philosopher and theologian
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was a philosopher and theologian[5] from India who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.[1] He is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism.[6][7][8]
His works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the ātman and Nirguna Brahman "brahman without attributes".[9] He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutras, Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. His works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. Shankara's publications criticised the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism.[10] He also explained the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism,
stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components for usage in products for consumers and manufacturers. The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on
metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for technical advancement
The culture of India is the way of living of the people of India. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and customs differ from place to place within the country. The
Indian culture, often labelled as an amalgamation of several cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old.[1][2] Many elements of India's diverse cultures, such as Indian religions, Indian philosophy and Indian cuisine, have had a profound impact across the world
Culture[edit]
India is one of the world's oldest civilizations.[3] The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old.[1][2] Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions.[4] They have been credited with shaping much of Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music.[5] Greater India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism,
Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the travellers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era.[6][7] To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains.[8] During the medieval period, Islam played a significant role in shaping Indian cultural heritage[9] Over the centuries, there has been significant integration of Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs with Muslims across India[10][11]
The Rigvedi c
Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan language, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European language family. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of the 18th century were struck by the far reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that
followed have established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian, Tocharian and other Indo-European languages.[97]
Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra. Another major Classical Dravidian language, Kannada is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 9th- to 10th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. As a spoken language, some believe it to be even older than Tamil due to the existence of words which have more primitive forms than in Tamil. Pre-old Kannada (or Purava HazheGannada) was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.[104][105]
[106][107] The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated 230 BCE) has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.[108]
Odia is India's 6th classical language in addition to Sanskrit, Tamil, TeluMusic is an integral part of India's culture. Natyasastra, a 2000-year-old Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to classify musical instruments.[130] One of these ancient Indian systems classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air. According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a 3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone in the highlands of Odisha.[131]
The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns.[132] It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswār. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and
other Hindu texts, heavily influenced India's classical music tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani music systems are based on the melodic base (known as Rāga), sung
gu, Kannada and Malayalam.[109] It is also one of the 22 official languages in the 8th schedule of Indian constitution. Oriya's importance to Indian culture, from ancient times, is evidenced by its presence in Ashoka's Rock Edict X at Kalsi palitiditu (Dhauli, Jaugada palitiditu), dated to be from 2nd century BC.[110][111]
Music is an integral part of India's culture. Natyasastra, a 2000-year-old Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to classify musical instruments.[130] One of these ancient Indian systems classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air.
According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a 3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone in the highlands of Odisha.[131]
The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns.[132] It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswār. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and Painting[edit]Main article: Indian painting
The Jataka tales from Ajanta Cave Painting [ edit ] Main article: Indian painting
The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves . Cave paintings from Ajanta , Bagh , Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured floor design ( Rangoli ) is still a common
sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one of the classical painters from medieval India.Pattachitra , Madhubani painting , Mysore painting , Rajput painting , Tanjore painting , Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose , M. F. Husain , S. H. Raza , Geeta Vadhera , Jamini Roy and B. Venkatappa [136] are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where
global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery , Mumbai , Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintingss.Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured floor design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South
Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one of the classical painters from medieval India.Pattachitra, Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting, Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B. Venkatappa[136] are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian
classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintingsother Hindu texts, heavily influenced India's classical music tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani music systems are based on the melodic base (known as Rāga), sung amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international
recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintings.Sculpture[edit]
Marble Sculpture of female, c. 1450, Rajasthan
Main article: Sculpture in India
The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilisation, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock.
Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles
and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributed t
Considered to be an "unrivaled architectural wonder",[137] the Taj Mahal in Agra is a prime example of Indo-Islamic architecture. One of the world's seven wonders.
Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BC) which is characterised by well planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning and Indian astronomyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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From pre-historic to modern times, Indian astronomy continues to play an integral role.[clarification needed][peacock term] Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.[1][2] Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga or one of the "auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the Vedas,[3] dating 1500 BCE or older.[4][better source needed] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700–600 BCE).[5]
As with other traditions, the original application of astronomy was thus religious. Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BCE[6][7][8] and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka [6] and the Romaka Siddhanta, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.[9]
Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th-6th century, with Aryabhata, whose Aryabhatiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy,[10] and others. Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.
An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
Contents [hide]
1 History 2 Calendars
3 Astronomers 4 Instruments used 5 Global discourse
layout of these towns.
The Konark Sun Temple in Odisha, is one of many World Heritage Sites in India.[138]
During the period of the Mauryan and Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur built by Raja Raja Chola, the Sun Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings.
o Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast Central and
Indian astronomyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
From pre-historic to modern times, Indian astronomy continues to play an integral role.[clarification needed][peacock term] Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.[1][2] Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga or one of the "auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the Vedas,[3] dating 1500 BCE or older.[4][better source needed] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700–600 BCE).[5]
As with other traditions, the original application of astronomy was thus religious. Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BCE[6][7][8] and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka [6] and the Romaka Siddhanta, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.[9]
Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th-6th century, with Aryabhata, whose Aryabhatiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy,[10] and others. Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.
An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
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1 History
2 Calendars Indian mathematicsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Algebra Calculus
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Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent [1] from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Mahāvīra, Bhaskara II, Madhava of Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji. The decimal number system in use today[3] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[4] Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[5] negative numbers,[6] arithmetic, and algebra.[7] In addition, trigonometry [8] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[9] These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[7] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas involved.[1][10] All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan) and is likely from the 7th century CE.[11][12]
A later landmark in Indian
3 Astronomers
4 Indian mathematics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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History of science
Background [hide]
Theories and sociology Historiography Pseudoscience
By era [hide]
Early cultures Classical Antiquity
Middle Ages Renaissance
Scientific Revolution Romanticism
By culture [hide]
African Byzantine Chinese Indian
Medieval Islamic
Natural sciences [hide]
Astronomy Biology Botany
Chemistry Ecology
Evolution
Geology Geophysics
Paleontology Physics
Mathematics [hide]
Algebra Calculus
Combinatorics Geometry
Logic Probability Statistics
Trigonometry
Social sciences [hide]
Anthropology Economics Geography Linguistics
Political science Psychology Sociology
Sustainability
Technology [hide]
Agricultural science Computer science
Materials science Engineering
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Human medicine Veterinary medicine
Anatomy Neuroscience
Neurology Nutrition Pathology Pharmacy
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Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent [1] from 1200 BCE [2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata , Brahmagupta , Mahāvīra , Bhaskara II , Madhava of Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji . The decimal number system in use today [3] was first recorded in Indian mathematics. [4] Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, [5] negative numbers , [6] arithmetic , and algebra . [7] In addition, trigonometry [8] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there. [9] These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe [7] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit , usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas involved. [1][10] All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript , discovered in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali , near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan ) and is likely from the 7th century CE. [11][12]
A later landmark in Indian
usedIndian mathematicsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
History of science
Background[hide]
Theories and sociology Historiography Pseudoscience
By era[hide]
Early cultures Classical Antiquity
Middle Ages Renaissance
Scientific Revolution Romanticism
By culture[hide]
African Byzantine Chinese Indian
Medieval Islamic
Natural sciences [hide]
Astronomy Biology Botany
Chemistry Ecology
Evolution Geology
Geophysics Paleontology
Physics
Mathematics [hide]
Algebra Calculus
Combinatorics Geometry
Logic Probability Statistics
Trigonometry
Social sciences [hide]
Anthropology Economics Geography Linguistics
Political science Psychology Sociology
Sustainability
Technology [hide]
Agricultural science Computer science Materials science
Engineering
Medicine [hide]
Human medicine Veterinary medicine
Anatomy Neuroscience
Neurology Nutrition Pathology Pharmacy
Timelines Portal
Category
v t e
Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent [1] from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Mahāvīra, Bhaskara II, Madhava of Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji. The decimal number system in use today[3] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[4] Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[5] negative numbers,[6] arithmetic, and algebra.[7] In addition, trigonometry [8] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[9] These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[7] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for
the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas involved.[1][10] All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan) and is likely from the 7th century CE.[11][12]
A later landmark in Indian
5 Global discourse
The Vedic Period (From B.C. 1000 to B.C. 600): In ancient Indian literature of the Vedic period the words “Siksha” and “Adhyapana” frequently occur. “Siksha”
means to learn to recite. In those days education consisted of learning to recite the Holy text. The word
‘Adhyapana’ which literally means ‘to go near’ implies the idea of pupils going to some teacher for education.
The ancient Indian education emerged from the Vedas, because the Vedas are the source of Indian Philosophy of
life. Veda means knowledge. During this period education was divided into two kinds of knowledge this worldly
and other worldly. This worldly education dealt with the social aspect, whereas, the other worldly education was
related to intellectual pursuits for achieving salvation. However, the greater emphasis was laid on the latter.
Because, education was considered as a means of emancipation from life bondages. Objective of Vedic Education: The main objective of Vedic education was the development of physical, moral and intellectual powers of man and
to achieve salvation through it. In the field of salvation much emphasis was laid on attention, concentration and
yoga. Man’s effort was to lift himself above everything through these methods. But according to Shri A.S. Altekar,
there are six main objectives of ancient Indian education, which can be categorized under following heads.
