You and the Organisation

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ANCHORS OF OB

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Anchors

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Systematic research anchor

OB should study organizations using systematic research methods

Multidisciplinaryanchor

OB should import knowledge from other disciplines, not just create its own knowledge

Contingency anchor OB theory should recognize that the effects of actions often vary with the situation

Multiple level of analysis anchor

OB events should be understood from three levels of analysis: individual, team, organisations

Two fundamental assumptions: 1. dynamic nature of organisation as a opensystem, 2. and there is NO “one best” approach

Types of Study Variables

Independent (X)n The presumed cause of the

change in the dependent variable (Y).

n This is the variable that OB researchers manipulate to observe the changes in Y.

Dependent (Y)n This is the response to X

(the independent variable).n It is what the OB

researchers want to predict or explain.

n The interesting variable!

X Y Predictive Ability

KM, 2015, IIMIDREg, Hawthorne studies

What managers do?

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Management Functions

n Planningn Organisingn Coordinatingn Controlling

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Fayol

n Interpersonaln Informationaln Decisional

Management Roles

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Management Skillsn Technical Skillsn The ability to apply specialized knowledge or

expertisen Human Skillsn The ability to work with, understand, and

motivate other people, both individually and in groups

n Conceptual Skillsn The mental ability to analyze and diagnose

complex situationsKM, 2015, IIMIDR

Effective vs Successful Managerial Activitiesn Four types of managerial activity:n Traditional Management

n Decision making, planning, and controllingn Communication

n Exchanging routine information and processing paperwork

n Human Resource Managementn Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict,

staffing, and trainingn Networking

n Socializing, politicking, and interacting with othersKM, 2015, IIMIDR

Successful vs. Effective Allocation by Time

Managers who got promoted faster (were successful) did different things than did effective managers (those who did their jobs well)

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VALUES, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

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ValuesBasic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to live a life that is personally or socially preferable – “How To” live life properly.Viewed as a conception, explicit or implicit, of what an individual or a group regards as desirable, and in terms of which he or they select, from among alternative available modes, the means and ends of action. Judgemental Element

Ø Beliefs: what ‘is’ known about the world (eg, life after death, walking under ladder brings ill luck)

Ø Values: what should be and what is desirableKM, 2015, IIMIDR

Some issues….

n Stablen Enduringn Significant portion is established in early

years – through socialisationn Some research says that values may be

partly determined by our geneticallytransmitted traits.

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ValuesnAttributes of Values:n Content Attribute: says that a mode of conduct or end-

state of existence is importantn Intensity Attribute: just how important that content isnValue Systemn A person’s values rank ordered by intensityn Tends to be relatively constant and consistent

n Eg, freedom, pleasure, self respect, honesty, obedience, equality

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Importance of Valuesn Provide understanding of attitudes, motivation, and

behaviorsn Eg, you view that pay should be based on performance, but in

your orgn, it is based on seniority – disappointment, less output….

n Influence our perception of the world around usn Eg, tit for tat is the best…………

n Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong”

n Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others

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Classifying Values – Rokeach Value Survey

n Terminal Values (18 items)n Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person

would like to achieve during his or her lifetimen Eg, true friendship, a comfortable life

n Instrumental Values (18 items)n Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s

terminal valuesn Eg, responsible, ambitious

n People in same occupations/categories tend to hold similar valuesn But values vary between groupsn Value differences make it difficult for groups to negotiate and

may create conflictKM, 2015, IIMIDR

Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or eventsThree components of an attitude:

Attitude

Behavioral

Cognitive

AffectiveThe emotional or feeling segment of an attitude (feeling)

The opinion or belief segment of

an attitude (evaluating) An intention to behave

in a certain way toward someone or something (action)

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I believe that my boss is lazy

I don’t like lazy people

I try to avoid boss when I can

Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?

n Leon Festinger – No, the reverse is sometimes true!n Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more

attitudes or between behavior and attitudes people who will change what they say so it doesn’t contradict their behavior.

n Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or dissonance, to reach stability and consistency

n Consistency is achieved by changing the attitudes, modifying the behaviors , or through rationalization (deny any linkage of smoking and health or brainwash about benefit of smoking or rationalise benefits)

n Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:§ Importance of elements creating it (eg bribe taking)§ Degree of individual influence in the situation (eg, it is institutionalised)§ Rewards involved in dissonance (eg, reward here is great)

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PERCEPTION

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Environment is complex

Ø Construct simplified models that extract the essential features

Ø Essential features may not capture all the complexity

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Environment is complex

Ø The ‘simplified’ model is likely to be:Ø Categorical thinking – organising people or objects

in pre-conceived categories stored in long term memory to achieve closure, eg, ex-servicemen are disciplined

Ø Mental models: broad world views or “theories-in-use” that people rely on, eg, how to behave in a organisation

Ø Selective Attention: Filtering information received by our senses; perceivers expectations and innate drives also adds to it, eg, footsteps of boss. Application – hearing customer voice.

Source: McShane & Glinow 2007: 45-46KM, 2015, IIMIDR

Perceptions and Emotions

Ø Perception - Process through which we assign meaning to the world around usØ Nothing but simplified models that we

construct to deal with environment complexityØ We decide what to notice, how to categorise

this information, and how to interpret within the framework of our existing knowledge

Ø The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.

.KM, 2015, IIMIDR

Factors That Influence Perception

Situational Factors:- Time- Work setting: Role- Social setting

Perceiver:- Attitudes- Motives- Interests- Experience- Expectations

Perceived:- Novelty- Background- Proximity- Similarity- Size- Reputation

Perception

Stimuli from the environment

Selection of stimuli: Screening or filtering

Oragnisationand arrangement of stimuli

Logic and meaningto the individual

Pattern of behavior

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AttributionØ Attribution – The process through which

individuals attempt to determine (that is, judge) the causes behind their own and others’ behavior

Ø Correspondent Inferences - based on one evidence. Judging disposition based on behavior: n I have seen an action (aankhon dekhi…) and

come to judgement about his disposition, traits and characteristics (remember Laage Raho Munnabhai)

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Attribution

§ Causal Attribution: Asking the question “why”?Ø Internal causes of behavior: explanations based on

actions for which the individual is responsibleØ External causes of behavior: explanation based on

situations over which the individual has no controlTo know if the action is caused due to internal or external factors :

Consensus: others behave in same manner Consistency: does he behave in same fashion in

other such situationsDistinctiveness: does he behave in same fashion

in other contexts

Competency Mapping & Assessment Process, Performance Appraisal,Interview process

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Systematic Biases in attributionØ Self serving bias: Tendency to attribute external causes for

our failures and internal causes for success. It is “our” success but their failure.

Ø Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to attribute internal causes when focusing on someone else’s behavior. We blame “people” first, not the situation. This is so because it is easier to explain other’s action in terms of traits/disposition rather than complex pattern of situational factors that may have impacted their actions.

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Perceptual biases: predispositions that people have to misperceive others in various ways: SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS!!!

Ø Selective perception: Selectively interpret what they see based on their own interests, background, experience and attitudes. The tendency to focus on some aspects of the environment while ignoring others. We tend to be selective as it narrows down our perceptual field. We select based on our interests, background, experience, and attitudesØ Which department contributes the most…..Ø Eye of the Beholder

Ø Similar-to-me effect: perceive people positively who are believed to be similar to the perceiver. This applies with several dimensions of similarity – work values and habits, belief about the way things should be done, similarity to demographic variables, etc. Ø Empathize with people and relate better who are similar to us

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Systematic Biases in attributionØ Halo / Horn effect: Ø Drawing a general impression about a person based on a

single characteristic like appearance, sociability, etc. Tendency for our overall impressions of others to affect objective evaluations of their specific traits; perceiving high correlations between characteristics that may be unrelated.Link certain traits Ø Multiple reviewersØ Evidence of team halo effect: when performance is good, entire

team is seen to be responsible; when it was bad, individual team members are held accountable.

Ø Self – fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalino/Golem effect): Perception effect reality. When our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations.Ø Eg, peptalk by the CEO….creation of +ve organisational behavior.

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Systematic Biases in attributionØ Contrast effect: evaluations of a person’s characteristics

that are affected by comparisions with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.Ø Sequencing during interview

Ø Stereotyping: Judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.

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Systematic Biases in attributionØ First Impression error: The tendency to base our

judgement of others on our initial impressions of them. Research tells us that first impression tend to be lasting, at least in short run!

Ø Projection: attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.Ø Project one’s own undesirable personal characteristics

on others: Eg, a lazy supervisor may presume other is also lazy and complaint that manager did not work hard enough to get him resources

Ø Project one’s own feelings on others: Frightened manager during organisation change finds various policy decisions more frightening than they areKM, 2015, IIMIDR

Emotions and U

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Emotional Labor

An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.nEmotional Dissonance:n Employees have to project one emotion while

simultaneously feeling anothern Can be very damaging and lead to burnoutnTypes of Emotions:n Felt: the individual’s actual emotionsn Displayed: required or appropriate emotions

n Surface Acting: displaying appropriately but not feeling those emotions internally: DISPLAYED EMOTIONS

n Deep Acting: changing internal feelings to match display rules - very stressful: FELT EMOTIONS

Affective Events Theory (AET)

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Task demand

Role demand

Mood congruence

“Good Job”

“Many enjoyableencounters with

others in courseof a work day”

“High degree of +ve affect” & in”good mood”

“Boss gave a pat on the back”

“You experience a very +ve reaction to this Pat”

Circumplex Model of Affectn All emotions generate a global evaluation (core affect) that

something good or bad, helpful or harmful, to be approached or to be avoided – ie, all emotions communicate that perceived object/event (context) is either +ve or –ve.

n All emotions produce some level of activation (energy or motivational force)

n Theory of emotional behavior based on:n degree to which emotions are pleasant or unpleasant, andn degree to which it makes one feel alert and engaged

(activation)n Combination of these decide AFFECT – positive or

negative, activated or unactivatedn Presented in a two dimensional circular space

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Vertical axis: arousal; Horizontal axis: valence (intrinsic attractiveness/aversiveness of a event/object, etc)

Activated (High Energy)

Un-Activated (Low Energy)

Low-Pleasantness High-Pleasantness

Low +ve affectLow -ve affect

Emotions within each grouping are similar to one another. Those across from one another are considered opposite emotions

Definitionn EI refers to the ability to monitor one’s own and

others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions. (Salovey & Mayer: 1990: 189)

n Five dimensions:n Self awareness: aware of what you are feelingn Self management: to manage emotions & impulsesn Self motivation: persist in the face of setbacks & failuresn Empathy: to sense how others are feelingn Social skills: to handle emotions of others

KM, 2015, IIMIDRThe capacities to create optimal results in your

relationships with others – EI

The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information

The Five Dimensions

Self Awareness

- Emotional Self Awareness

- Accurate Self Assessment

- Self Confidence

EI

Self Management

- Self Control- Consciousness- Transparency- Trustworthiness- Initiative - Achievement Orientation

- Adaptabilityanger, anxiety,sadness

Empathy

- Empathy- Listener- Attuned to feelings

- Coaching

Motivation

- Optimism- Performance Orientation

- Perseverance

Social Skills

- Service Orientation

- Mood Maker- Inspirational

leadership- Influence- Change catalyst- Conflict Management

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Delay of gratificationDecisive life skill

Introspection

Ability to make friends

Feeling for others

Persistence

Personality and U

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Personality

Ø Enduring characteristics that influence an individual’s behavior (personality traits)Ø Sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and

interacts with others (observable patterns of behavior)

Ø Generally, it is considered to be stable and consistent.Ø Usually described in terms of the measurable traits a

person exhibits.Ø Dynamic concept describing the growth and

development of a person’s whole psychological system; it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. KM, 2015, IIMIDR

Dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systemsthat determine his unique adjustments to his environment

How it develops?n Heredityn Brain : evolutionary psychologists (hardwired from

distant past to behave)n Socialisation process

Ø Environment: Eg, in USA, themes of industriousness, success, competition, independence and protestant work ethic, leads their citizens to be ambitious and aggressive.

n Person-situation interactionn Self – Esteem: a person’s self-perceived competence

and self imagen Sort of a global, relatively fixed trait

Personality becomes more stable over time is that we form a clearer and more rigid self concept as we get older. “Who I am” serves as an anchor for our behaviour – brain tries to keep our behaviour consistent with our self-concept

Ø Behavior is function of continuous, multidirectional interaction between person and the situation

Ø The person is active in this process and is changed by situations and changes situations.

Ø People vary in many characteristics, including cognitive, affective, motivational, and ability factors.

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The Person:ØSkills and abilitiesØPersonalityØPerceptionØAttributionØAttitudesØValues Ethics

The Environment:ØOrganisationØWork GroupØJobØPersonal life

Interactionist perspective = effect of traits are likely to be strongest in relatively weak situations, and vice versa. Organisation settings tend to be strong situations as they have rules and regulations that define acceptable behavior and punish deviant behavior, and informal norms that dictate appropriate behavior

Behavior in army……

Personality Studies: two approachesØ Nomothetic:

Ø Collection of group data to identify, measure and compareØ Trait theory: Breaks down behavior pattern into series of

observable traits: enduring characteristics that describe an individual behavior

Ø Tend to view environmental and social influences as minimal, personality as consistent, largely inherited and resistant to changeØ What this means for a manager?Ø Power of trait to predict behavior: ØThe more consistent the characteristic, the more

frequently it occurs, the more important it is. ØCan help in employee selection, job fit, and career

development.KM, 2015, IIMIDR

Personality Studies: two approachesØ Idiographic: Ø ‘Self” – unique interaction with the worldØ Personality development is open to change

n What this means for a manager?§ So, for a manager, this provides an opportunity to create

situation that mould the personality for enabling behavior§ Coaching, mentoring can have impact

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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicatorn Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of 16

possible personality types, such as ENTJ.

Extroverted (E)

Introverted (I)

Sensing (S)

Intuitive (N)

Thinking (T)

Feeling (F)

Judging (J)

Perceiving (P)

Flexible and Spontaneous, open-ended, exploring, opportunity focused

Sociable,Interactive,Assertive, Outgoing, Speaks & then thinks

Quiet, Shy, Concentrating,

Reflective, Thinks, and then speaks

UnconsciousProcesses, look at big picture, General possibilities, Theoretical, Abstract

Uses Values & Emotions, Heart, Subjective, Circumstances, Mercy

Practical andOrderly, prefer routine, Details, Concrete, Specific

Use Reasonand Logic to handle problems, Rules, Justice

Want Order& Structure, Time oriented, Organized, Decisive

Engaging with outer world

Evaluate & Making decisions

Gathering, Processing information

Source of energy

The Types and Their Usesn Each of the sixteen possible combinations has a name, for instance: n Visionaries (INTJ): original, stubborn, and drivenn Organizers (ESTJ): realistic, logical, analytical, and businesslike: most

of 7463 managers studied were ESTJ.n Conceptualizers (ENTP): entrepreneurial, innovative, individualistic,

and resourcefuln High reliability and validity for identifying types, and its linkage to learning style, teaching style and choice of occupation. n Great tool for self-awareness and counseling.n Should not be used as a selection test for job

candidates.KM, 2015, IIMIDR

Nomothetic: The Big Five Model; Taps into five basic dimensionsTrait What it meansConscien-tiousness

The person is responsible, hardworking, organised, persistent and dependable, goal-focused, thorough, methodical: RELIABILITY

Agreeable-ness

The person is cooperative, warm, and agreeable, trusting, helpful, good-natured, considerate, generous, flexible: PROPENSITY TO DEFER TO OTHERS

Neuroti-cismEmotional stability

Anxious, insecure, self-conscious, depressed, temperamental, hostility, self-consicousnessThe person is calm, self-confident, and cool: ABILITY TO WITHSTAND STRESS

Openness to experience

The person is creative, curious, cultured, imaginative, unconventional, perceptive, autonomous : FASCINATION WITH NOVELTY, RANGE OF INTERETS

Extraversion

The person is gregarious, assertive, and sociable, talkative, energetic, outgoing: COMFORT LEVEL WITH RELATIONSHIPS

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Exercise

Personality and workplace (situational factors and characteristics of those in setting have an impact)

n Traits reflects an individual’s behavioural tendencies ….predicting some workplace behaviour & outcomes

n Cluster around the broad characteristics of:n CAlowN = “getting along”n OEClowN = “getting ahead”

n C and lowN = best predicts individual performance in almost every job group – energize a willingness to fulfil work obligation (C) with established rules and to allocate resources to accomplish those tasks (lowN)

(Caveat= less than 10% of performance is due to personality trait of C. Generally speaking, C=> on performance, job satisfaction, motivation) n More specific types of employee behaviour:

n E = sales and management jobsn A = team based, customer relations, conflict handling situationsn O = creative and adaptable to change

Big Five Traitsn What happens if you donot like your personality trait?

n Put your best foot forward. Personality is not synonymous with behavior

n Find an organization that suits you. Not all organizational cultures are for everyone. Big corporations tend to be “tilted” toward extraverts……..

n Time is on your side. As people age, their scores on conscientiousness and agreeableness increase rather dramatically, and neuroticism decreases (emotional stability increases) substantially.

n Realize that all traits have upsides and downsides. Extraverted people are more impulsive and more likely to be absent. Conscientious individuals adjust less well to change. Open people are more likely to have accidents. Agreeable people are less successful in their careers……

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Psychometric tests

n They make decisions about people:n More systematicn More precise

n They predict future performance and reduce uncertainty

n They provide more accurate descriptions of people and their behavior

n But, n Tests should be seen as an additional source of

information onlyn Practice may have effect on test results

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Core Self Evaluation: best dispositional predictor of job satisfaction and performances

A person’s fundamental evaluation of themselves. The degree to which a person likes or dislikes himself, whether he sees himself as capable and effective, whether he feels he has control over environment. In assessing who we are, people rely on four aspects of personality: n Self Esteem: Overall value one places on oneself as a person. Self

perceived competence (welcome challenging tasks) and self image. Sort of a global, relatively fixed trait

n Generalised self efficacy: A person’s beliefs about his capacity to perform specific tasks successfully (confidence that they can do well whatever they do. Associate work with success so tend to be satisfied with job). Situational and context specific

n Locus of control: The extent to which a person feel that they are able to control things in a manner that affects them

n Emotional stability: The tendency to see oneself as confident, secure, steady

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