Pharmacy Practice Research Careers

American College of Clinical PharmacyJudith A. Smith, Pharm.D., FCCP, FISOPP, Kari L. Olson, Pharm.D., and Kevin M. Sowinski, Pharm.D., FCCP

Key Words: pharmacy practice, pharmacy careers, research, training,scholarship, pharmaceutical industry, academia.(Pharmacotherapy 2009;29(8):1007–1011)

Research is critical to the advancement ofpharmacy practice. The need for pharmacist-researchers who possess both clinical knowledgeand biomedical research skills has long beenrecognized. A variety of career pathways areavailable for individuals entering the professionof pharmacy that allow them to embark on acareer in research. However, many students andgraduates of schools or colleges of pharmacy areunfamiliar with the research opportunities thatexist. The purpose of this document is toprovide information to pharmacy students andpostgraduate residents or fellows on the types ofskills that are important to be a successfulresearcher and on the various avenues availablefor a career in research (Tables 1–3).

Although numerous resources are availablefrom various pharmaceutical companies, such asthe Pfizer Guide,1 and pharmacy organizations,such as the American Society of Health-SystemPharmacists or American Pharmacists Association,that describe pharmacy careers, little discussionis available about career options for pharmacistswith a focus on research. This article focuses onfive primary research career pathways—academia,

contract research organizations (CROs), healthcare institutional setting, industry, and govern-ment—and primarily examines opportunities thatexist in pharmacy practice and the clinicalsciences. However, only a superficial discussionis provided in this document, and interestedreaders are encouraged to seek opportunities atinstitutions that involve exposure to research.2, 3

Characteristics of a Successful Researcher

To have a successful research career, acquisitionof specific characteristics and skills areimportant. Self-motivation, attention to detail,excellent time-management skills, strong

From the 2005 ACCP Research Affairs Committee: KevinSowinski, Pharm.D., FCCP, BCPS, Chair; Robert Blouin,Pharm.D., FCCP; Daniel Canafax, Pharm.D., FCCP; AnnieKai I. Cheang, Pharm.D., BCPS; Peter Djuric, Pharm.D.;Lisa Dolovich, Pharm.D.; Susan Fagan, Pharm.D., FCCP,BCPS; Anita Groves, Pharm.D., M.S.; Collin Hovinga,Pharm.D.; Daren Knoell, Pharm.D., FCCP; David Knoppert,M.Sc.Pharm., FCCP; Jill Kolesar, Pharm.D., FCCP, BCPS; YiMin (Julie) Ku, Pharm.D.; Kari Olson, Pharm.D., BCPS; J.Jason Sims, Pharm.D.; Judith A. Smith, Pharm.D., FCCP,BCOP; and Daniel Touchette, Pharm.D., M.A. Approved bythe Board of Regents on January 25, 2006. Adapted as aStudent Primer, October 2008.

Address reprint requests to the American College ofClinical Pharmacy, 13000 West 87th Street Parkway, Suite100, Lenexa, KS 66215; e-mail: accp@accp.com; ordownload from http://www.accp.com.

ACCP STUDENT PR IMER

Table 1. Training Recommendations

Career Formal Training TrainingPathway Required RecommendedAcademia Pharm.D. Ph.D., residency,

fellowship, M.P. H.,M.B.A.

Contract Pharm.D., M.S., Ph.D.research M.S., ororganization Ph.D.

Institutional Pharm.D., Fellowshipsetting residency

Health Pharm.D. M.P.H., residency,maintenance or Ph.D. fellowshiporganization

Industry Pharm.D. Residency, fellowshipor Ph.D.

GovernmentManagement Pharm.D. Pharm.D., Ph.D.,

or Ph.D. M.B.A., residencyfellowship

Entry level Pharm.D. Residency, fellowshipM.P.H. = Master of Public Health; Pharm.D. = Doctor of Pharmacy;Ph.D. = Doctor of Philosophy; M.B.A. = Master of BusinessAdministration; M.S. = Master of Science.

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communication skills, and an ability to workindependently are important attributes. Otherattributes of successful researchers includecreativity, curiosity, patience, and a passion tosearch for new knowledge. It is important forresearchers to read and keep abreast of thescientific and clinical literature pertaining totheir area of interest, be able to ask questions,create research hypotheses, and designmethodologies to answer research questions. Theability to interpret the results and identify thestrengths and weaknesses of the literatureprovides a foundation for successfully designingresearch studies. Establishing collaborationswith others to grow and strengthen researchprograms is also important.

Most of the time spent in research involvescommunication in one form or another.Therefore, successful researchers must havestrong written and verbal communication skills.Disseminating and sharing the results of one’sfindings are also important responsibilities of aresearcher. Research careers typically involvewriting grants, letters of intent, and studyproposals and protocols, as well as presentingdata at scientific meetings and including thesedata in manuscripts submitted for publication inscientific journals. In most cases, depending on

the chosen research career pathway, advancementand promotion will be based on one’s publicationrecord and successful grant funding.

Research Career Pathways

Academia

A faculty appointment is the traditionalpathway for a pharmacist to pursue a researchcareer. Faculty appointments allow individualsto choose and focus on a particular area ofresearch and build an independent, but typically

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Table 2. Experience Recommendations

Experience RequiredCareer Pathway Beyond Formal Training Experience RecommendedAcademia

Full professor Associate professor for 5–7 yrs Participation in professional organizations, outsidecollaborations, work experience

Associate professor Assistant professor for 5–7 yrs Networking, leadership, and presentation skillsAssistant professor None

or instructor

Contract research On-the-job training Experience in drug development, integration of regulatoryorganization and scientific background

Institutional setting Clinical experience Participation in professional organizations such as ACCP,including subcommittees; show leadership skills

Industry Extensive research and project Knowledge or expertise in disease areamanagement skills, extensiveknowledge of relevant diseasestate

GovernmentManagement Solid research and clinical skills Participation in professional organizations, outside

collaborations, research experience beyond a Pharm.D.Entry level Fellowship Participation in professional organizations, outside

collaborations, presentation skills, good knowledge ofpharmacokinetics and study design and execution

Health maintenance Several years of previous clinical, Participation in professional organizations, outsideorganization management, and research collaborations, presentation skills, several years of

experience work experienceACCP = American College of Clinical Pharmacy; Pharm.D. = Doctor of Pharmacy.

Table 3. Opportunities for Career Advancement

Career Pathway Advancement OpportunitiesAcademia

Associate professor Full professor, department chairAssistant professor Associate professor, full professor,or instructor department chair, administration

Contract research Management, administrationorganization

Institutional setting Administration, protected researchtime, adjunct appointment

Industry Project manager, director of research

GovernmentManagement Upper managementEntry level Administrative advancement

PHARMACY PRACTICE RESEARCH CAREERS ACCP

collaborative, research career. These positionsare most often associated with schools or collegesof pharmacy. However, faculty positions in otherprofessional schools, such as medicine ornursing, are becoming increasingly common. Afaculty position has been described as one of themost rewarding career opportunities forpharmacists with advanced training.4 In 2004,there were 4038 full-time faculty members inUnited States schools and colleges of pharmacy,with roughly half of them identified as membersof the pharmacy practice discipline.5 In addition,consistent with the shortage that exists forpharmacists nationwide, there is a severeshortage of pharmacy faculty.6, 7 With theincreasing number of pharmacy schools openingin the United States, the shortage of faculty islikely to continue.4, 5

The training required for a research facultyappointment includes a doctor of pharmacy(Pharm.D.) degree with a residency and/orfellowship and/or doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.)degree.4, 8 Additional degrees, such as master ofbusiness administration (M.B.A.) or master ofpublic health (M.P.H.) may be particularlyhelpful in preparing one to pursue researchfocusing on health outcomes or epidemiology.8, 9

The entry-level faculty appointment is as aninstructor or assistant professor. The amount oftime spent at each of these academic appointmentsmay vary among institutions. At the instructorlevel, up to 3 years is typically allowed toestablish the independence for promotion toassistant professor. Once appointed as assistantprofessor, typically 5–7 years is given to furtherestablish independence and consistent fundingand publication records to be considered forpromotion to associate professor, which often isassociated with the award of tenure. The benefitof tenure is that it will allow the freedom topursue the topic or type of research that facultymembers choose, as long as it is ethical. Afterpromotion to associate professor and the awardof tenure, another 5–7 years is usually required tobe considered for promotion to full professor, themost senior faculty rank.

Tenure-track faculty positions requireindividuals to contribute time to teaching at theundergraduate or graduate level and, in manyinstances, maintain some clinical servicecomponent. However, most of one’s time isallocated to research activities. For example,50% of time dedicated to research is often typicalfor faculty in a tenure-track position. The focusis dependent on the individual’s research interest.

There are often opportunities for faculty toobtain joint appointments between a school orcollege of pharmacy or medicine and collaborativeinstitutions such as cancer centers, psychiatriccenters, or specialty hospitals. This collaborationmay also lead to career advancement opportunitieswithin these other institutions. Additional typesof faculty positions exist with a primary clinicalfocus, without a minimum—or with no—research component or focus. The relativepercentage of time spent in research varies inthese other faculty positions depending on theinstitution. For more information regarding acareer in academic pharmacy practice, the readeris directed to more in-depth reviews of thesepositions.4, 5, 8, 9

Contract Research Organizations

Contract research organizations are private,independent companies that assist and supportinvestigators and industry in the research process.The CRO may be involved in various aspects ofthe research process including protocoldevelopment, protocol research, pharmacokineticsample processing and analysis, data analysis,and preparation of regulatory reports and U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA) applications.Although entry-level positions are available, jobexperience will open more opportunities forpharmacists interested in this career pathway.10

The research responsibilities for individualsworking in CRO positions include protocoldevelopment, project management, writing andreview, data analysis, administrative duties,contract negotiations, manuscript preparation,and presentations.10, 11

A Pharm.D. and/or Ph.D. or master of sciencedegree (M.S.) is required for a research CROposition. The extent and type of previous jobexperience will influence the type of CROpositions available. Entry-level jobs tend to beinvolved more in the field and conducting theresearch, whereas career advancement in a CROis primarily to research project planning andmore administrative aspects of negotiating andexecuting contracts.10, 11

Health Care Institutional Setting

Another popular career pathway for pharmacistsis in a health care institution, such as a hospitalor comprehensive care center, in the role of aclinical pharmacy specialist. Although theprimary responsibility of a clinical pharmacyspecialist is patient care, many institutions also

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offer opportunities to get involved in researchactivities.8 Additional formalized training infellowship programs may be beneficial if anindividual is truly interested in pursuing aresearch career.3, 4 Many institutions evaluatepharmacist activities, based on patient outcomesor impact on costs, as a means to provide supportfor expanding services into other areas. A well-designed and well-executed research protocol isoften required to document these activities.

The training required for a clinical pharmacyspecialist includes a Pharm.D. degree and, at aminimum, a pharmacy practice residency or aspecialized residency, depending on theinstitution and position.8 In some cases, amaster’s degree with experience may beacceptable. Additional fellowship training is alsobeneficial, but not required, for those interestedin pursuing research opportunities as a clinicalpharmacy specialist. Individuals may also holdclinical-track faculty positions or have affiliatefaculty appointments in schools or colleges ofpharmacy.6, 8, 12

Pharmacy practice–based research is anincreasingly popular area. It can often provideinitial direction into potential research areas.Research in the institutional setting is often self-initiated within a particular area of interest. Inmost settings, the type of research conducted ispatient-focused through clinical drug studies,evaluation of programs on patient outcomes, andeconomic analysis. The results generated oftenlead to more questions and more extensiveresearch activities. Research opportunities oftenpresent themselves to clinical pharmacistspecialists who work in collaboration with othermembers of the health care team, such as nursesor physicians. These collaborations are anexcellent way to get started with research and canallow continued growth in this area. Otherresponsibilities of clinical pharmacy specialistsinvolved in research often include preceptingstudents or residents, reviewing clinical protocols,participating in clinical protocol development orwriting, analyzing data, reviewing and writingresearch grants and manuscripts, participating inadministrative and management meetings, andserving on institutional review boards.7

One additional career path in a health systemor hospital setting is as an investigational drugservice pharmacist. These pharmacists areusually responsible for providing drugdistribution to clinical research trials and mayparticipate in the drafting of research protocolsinvolving drug administration. These pharmacists

often serve on institutional review boards toensure safe medication practices during clinicalresearch trials. In general, these pharmacistsparticipate in the research process, rather thanhave direct involvement in hypothesis generationfor specific studies.13

There are also research opportunities forpharmacists in health maintenance organizations(HMOs). These positions can be full time withlittle or no patient care responsibilities, or theycan combine research with clinical care activities.A variety of research activities can be performedin the HMO setting. Although bench-topresearch is usually limited in this setting,pharmacoepidemiology research to evaluateoutcomes in a large patient population iscommon. Clinical studies often evaluate theeffect of drug therapy on patient outcomes, drugsafety, and/or economic research.

The HMOs that have electronic medicalrecords and laboratory and pharmacy databasesenable numerous research questions to beanswered. The training required for an HMOresearch position includes a Pharm.D. and/orPh.D. degree. Residency training, a researchfellowship, and/or an M.P.H. degree are alsobeneficial for an individual preparing for aresearch position within an HMO setting.

Industry

A wide variety of research opportunities forpharmacists exist in the private sector. Industryresearch positions provide opportunities to beinvolved in the decision making and planning fornew therapy development, to collaborate with avariety of investigators on a national andinternational level, and to participate in theadministrative or management aspects of therapydevelopment.

Although there is no universally acceptedtraining requirement for research positions inindustry, postgraduate degrees such as aPharm.D. or Ph.D. are generally accepted as theminimum training required. Additionalresidency and fellowship training also enhancethe knowledge base and skills to prepare for aresearch career in the industry setting. Theindustry setting provides numerous opportunitiesfor career advancement, such as directorpositions and other management roles.

Government

Pharmacy research positions in governmentagencies such as the National Institutes of Health

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or the FDA are both independent and collabo-rative. Often, the pharmacy researcher is amember of a large research team contributing tothe respective institute’s overall researchobjectives and goals. Entry-level positions mayinclude pharmacy research specialist withadvancement opportunities to director ormanager of laboratory or research programs.

For an entry-level position, the trainingrequired includes a Pharm.D. degree andfellowship or equivalent experience. Advancedpositions, such as study director, laboratorydirector, or section head, require a Pharm.D.and/or Ph.D. degree. In addition, residencyand/or fellowship training will likely be required.Solid clinical and research experience isdesirable. Career advancement in the govern-ment is based on job experience and success incurrent research endeavors.

Conclusion

Regardless of the type of research career pathwaysought, active involvement in professional organ-izations is important for networking, sharingideas, and building collaborative relationships.Leadership opportunities in various organizationswill help build management and communicationskills that may assist when career advancementopportunities are pursued. The time commit-ment involved should always be considered,whether the individual desires to pursueindependent research interests, support others, orbe involved in the decision-making or regulatoryaspects of therapy development. Research careerpathways are plentiful and diverse; one positioncan easily evolve into another or open new andexciting opportunities. Individuals interested in

learning more about a research career shouldmeet with people in the sector of interest,examine publications written by researchers fromthe sector of interest, or consider job shadowingor elective rotations with a researcher to gaininsight regarding job scope and activities.

References

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