that education is life. The role of
educational philosophers is to explain education, criticize its practices, and offer
suggestions to problems by means of reflective thinking.
Moreover, educational philosophy is believed by many as a discipline that applies the
findings of philosophy to educational problems. It is concerned with what ought to be
in educational practice suggesting that all other educational discipline must follow the
direction of philosophy for effectiveness. Philosophy as a discipline classifies and
analyzes meaning in education.
Therefore, educational philosophy directs and guides teachers, school
administrators, and supervisors in formulating educational aims and objectives
for an effective educational process.
5.5. IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION
Philosophy in education trains learners to recognize synthesize, internalize, and assess
various ideas, facts, opinions, voluminous knowledge acquired and encountered. It aims
to develop a learner that is cultured and well rounded, developing him/her into worthy
member of a society. J.A. Nicholson as cited by Zulueta and Maglaya (2004) impressed
on the importance of philosophy in a person’s life and in society, to wit:
There is no other knowledge that so widens our intellectual horizon and that
depends thereby both our understanding and our sympathies. It breaks up that
intellectual crust of which Wordsworth speaks the yoke of conventional customs’ that
thinking tends fatally impose upon itself and by setting thought free, it permits that full
functioning of the life of the spirit that along constitute the good life.
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They further concluded that the “study of philosophy will always be an important
feature of human experience and its importance in the development of [a] complete
social being ready on his [her] responsibility in this rapidly changing world cannot be
over emphasized.”
With this claim, the same authors enumerated certain educational implications of
philosophy when education is viewed as life.
5.6. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
(Zulueta and Maglaya, 2004)
1. Philosophy guides a person in arriving at the right decision from a broader perspective because of the wholistic view that philosophy provides and which will become an integral part of the individual’s development.
2. It prepares the person to strive and challenge those attempting to control his /her thoughts and fend off intimidating dogmatic statements.
3. It serves as a bulwark against mental servitude and provides a framework within which the individual can think and act intelligently.
4. It becomes part of human experience that leads to the development of a complete social being that can assume the responsibility in a rapidly changing world.
5. It gives insights to individuals about their significant role as members of society.
To Calderon and Calderon (1979), the true function of philosophy is to give an individual
a critical outlook upon life’s real values and upon human conduct. So, educational
philosophy is perceived as a personal effort to arrive at solutions for educational
problems based [on] the experiences of the thinker. Majority of educational thinkers
assert that educational philosophy is that discipline which applies the findings of
philosophy to educational problems. This assumes that the problems of education have
roots in philosophical positions relative to the nature of humans and the universe, the
problems of truth and knowledge, and the questions of value.
[Moreover,] the nature of educational philosophy suggests the necessity for all
educational disciplines to follow the direction of philosophy. Educational philosophy is
concerned with the analysis of educational meaning and the recommendations of
educational policy. With educational philosophy, students are provided with basis of
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philosophical understanding which to enable them to arrive at a logical and systematic
theory of education. Also important understands the place of the school in the
surrounding culture and comprehending the social factors influencing educational
thought.
Activities
1. Do you believe that philosophy plays an important role in the
educational process? Explain your answer.
2. Illustrate by giving a school activity or scenario for your
answer in Question #1
3. How do you explain to students like you the relationship of
philosophy and education?
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Appendix
Table 1. Field of philosophy and area of inquiry (Zulueta and Maglaya, 2000).
Field Area of Inquiry
Metaphysics Studies the nature of reality and being
Epistemology Inquiries about the nature, presuppositions,
and scope of knowledge
Logic Studies correct thinking or rules of
interference to arguments
Ethics Inquires into morally right conduct and
morally good life
Aesthetics Analyzes standards and values in art and
aesthetic experience
Axiology Studies the nature, status, and types of
values.
Table 2. Field of Philosophy vis-a-vis philosophies of education
Philosophy Metaphysics Epistemology Axiology Educational
Implications
Proponents
Idealism Reality is
spiritual or
mental or
mental and
unchanging
Knowing is the
re- thinking of
latent ideas.
Values are
absolute
and
eternal.
Subject matter
curriculum
emphasizes the
great and
enduring ideas
of the culture
Berkely
Butler
Frochet
Hegel
Plato
Realism Reality is
objective and
is composed
of matter and
form; it is
fixed, based
on natural
law.
Knowing
consists of
sensation and
abstraction
Values are
absolute
and eternal
based on
nature’s
law
A subject
matter
curriculum
stresses
humanistic and
scientific
disciplines
Aquinas
Aristotle
Broudy
Martin
Pestalozzi
Pragmatism
(experimenta
lism)
Reality is the
interaction of
an individual
Knowing
results from
experiencing:
Values are
situational
or relative
Instruction is
organized
around
Childs
Dewey
James
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with
environment
or
experience; it
is always
changing
use of
scientific
method
problem
solving
according to
the scientific
method
Pierce
Existentialism Reality is
subjective,
with
existence
preceding
essence.
Knowing to
make personal
choices
Values
should be
freely
chosen.
Classroom
dialogues are
designed to
stimulate
awareness that
each person
creates a self
concept
through
significant
choices
Sartre
Marcel
Morris
Soderquist
Philosophical
Analysis
Reality is
verifiable
Knowing
involves
empirical
verification or
logical analysis
of language
Values are
regarded as
emotional
preferences
Instruction
uses language
analysis to
clarify
communication
and to
establish
meaning
Soltis
Russell
Moore
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Idealism Realism Pragmatism Existentialism Democracy
1. Aims of Education development of mind
and body
development of mind
and body thru the
sense and reason
individual growth
thru processes,
experience &
problem solving
philosophical analysis
of human experience,
life, love & death
welfare of the
individual& society
2. Nature of
Curriculum
subject matter
centered
subject matter
centered
child and process-
centered
child and subject
matter centered
child and society
centered
3. Role/character of
teacher
dispenser of
knowledge/ active,
imposing serious,
strict
initiator & facilitator/
practical, organizer,
authoritarian
facilitator/ dynamic
good classroom
manager result &
process oriented
facilitator,
moderator,
consultant, adviser
facilitator, liberal,
open minded,
provides for
individual differences.
4. Role/character of
learners
receives knowledge,
passive, dependent
discover of
knowledge thru
sensation &
abstraction, good at
classifying & sorting
objects based on
their characteristics
problem solvers,
observe the scientific
method, curious
critical result &
process oriented
curious, assertive
inquiry, expressive
articulate , personally
and socially aware
Free-seekers of
knowledge, inquiries,
adventurous,
indecent.
5. Method of
Teaching
lecture, deductive
method
grouping or
classifying objects
scientific method and
experimental
group dynamics group dynamics
6. Nature of
Classroom
traditional, rigid,
inflexible
traditional but with
little flexibility in the
arrangement of seats
flexible, rich in
opportunities for
students to
experience what
they’re learning
democratic/liberal
7. Source of Knowing books objects, nature challenging
experience
books, experience,
society, environment
books, environment,
experience, society
current issues
8. Proponents Plato Aquinas Dewey, Sartre,
Table 3. Different philosophies as applied in education
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Froebel
Herbart
Buther
Hegel
Berckeley
Aristotle
Broudy
Martin
Pestalozzi
James, Pierce Marcel,
Mowes,
Soderquist
9. Influences on the
Present Educational
System
values, GMRC use of realia learning by
experience
the use of group
dynamics
social sciences,
anthropology,
sociology
-
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Peters, R.S. (Editor) The Philosophy of Education. Oxford University Press, 1973.
2. Kneller, George F. Introduction To The Philosophy Of Education. Los Angeles: University Of California, 1964.
3. Park, Joe. (Editor) Selected Readings In The Philosophy Of Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968.
4. Freire, With Paulo & Shop, Ira. A Pedagogy For Liberation. Dialogues On Transforming Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1987.
5. Berlin, Isiah. Concepts & Categories. Philosophical Essays With An Introduction By Bernard Williams. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1980.
6. Brameld, Theodore. Philosophies Of Education In Cultural Perspective. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1955.
7. Schofield, Harry. The Philosophy Of Education, An Introduction. London: George Allen And Unwin Ltd. 1972.
8. O’ Connor, D J. An Introduction To The Philosophy Of Education. U.P: New Printindia Pvt. Ltd. 1986.
9. Blake, Smeyers, Smith and Standish. (Editor) Philosophy Of Education. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2003.
10. Chandra S. S., R. Sharma, Rejendra K (2002) " Philosophy of Education." New Delhi, Allantic publishers.
11. Chakraborty A. K.(2003)." Principles and Practices of Education." Meerut, Lal Book Depot.
12. Gupta S. (2005). " Education in Emerging India. Teachers role in Society." New Delhi, Shipra Publication.
13. Seetharamu, A. S. (1989). Philosophy of Education. New Delhi, ' Ashish Publishing House.
14. Taneja, V. R. (2000). " Educational Thought and Practice." New Delhi, Sterling.
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References: On-line Sources:
a. Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Ed.: www.educao.pro.br/;links.htm
b. The Center for Dewey Studies: www.siu.edu/~dewyctr/
c. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: www.plato.stanford.edu/
d. http://www.objectivistcenter.org/cth--409-FAQ_Philosophy.aspx
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Learner Evaluation Form
Learning Programme Name
Lecturer/ Facilitator Name
Learner name (Optional)
Dates of Facilitation
Employer / Work site
Date of Evaluation
Learner Tip:
Please complete the Evaluation Form as thoroughly as you are able to, in order for us to continuously improve our training quality! The purpose of the Evaluation Form is to evaluate the following:
logistics and support
Teaching and facilitation
Teaching/ learning and training material
assessment Your honest and detailed input is therefore of great value to us, and we appreciate your assistance in completing this evaluation form!
A Logistics and Support Evaluation
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1 Was communication regarding attendance of the programme efficient and effective?
2 Was the Programme Coordinator helpful and efficient?
3 Was the training equipment and material used effective and prepared?
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4 Was the training venue conducive to learning (set-up for convenience of learners, comfortable in terms of temperature, etc.)?
Additional Comments on Logistics and Support
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B Lecturer / Facilitator Evaluation 1 The Facilitator was prepared and knowledgeable on the
subject of the programme
2 The Facilitator encouraged learner participation and input
3 The Facilitator made use of a variety of methods, exercises, activities and discussions
4 The Facilitator used the material in a structured and effective manner
5 The Facilitator was understandable, approachable and respectful of the learners
6 The Facilitator was punctual and kept to the schedule
Additional Comments on Facilitation
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1 2 3 4 5
C Learning Programme Evaluation 1 The learning outcomes of the programme are
relevant and suitable.
2 The content of the programme was relevant and suitable for the target group.
3 The length of the facilitation was suitable for the programme.
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4 The learning material assisted in learning new knowledge and skills to apply in a practical manner.
5 The Learning Material was free from spelling and grammar errors
6 Handouts and Exercises are clear, concise and relevant to the outcomes and content.
7 Learning material is generally of a high standard, and user friendly
Additional Comments on Learning Programme
D Assessment Evaluation
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1 2 3 4 5 1 A clear overview provided of the assessment requirements of
the programme was provided
2 The assessment process and time lines were clearly explained
3 All assessment activities and activities were discussed
Additional Comments on Assessment