Perspectives on Human Communication – 2005

Dr. Willard Uncapherwillardu@colorado.eduWed-Fri 9/7,9/2005 –Communication & Research Frameworks[Please Fill out Attendance Sheet]

What is communication? Is communication intentional?

Are we dealing with ‘people’ or senders who want to send ‘something’ via communication?

Does it require a sender and receiver?

Is communication symbolic? Must it involve signs, symbols, or some abstraction? Is communication concerned with meanings?

Is our study of communication limited to humans? Can we include animals… or plants?

Is communication limited to speech? What different ‘channels’ are we going to look at? When is ‘not doing something’ also ‘sending a message’?

Models and Definitions Models and theories begin with definitions.

Definitions help establish the structure of the model. Show structure and function.

Models and Theories? Models are necessarily reductionist

Only some things selected Models are abstractions (the map is not the territory).

We have to use ‘concepts’ [remember laws of identity, excluded middle, contradiction?]

Models are descriptive tools. Illustrate, demonstrate, explain, and/or show relationships

among entities or concepts. Illustrate dynamics among components of a theory.

Models may lead to predictions

Models and Perspectives Psychological [Transmission]: communication as

the transmission of messagesMetaphor: Radios

Social construction: communication as collective world-building Metaphor: Software

Pragmatic: communication as patterned interactionsMetaphor: Chess game

Cultural and Critical Studies: communication as a revealer of social and cultural forces

Ethnography of Communication: looking at speech communities as observed

Psychological [Transmission] View

As Transmission View Claude Shannon 1947 – “Information Theory” at Bell Labs (Telephone

Company) Asks- How can we make our telephone lines more efficient? Asks - How much ‘noise’ can we allow on a line…. And still understand what the message is? Worked with Warren Weaver to make a popular account

Created new theory [don’t memorize – just familiarize yourself] Information?

Here seen as something ‘unexpected’ The more ‘unexpected’ the more information How much ‘information’ needs to be transmitted to understand a message

Redundancy Because of noise and misunderstanding IF U CN RD THS U CN GT A JB

Noise Wilber Schramm includes ‘semantic noise’ – distraction, emphasizing wrong part of message,

attitudes toward sender, attitudes toward message, differences in the code Channel Capacity – what are the limits of communication?

Code – to be encoded and decoded Can include non-verbal

Norbert Weiner 1947 – “Cybernetics” 'the science of control and communication in the animal and the machine' adds notion of “feedback” – like thermostat General systems become adaptive to changing environment, and more stable

Analog and Digital Analog as continuous

Communication is ‘linked’ continuously Eg. Phonograph record repeats amplitude and dynamic of

the signal Analog only stores and reproduces similarity; harder to

manipulate Digital as discrete, non continuous

Digital as higher order language or code; discrete, Code as the represented Example of the digital: the alphabet Binary when the code has only two values

Sampling according to some rule (heuristic) How often, how long, what values

Analog and Digital

Continuous Analog Original – Sampling/Encode – Digital (Arbitrary) Discrete – Non-Continuous Code – Manipulate Code – Decode back to Analog

As a Psychological Model Trenholm Focuses on this reading

Communication originates and is received in the human mind.

Meanings are exchanged through transmission and reception of stimuli.

Messages are transmitted though channels.

Messages are encoded and decoded through filters (mental sets).

Mental sets are based in experience, attitudes, etc. of sender and receiver.

Noise is anything that interferes with the transmission of the message.

Criticisms of Transmission Psychological Model Why communicate? – What about intentions? Changes in context – the same ‘message’

might be different – a kiss in the morning Relationships between sender and receiver

are not stressed What about the bias of the code – what

influence does language have in how we see things?

Social constructionist perspectivefrom the outside, as a social activity. Looks at: Collective – Communication is a process whereby

groups create collective perspectives Stresses Importance of Filters – We never experience

the world directly, but always though cultural filters. Knowledge – Suggests Our world is thus a socio-

cultural construct, held together by communication. Ethos/Culture – Communication between people of

different “worlds” will be problematic.

Social Construction Perspective Erving Goffman – Communication in ‘frames’:

Frames – are made up of: roles, rules, props, keys Frames – like the ‘class’ frame, the ‘restaurant’ frame, the

‘dorm hall’ frame The same people can act differently with different ‘frames.’ Frames: bus stop, classroom

Frames have Fronts [where activity takes place] and Backs [where activity is discussed and rehearsed.] Frame Confusion – when you don’t know which frame to use! What happens when you meet a professor at… the bus stop,

the bar, the concert? You must ‘negotiate’ or ‘key’ which frame to use!

Social Constructionist – Benefits Emphasizes our (social) responsibility for

the ways we talk about things and others. Helps us understand harmful social

constructions (e.g., stereotypes) in a socio-cultural context

Reveals/Focuses on: social roles. Extremely useful in organizational/cultural

research.

Social Constructionist – Problems Emphasizes the social self over the individual self.

Who is responsible: society or me? Defines “good” communication as “socially

appropriate” communication. Makes truth elusive. Truth as simply ‘what happens.’ Easily over-generalized – what does ‘society’ mean,

eg. Do ‘Americans’ do one thing or another; do corporations do one thing or another.

Pragmatic Perspective

Focus on systems of behavior. For your thought… but not for a test:

Systems vs Heaps – looking at how things work together rather than examining things independently – Newton’s Science vs a science of complexity

Systems have irreducible properties – Aristotle – properties unpredicted by the parts.

Systems maintain themselves in a changing environment Systems create themselves in response to challenge from environment…

or else dissolve Systems ‘are coordinating interfaces’ in nature’s hierarchy

Assumes that interdependence will emerge among members of the system.

Unit of analysis is the interaction--a sequence of communication acts.

Practical applications of the pragmatic perspective Helps reveal “scripted” or unhealthy patterns. Focuses on behavior in communication systems. Shifts focus from personalities to interactions.

Eg. Intergenerational Psychology – look to how problems are transmitted across generations – approaches to child rearing, anger management, etc.

Provides a basis for effective conflict management.

Problems with pragmatic perspective Systems models are good at description, but weak

at prediction Still used in business, less so in social, cultural sciences. Things chosen/observed as the model predicts –

Colonialists use ‘social evolutionary systems theory’ to distinguish ‘primitive’ from ‘advanced’ society.’

Holds personality and culture irrelevant. Except in so far as they are manifest in interaction.

Ignores intentions, motivations, desires, needs, etc. Intentions are ‘created’ through interactions

The world outside “the game” is not easily considered. Where does the game exist? Games within games as a

problem.

Cultural Studies & Critical Studies Cultural Studies - Values sub-culture and

everyday activities Worker culture, band/music cultures More anthropological and literary

Critical Studies tends to look at the ‘political economy’ of social and economic hierarchies

Both look to the issues of power in society

5 Approaches to Comm. Research Rhetorical criticism – a content analysis that relates

material to audience Content Analysis, Conversation Analysis

Ethnography – “observe” or ‘interact with people in their ‘place’ – field research

Surveys – using an research ‘instrument’ that articulates distinct categories to sample a ‘population.’ Open ended vs. closed ended questions.

Experimental (laboratory) – control the environment Performance studies – describe the rules, roles,

props, assessment, context, etc. of a communicative activity

Mixed Methods – Triangulation of several methods