県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　12，7-19（2017）

Perspectives on Modern American History

StevenL.Rosen

IntroductionThe 20th century is one of themost remarkable centuries in human history. The

developmentof themodernworld,withAmericaat itscenter, includedtectonicshifts,notonlyin technology,but indemographics, social institutions, culturalunderstandings,and,ofcourse,economics.TheSecondIndustrialRevolution,basedonthe ideaofscientificprogress,propelledhumankind intoanewworld- indeedabravenewworld, toborrowthephrase fromAldousHuxley(whoborroweditfromShakespeare’s,The Tempest).Thisbravenewworldincludedtheriseofcorporatecapitalism,massive immigrationsandemigrationsaroundtheworld, theriseofHollywoodwhichwould transformworldculture (exposingtheworld toAmericanEnglishandculture),andperhapsaboveall,newandfantastictechnologywhich,ontheonehand,wouldsavemillionsof lives throughtheuseofanti-bioticsandotherdrugs,andon theother,killmillionsthroughthesystematickillingof theholocaustandthedevelopmentofmilitaryhardwareonascalecapableofdestroyingalllifeonearthinoneday.

It is thereforeofutmost importancethatstudentsof thehumanitiesandsocial sciencesand indeedall fieldsof study,havesomeappreciation for the incredibleand indeliblechangesthatoccurred inthemodernera.Thisparticularmini-text focusesmainlyonAmericanhistory.Itwas inthemodernera,mainlythe20thcentury, thattheUnitedachievedsuper-powerstatusinalmosteverysphere-economic, technologicalandevencultural. Indeed,asEuropesetaboutdestroying itselfwith twowars, the secondone fought out all over theglobe,Americawasgivenanopportunitytoemergeasthemajorforceshapingworldhistory.BelieversinAmericanexceptionalismassert that there is something in theAmericancharacterwhich led to this-thatAmerican isspecial, especially itsmoralandpoliticalculture.Thismini-textwillnotstartfromthatassumptionandwill remainsilentas to itsvalidity.However,anexaminationof theGreatDepression, theKennedyassassination, thecivil rightsmovement, theVietnamWarandWatergate,shouldservetohumbleanyonewithexceptionalistpretentions.Americahasashadowside in itshistory, justasprofoundas itsbrightestachievements,andthismini-textshouldhelpkeepstudentsonthestraightandnarrowpath ofdevelopingarealisticattitudetoAmericanhistoryandculture,alongsideanappreciationofitsgreatness.

The Second Industrial Revolution Theperiodafter theCivilWarwasaperiodof rapideconomicandsocialchange.New

technological inventionsdeveloped inEnglandandAmericahelpedthiseconomicgrowth.Theperiodof technological innovationand increased factoryproduction isknownasthe“IndustrialRevolution.”

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TheFirst IndustrialRevolutionoccurred inEngland in the 18th century,when steamenginesweredeveloped topower factories.TheSecond IndustrialRevolutionwhichoccurredprimarilyinAmerica,wasevenmoredynamic.Itwasbasedonelectricalpower(fromcoalandoil),newtransportation(railroads)andanewtypeofbusinessorganization:themoderncorporation.

ThetwobiggestindustriesinAmericawerepetroleumandrailroads,followedbybanking.

The Modern Industrial Corporation: In the late 19th century,webegin to see the rise of“BigBusiness,”using factory

productionandeconomiesofscale(規模の経済). Itisalsothebeginningofrealmonopoly(独占)capitalism.Americabecamecontrolledby

largecorporations. -The corporationswere also protected by the law: they became limited liability

corporations (有限責任会社).Thismeansthat if theydidsomethingbad,noperson (e.g.,theowner)wasresponsible.

The 20th Century�By1913,Americaaccountedfor35%of theworld’s industrialoutput (comparedto16%

forGermanyand14%forBritain).Afewbigcompanieswerenowcontrollingmostofthemajormarketslikefood,energyortransportation.Thisiscalledmonopolycapitalism.

�Inthe1920’sFordMotorCorporationbecamethelargestcompanyintheworldthankstoassembly lineproduction (組み立てライン).ManyAmericancompaniescopiedFordandbecameinternationalcompanies.

Corporations:1 ) Themoderncorporationusuallyhasonemaingoal-shareholder(株主)profit.Therefore,

ifthecompanyharmspeopleortheenvironment,ifdoesn’treallycare.2 ) Corporationscancontrolthemediathroughadvertising.3 ) Politicalpower: large corporationshave somuchmoneyandpower that theycan

controlpoliticians.Thismeansthat isdifficult tomakeregulations (法規制)tocontrolthecorporations. (圧力団体=lobby/陳情団)Forexample,thepharmaceutical industry(薬品会社),theoilindustry,andthetobaccoindustryareverypowerfulanddifficulttoregulate.

4 ) Corporationssupportnon-democraticgovernmentsaroundtheworld.(dictatorships-独裁政治).Theygotopoorcountrieswhereworkerswillworkforlowwages,longhoursinbadconditions.

5 ) Themodern corporation oftendestroys thenatural environmentwith industrialpollution.

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県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　12，7-19（2017）

The Oil IndustryThepetroleum industrystarted inAmerica in1859whenoilwasdiscoveredunder the

ground inPennsylvania.Since then ithasdeveloped intooneof theworld’s richest industriesprovidingelectricity, fuelandchemicals (“petrochemicals”/石油製品)forthemodernworld.Wecanevensaythatthemoderneconomydevelopedbecauseofoilandotherfossilfuels(likecoal/石炭).Crudeoil,alsoknownaspetroleum(ペトローリアム), is theworld’smostactivelytradedcommodity/商品.

Theearlyoilindustrywaschaotic/混迷状態anddangerous,withthepriceofoilrisingand

falling.ThenJohnD.Rockefellerbuilthisfirstoilrefinery(製油所)in1863andtookcontroloftheoilmarket;hebecameoneoftherichestmenintheworld.In1870hestartedtheStandardOilCo.whichbecamethe leaderofthepetroleumindustry inthe late19thcentury.Infact, itbecameapowerfulmonopoly;by1880StandardOilcontrolledabout90%ofthemarket.

In1901,oneof themost importantdiscoveriesofoil occurred inTexas.ThisdiscoveryendedthemonopolyofStandardOil, asmanynew,smallercompaniesappeared inTexasandnearbystates. In1912theDutchShellGroupmoved intoCaliforniaandbecameverysuccessfulthere.

Thegrowthoftheautomobileindustryandairplaneindustryfromthe1920’sreallyhelpedthegrowthoftheoilindustry,butsoonthesupplyexceededthedemandforoil.(需要供給)

AfterWorldWarIIended(1945),oilreplacedcoalasthemainsourceofenergyinAmerica.However, therewasnotenoughdomestic (国 内)oil tomeettheenergydemandsofAmericans.Fromthe1950’son,thedemandforoilwasgreat,notonlyforfuel(燃料);manyAmericaproductsweremadefromoil(petrochemicals),suchasplasticsordisinfectants(消毒剤)andfertilizers(化学肥料).

The Modern World and OilOPEC(オペック/OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries)startedin1960toregulate

thepriceofoil.Theysetthepriceofoilontheworldmarketthroughproductionquotas・割り当て(soit’sakindofcartel).

TheUnitedStatesalsogetsoil fromAlaskaandTexas,CanadaandMexico,butheavilydependsonMiddle-EastOil.Americaconsumesabout1/4oftheworld’soil.ThisalsomeansthattheU.S.producesabout25%oftheworld’scarbonemissions(炭素放出量).

Actually,highoilpricesaregood—fortheenvironment…butbadforpeople’swallets…badfortheeconomy.

Muchof theworld’soilpassesthroughtheStraitofHormuzonships. If there iswarorpoliticalinstabilityintheMiddle-East,thiswilldisruptthesupplyofoiltotheworld.

Whenthepriceofgasgoesup,peoplestarttoconserveandthinkaboutbuyingecofriendly

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StevenL.Rosen　　　PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory

cars.ThisishappeningnowinAmerica.

Will theworld’s oil run out someday?Yes, of course.But before this, perhaps theenvironmentwillbedestroyed(byglobalwarming).

FordismBythe1920’s,Americahadbecomeanautomobilesociety,mostlythankstothebusiness

startedbyHenryFord.BeforeHenryFord,variousbusinessactivities,suchasresearch,design,production,distributionandadvertising,weredonebymanydifferentcompanies. Inthemoderncorporation,thesethingswerealldonebyonecompany.FordMotorCo.,startedthefirstassemblylinein1913.

The introductionof themovingassembly line revolutionizedautomobileproductionbyreducingassemblytimepervehicle,thusloweringcosts.Ford'sproductionofModelT’smadehiscompanythelargestautomobilemanufacturerintheworld.

Itwasachangefromsimplebusinessorganizationstothefirstmoderncorporations;theyhadseparateoperatingdivisions,largenetworksofsuppliersandprofessionalmanagers.

WhileFordwasperfectinghisModelT,WilliamC.DurantestablishedtheGeneralMotorsCorporation (GM) in1908. Inthe late1920sandearly1930sGeneralMotorsChairmanAlfredP.Sloan,Jr.,decidedto followadifferentstrategy.Heusedthenewscienceofmarketing (marketresearch) and offereddifferent lines of cars atdifferentprices.Fancy expensive carsweremarketedforrichpeopleandmiddlelevelautosformiddleclasspeopleandsimplecarsforpoorerpeople.TheseconceptshelpedGMchallengethedominanceofFord.

AutomobilestransformedAmericansocietyandbusiness Theautomobilealmostimmediatelytransformedthepetroleumindustry. Industriesthatweredependentontheautomobilesawemploymentalmosttriple. Roadconstructionchangeddramaticallybecauseofautomobiles. Theautomobilehelpedthedevelopmentofthetouristindustry. Small-townhotelsandmotelsdevelopedfortravelingsalesmen. Thegrowingnumberofautomobiletouristsincreasedtheamountofbusinessinstores. Servicestations,garages,andrepairshopsweretwooftheindustriesthatbenefitedfrom

theincreasedamountoftravel.

Negativeeffects Therailroadindustryfelttheeffectsoftheautomobile.Motoristswerefreetobeontheir

ownschedule. Citytransitandurbanelectriclinesfelttheimpactoftheautomobile.Theybegantobe

confinedtolargercities.Automobilessoonproducedproblemsofcongestionandparking,especiallyinbigcities.

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県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　12，7-19（2017）

TheCarofthefuture:ElectricCars1. Electricityischeaperthangasandwecangetitfromrenewableresourceslikesolarand

windpower.2. Electriccarspolluteless.3. Electriccarsneedlessmaintenance.4. Byusingelectricpower,wedependlessonforeigncountryforoil.5. Electriccarscanutilizetheexistingpowergrid—nospecialnewtechnologyisneeded.Theautoindustryhasalwaysfoughtagainstnewsafetyregulationsandnewstandardsfor

exhaustemissions(排気ガス)andfuelefficiency(燃費基準)….Why?

Labor during the Industrial Revolution: Immigration

Americaisanationofimmigrants;inthe1830’sand1840’sabigwaveofimmigrantscame,mostlyfromnorthernEurope:Ireland,England,GermanyandScandinavia.Inthelate19thcenturyuntil1924,anevenbiggerwavecame-especiallyfromEasternEuropeandItaly(aswellasJapan).ThisimmigrationcompletelychangedAmericansociety,cultureandpolitics.

Most immigrants tried tomaintain their traditionalculture inAmerica,however therewasgreatpressureonthenewimmigrantsto“Americanize”quickly. InmostcasesthesecondgenerationbecameAmericanized.

Japanese ImmigrationSugarplantingwasstartedon the islandofKauai in1835and increasedyearbyyear

after that.Sugarproductionrequires lotsof field labor,more thancouldbeprovidedby thenativeHawaiians.JapanwasexperiencingmajorsocialandeconomicupheavalsduringtheMeijiRestorationperiod;internalsocialpressuresmadetheideaofimmigrationaviableandattractiveoptionformany.

ThefirstboatloadofJapaneseimmigrantstoHawaiileftin1868,knownasthegannenmono,in the firstyearof theMeijiperiod.However, thisgroupof148settlersactually leftwithoutgovernmentpermission sodoesnot constitute the real beginning of Japanese immigrationtoHawaii.The Japanesegovernmentbegana longperiodofnegotiationswith theHawaiiangovernment.

The First Period (1885-1894) Contract LaborersBeginningin1885,privatecompaniesarrangedforJapaneseimmigrantstocometoHawaii

on3yearcontracts.MosttheimmigrantswhocametoHawaiiduringthefirstwaveofMeijiEraimmigration,

came fromwesternJapan—mainlyHiroshima,Yamaguchi,Kumamoto,andFukuoka (andafter1900,fromOkinawa).

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Annexationin1898broughtwithitthecompleteendofcontractlabor.Thewhiteplantationownersbecameconcernedabouta laborshortage, andactivelyrecruited formore tocometoHawaii;about30,000newimmigrantswenttherejustintheperiodbetween1898-1899.

[About50,000leftHawaiifortheWestCoast,1901-1907.]

The Second Immigration Period (1894- 1900)During this secondperiod, immigrationwashandledbyprivatecompanies; fivemajor

companiescontrolled the flowofemigration fromJapan toHawaii.TheseJapanesecompanieswerecorruptandengagedinunfairbusinesspractices.Theyoftendemandedexcessivefeeswiththreatsandintimidationforcingtheemigrantstopaylargesumsofmoney.Thecorruptionbecamesobadandsopublicthatthecompanieswereputoutofbusinessin1905.

Final (Free) Immigration Period– (1905-1907)InthelastperiodtheJapanesecompanieshadbeenputoutofbusiness,andthusJapanese

couldapplydirectlytotheJapanesegovernmenttogetpermissiontoemigrate.However,in1907,duetoanti-Asianfeelings(mostlyinCalifornia)aU.S.PresidentialOrder

bannedJapaneseinHawaiifrommovingtotheWestCoast.

Restricted Immigration Period (1908 to 1924)- Picture Brides PeriodIn1882, theChineseExclusionActhadbeenpassed,mainlyas the result ofpressure

fromwhites inCaliforniawhohatedAsians. InitiallyJapanese immigrationwasallowedbuttheImmigrationActof1907restrictedimmigrationfurther—prohibitingAsiansfromimmigratingtoAmerica.However,inthatsameyear,theU.S.andJapanmadethe“Gentleman’sAgreement”--itwasanagreementbetweentheU.S.governmentandtheJapanesegovernmenttoallowaJapanesepersontoimmigratetoAmericaiftheywerecomingtojoinaspouse.

Thisstartedthe“PictureBride”period—whereamarriagewouldbearrangedbetweenawoman inJapanandaJapaneseAmericanman (inHawaiiorCalifornia).Thus, the imbalancebetweenmenandwomen inHawaiiwas corrected.Between1908- 1924 about 60,000moreJapaneseimmigratedtoHawaii—about20,000beingpicturebrides.

Japanese Immigration: Key Points MeijimodernizationcreatedmanypoorpeopleinJapanwhoneededwork.TheHawaiian

sugarindustryneededworkers.Therefore,manypoorJapaneseimmigratedtoHawaii(andlaterCaliforniaandBrazil).

Inthebeginning,lifewashardinHawaii(fortheissei),butgotbetterinthe20thcentury(nisseigenerationwhowereborninAmerica).

Mostnissei didnotworkinthesugarindustrybutstartedbusinessesorbecameteachers,

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県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　12，7-19（2017）

nurses,orotherprofessionals. Intime, theJapanese-Americans inHawaiimovedtothehighestsocio-economicandpoliticallevelsofHawaiiansociety.

PicturebridescametoAmericabetween1910and1920,andtheymadeupasignificantamount of the Japanese immigrants during this time.Beforehand, itwasmainlymenwhoimmigratedtoAmerica.However,itwasbothviewedaswrongandillegalforaJapanesemanandawhitewomantomarry.Asaresult,theseJapanesemenlookedtoJapantosupplythemwithwives.

In1900therewereonly410marriedisseiwomeninAmericaandby1920therewere22,193.Thewomen’sarrivalwaskeytothefoundationoftheJapanesepresenceinAmerica.In1910therewere4,500AmericanbornJapanesechildren; in1920thenumberjumpedto30,000andby1930therewere68,000American-bornJapanesechildren.TheincreasednumberofwomenimmigrantsandJapanese families causedanti-Japanese sentiments to increase.Asa result, the Japanesegovernmentstoppedissuingpassportstopicturebrides;thisledtotheendofthepicturebrideerainMarch1,1920.

Entering the Modern Age: 1920’s AmericaThe Roaring Twenties / The Jazz Age

The1920’s is sometimesalsocalled the“JazzAge”becauseof thenewstylesofmusic

emerging in thenewurbanculture.HenryFordmanufacturedandmassproducedandsoldacheapautomobilewhichmanypeoplecouldaffordtobuy,andso theAmericanpeoplebecamemoremobile.Especiallyyoungpeoplemadethe20’satimeofexuberanceandfreedom.Thiswasalsoatimeofrelativeeconomicprosperityformuchofthecountry.

Hollywood: America’s Dream FactoryAnimportantpartofAmericanculture is theHollywoodmovie industry.Thefirstmovie

studiowasbuilt inHollywood in1911,butothermoviestudioshadalreadymovedout to thenearbycityofLosAngeles.

By1912,most of themajormovieproduction companieshasmovedout toCalifornia,partlytoescapefromthecontrolofEdison’scompany,butalsobecausetheweatherofsouthernCaliforniawasexcellent,andlandpriceswerecheap.

ThemanyoftheentrepreneurswhomovedtoCaliforniatostartmoviestudioswereJewishimmigrants.Theywerebusinessmenwhorealized that thiswasanew industrywitha lotofpotentialtomakehugeprofits.Also,formanyoftheseimmigrants,makingmovieswasawaytoescapetheirdifficultpastinEurope,andparticipateinmakingtheAmericandream.Bythe1920’sthefivemajorstudiosofHollywoodwereallJewishownedandrun.

The 1920’s themovie studiosbegan tomakebigmoney, asAmerica entered an ageofprosperity.Americanswantedentertainmentand thenew technologyof radioandmovies

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providedcheapentertainmentformillionsofpeople.TheGoldenAgeofHollywoodbegan,wherebigmoviestudiosmanagedallaspectsofmoviemaking,fromproductiontodistribution.Makingamovieinvolvesalotofdifficultandexpensiveprocessesanditisabusiness,soeachfilmmustmakemoney.Writersmustbehired, talentedcinematographers,directors,producers,soundandlightingcrew,andofcoursetheactors.

Thiswasalsotheagewhenthe“StarSystem”started—attractiveandtalentedactorsandactressesbecamebigmoviestars,andtheirnamesbecamefamousallovertheworld.Hollywoodbecameabitofawildtownwithareputationforwildpartiesandexcessivealcoholuse.

DisneyStudioswasalsoimportantduringtheGoldenAgeofHollywood,butnotoneofthemajorstudios.Todaytheymakeuponeofthe“TheBigSix”,however.

During theGreatDepression,Hollywoodmovieswerevery important, givingpeopleanescape from theirdaily troubles.DuringWWII that followed,movies supportedwartimepropagandaefforts. In the1950’s themajorchallengewas fromtelevision,and thebigstudiosbegantoloseprofits,sothey,too,movedintotelevision.

Also,the1950’swasadifficulttimeforHollywoodforanotherreason:the“redscare.”ThiswasduringtheColdWarwhenAmericasfearedCommunismandthespreadofcommunism.SomepoliticianstriedtomakeAmericansmoreafraid,sayingthatHollywoodwasfullofcommunistsandcommunistsympathizersandthatHollywoodwaspoisoningthemindsofAmericans.Hollywoodbecameafraidbecause theydidn’twant to losemoney……somanyactorswhohad joinedthecommunistpartywhentheywereyoungwerefiredorblacklisted.

The1960’swasverydifferent—itwasa timeofradicalchange inAmericansocietyandculture.ItwasatimeofbigsocialandpoliticalchangeandHollywooddevelopednewstyleswhichreflected theage,withmorepowerful social themes…not justasentertainment,andno longerafraidtomakepoliticalandsocialstatements.

Hollywood Today: The Big Six plus independent studiosThe 6major studios today are contrastedwith smallermovieproduction companies

called independentsor“indies.”Alsowehavethemini-majors:LionsgateFilms,TheWeinsteinCompanyand theoldMGM.Hollywood today is still concernedwithmakingbigblockbusteractionfilmsforhugeprofits,butalsomoreintelligentandartisticfilmsarebeingmade,especiallybytheindependents.ActorsnowhavemorepowerandartisticcontrolthanintheearlydaysofHollywood.

Economic Crisis and Political Change: The Crash and the Great Depression 1929-1941

The1920’swasatimeofeconomicgrowthandprosperityformanypeople,however,therewasa largegapbetweenrichandpoor.Bigcompaniesweremanufacturinga lotofgoods,butmostpeople’swageswerequitelowandtheycouldn’taffordtobuymostthings.Therewasalot

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県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　12，7-19（2017）

ofborrowing,spendingoncreditandalotofriskyinvestment.Whenstocksstartedtodrop inOctoberof ’29peoplebegantopanic.Loanscouldn’tbe

paidoffbecausepeoplehadborrowedsomuchmoneybuthadnowaytopaythemoff.Peopleran to thebanksbut thebanksclosedtheirdoorsbecause theydidn’thaveenoughmoneytocoverpeople’sdeposits.Factoriesclosedandbusinesseswentbankrupt.Theyhadtofireworkers,resultinginhighunemploymentalloverAmerica.Highunemploymentmeansthatpeoplespendevenlessmoney,sobusinessesdeclinedevenmore.Therewerehugeinventoriesofgoodswhichcouldnotbesold,sopricesdropped.　

BythetimeFranklinRooseveltwaselected in1932theeconomywas inthemidstof thedeepestdepression inAmericanhistory;peopleweredesperateandwantedthegovernmenttotakeboldandimmediateaction.Itdid.

Government Action: The New Deal DuringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930’stheroleofgovernmentcompletelychanged.For

thefirsttimetheU.S.federalgovernmenttookanactiveroleinmanagingtheeconomy.TheU.S.governmentdesignedprogramswhichgavesuchthingsasunemployment insurance forpeoplewho lost their jobs, social security forpeopleover65so theycouldgetapension,welfare forpeoplewithnomoneyandincome,andasystemoftaxationwhichmadetherichestinAmericansocietypayamuchhigherpercentageoftheirincomeintaxes.

Allof these liberaleconomicpolicieschangedAmericansocietyandeconomy.Thenewsystemof taxation and socialwelfareprogramsgavepeople at thebottomof societymoreeconomicsecurity,andstrengtheningoflaborunionsledtoastrongmiddle-class.

The 1950’s and the Cold War

AfterthewarendedagainstJapanandGermany(andItaly),thosethreecountriesbecamefriendsoftheUnitedStatesinthefightanewwar—thefightagainstcommunism.Chinabecamecommunist in1949. (Russiahadbecomecommunist in1917). InJune,1950,NorthKoreantroopspushedsouthpastthe37thparallelwithChinesesupport,startingtheKoreanWar.ThisincreasedColdWartensionsevenmore.Then,whentheRussians launchedtheSputniksatellite,AmericapanickedandgovernmentandeducationalinstitutionsfeltanintensepressuretocompetewiththeRussiansintheareaofmilitarytechnology.

JFK- 1960-63

In1960,JohnF.Kennedywaselectedastheyoungestpresident inAmericanhistory (43yearsold).HewasalsothefirstCatholicpresident(allpreviouspresidentshadbeenProtestants).Hehadbeenbornintoarichfamily,thesonofJosephKennedy,anIrishimmigrantwhohadmade

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afortune.Hewasalwaysveryweakandsick,butevensobecameawarhero(WWII)whenhispatrolboatwasattackedandsank,andhesavedhiscrewmembers.DuringtheColdWar,heactivelyfoughtagainstcommunism.AfterhebecameU.S.President,however,hebegantothinkmoreabouthowtoachievepeace,ratherthandestroyingtheworldwithnuclearweapons.

The Cuban Missile CrisisThemajoreventduringhispresidencywastheCubanMissileCrisis (1962).TheSoviets

werefoundtobeputtinglong-rangenuclearmissilesinCuba,wellwithinstrikingdistanceofeastcoastcities.OnOct.22, JFKwenton television toannounce thatablockadewasbeingsetuparoundCubaandthatifanyshipstriedtocrossthelineandenterCuba,theywouldbeshotat.HealsosaidthatanynuclearmissilelaunchedfromCubawouldbemetwithaninstantresponsefromtheU.S.againsttheSovietUnion.HealsodemandedthedismantlingofexitingmissilesitesinCuba.TheblockadebeganonOct.24.ThirtySovietshipswereheadingtoCuba,butchangedcourseontheeveningofthe24th.TheSovietleaderKhrushchevpromisedtoremovethemissilesandtheU.S.promisednottoinvadeCuba.Afterthat,bothsidesmadeeffortstowardsbuildingamorepeacefulrelationship,thoughstillenemies.Throughhissuccessfulhandlingofthecrisis,JFKemergedasahighlyrespectedyoungpresident.

The Kennedy AssassinationNoteveryone lovedKennedy,however.Hehadmademanyenemies.Firstand foremost

weresouthernwhites,whogenerallysawhimassupportingblackcivil rights,andtoosoftoncommunism.Neitherchargewas true-Kennedywasneithersoftoncommunism,noractivelyengagedwithsupportingtheblackcivilrightsmovement.This incrediblehostilitytowardshimsaysmuchaboutthereactionarynatureoflargesegmentsoftheU.S.population.

Hewaskilledthe followingyear (Nov.1963) intheSouth, inaplacewherehewashatedby largenumbersofpeople-Texas.Hisdeathshockedthenation,andmanywonder if itwasaconspiracy(陰謀).ButwhowouldwanttokillKennedy?

Theofficialgovernmentpositionwas thatoneman,LeeHarveyOswald, a24-year-oldcommunist,killedKennedy.However, there isevidencethatOswaldwasnotacommunist,andmayhavebeenworkingwith,orconnectedto theCIA,andthatothergunmenwere involved.Soweneed toconsider thepossibility that theCIAwas involved in theassassinationof theirpresident.Butwhy?Thatisquestionweneedtoexplore.

MuchofthemysterylieswithOswald.Whowashereally???DidhereallykillKennedy?Ifnot,thentherewassomelargerconspiracy.

The 1960’s and the Counter-Culture (hippies and political protest)AfterKennedy’sdeath, thewar inVietnambegan to escalateyearbyyear andwas

broughthometoAmericansontheT.V.setseachnight.TheKoreanWarofthe50’swasnotso

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県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　12，7-19（2017）

clearlyseenbyAmericans,butyoungpeopleweredraftedtogotoVietnamandthenseenbeingkilledontelevision.At thesametime, theBlackcivil rightsmovementwasbecomingamajorforce,upsettingalottoconservatives.MartinLutherKing,Jr.andotherBlackleadersorganizednonviolentprotests.

Womenalsobegandemandingmoreequalrightsandequalpayforequalworkatthistime,challenging traditional stereotypesandgenderroles.Womenorganizedmarchesandbecamepoliticallyactivetofightdiscrimination.

WiththeVietnamWargettingworse,thestudentprotestmovementgrewmorepowerful.Simultaneouslywiththiswastheriseofapowerfulcounterculture—thehippiesandotherradicalscriticizedmostof the traditionalvaluesand ideologiesofAmericanculture.Theyhadagreatdistrust forpoliticiansandagovernmentwhichwas lyingtothepeopleaboutVietnam.Studentproteststooktothestreetsandriotsbrokeoutinvariouscities.

Richard Nixon and Watergate RichardNixonbecamepresident in 1968, a timeofgreat turmoil inAmerica society.

TheVietnamWarwasraging. Itwasatimewhen liberalandradicalpoliticalmovementswerebecomingmorevocaland influential, including, forexample, studentprotests, and theriseoffeminism,BlackPowerandotherradicalpoliticalmovements. RichardNixonappealedtomanyconservativeelementsinAmericansocietywhofearedallthesesocialandpoliticalchangestakingplaceinthe60’s.Heprojectedanimageoftraditionalconservativevalues.

However,Nixonwaspower-hungry.Duringthepresidentialelectionof1972,heandhisstaffengaged inhighly illegalactivitiesandspread liesaboutpeopletheydidn’t like.TheWatergatescandalstartedoutasasimpleburglaryoftheDemocrat’soffices,butinvestigationsexposedhowtheWhiteHousewas involved inmanyillegalactivitiesgoingwellbeyondWatergate---includingsuchthingsasspyingonothers,usingtheFBIandIRSforillegalpurposes,andtheobstructionofjustice.

Manypeopleview this asa timeof constitutional crisis inAmerica,when the systemofgovernment almost collapsed. It canbeperhapsargued thatWatergate scandalwas theculminationofaneraofdisillusionment thatbeganwith theKennedyassassination (1963)andendedupwiththeresignationofNixon(1974).Furthermore,Americahasneverrecovered.SinceWatergatetherehasbeengreatcynicismaboutgovernment.InelectionsvoterturnoutisverylowinAmerica,whichsuggestspeopledon’tbelievethatthepoliticalprocessaddressestheirneeds.ItremainstobeseenwhateffecttheIraqwarandthefinancialcrisisof2008hasonAmericans’viewoftheirgovernment.

Selected Bibliography/Reading ListBryson,B.(2013)One Summer: America in 927.London:TransworldPublishers

Baily,M. (2014)Of All the Gin Joints: Stumbling Through Hollywood History. ChapelHill,NC:

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AlgonquinBooksofChapelHill.

Clarke,T.(2013)JFK’s Last Hundred Days: An Intimate Portrait of a Great President.NY:PenguinBooks

Douglass,J.D. (2008)JFK and the Unspeakable: Why he died and why it matters.Maryknoll,NY:TouchstoneBooks.

Gabler,N.(1988)An Empire of their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood.NY.:AnchorBooks

Johnson,P.(1997)A History of the American People. NY:HarperPerennial.

Reynolds,D.(2009)America: Empire of Liberty.NY:Penguin.

Summers,A.(1998)Not in Your Lifetime: the Defining Book on the JFK Assassination.NY:OpenRoadPress.

Thomson.D.(2004)The Whole Equation: A History of Hollywood.NY:VintageBooks

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ABSTRACT

Perspectives on Modern American History

StevenL.Rosen

Thearticleisaproposedmini-textforaonesemestercourseonmodernAmericanhistory.ItaimstodevelopanappreciationforthesignificanceofAmericaintheriseofthemodernage,particularlywithrespecttotechnology,economicsandbusiness.RatherthantryingtocoverthewholeofmodernU.S.inoneshorttext,variouskeypointsinhistorywereselectedasportalsonhistoricaltrends.ThetextbeginswiththeSecondIndustrialRevolutionwhichmainlyoriginatedinAmerica,andfeaturedtheappearanceofthemoderncorporationaspartofaneweraofindustrialcapitalism.Thenitmovesontoadiscussionaboutimmigration(labor),theriseoftheHollywoodmovie industry,theGreatDepression,andthepost-warprosperity.Thetextbookthenexaminesthepost-warperiodwithadiscussionofthegreatpolitical,economicandculturalshocksandshiftsthattransformedhuman life,notonly inAmericabutaroundtheworld.Finallywemoveontoadiscussionofthedigitalrevolutionwhichtakesusintothe21stcentury,andarguably,thepost-modern,post-industrialage.

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