personality theory & research: gordon l. flett personality theory & research: an...

Personality Theory & Research:Personality Theory & Research:An International Perspective Gordon L. FlettGordon L. Flett

Prepared byPrepared byBrenda Baird, University of OttawaBrenda Baird, University of Ottawa

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Chapter 2 OverviewChapter 2 Overview

Units of Personality: Types versus TraitsUnits of Personality: Types versus Traits• Personality TypesPersonality Types• Personality TraitsPersonality Traits• SituationismSituationism• The Trait-Type Interaction in Personality The Trait-Type Interaction in Personality

ResearchResearch• Beyond TraitsBeyond Traits• How Many Supertraits Are There?How Many Supertraits Are There?• Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Locus of Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Locus of

ControlControl

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Personality TypesPersonality Types

• Personality types are discrete categories Personality types are discrete categories that differ in kind rather than degree that differ in kind rather than degree (qualitative versus quantitative)(qualitative versus quantitative)

• A benefit is that personality types form A benefit is that personality types form clusters of common characteristics that clusters of common characteristics that enable predictionenable prediction

• Types may obscure individual differences Types may obscure individual differences within a category due to the all or none within a category due to the all or none aspectaspect

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Sheldon’s (1942) Somatotype TheorySheldon’s (1942) Somatotype Theory• Three main body typesThree main body types

- EctomorphicEctomorphic- MesomorphicMesomorphic- EndomorphicEndomorphic

• Sheldon coined the term “Sheldon coined the term “constitutional constitutional psychologypsychology” to capture the link between ” to capture the link between personality and physical attributespersonality and physical attributes

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• TaxometricsTaxometrics is a statistical approach used is a statistical approach used to test for types or discrete categories in to test for types or discrete categories in generalgeneral

• A A taxontaxon is the identified category is the identified category• Jung identified two distinct typesJung identified two distinct types

• extroversion extroversion (outgoing) (outgoing)• introversion introversion (reserved)(reserved)

• Jung revised his categories after finding Jung revised his categories after finding most people are most people are ambivertsambiverts, having both , having both characteristicscharacteristics

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Contemporary Research on Personality Types Contemporary Research on Personality Types (continued)(continued)

• Type approach has gained prominence in Type approach has gained prominence in recent years due torecent years due to Block and Block’s Block and Block’s (1980) model(1980) model

• The Blocks’ research described twoThe Blocks’ research described two orthogonalorthogonal personality types: personality types:

• Ego controlEgo control (high, low)(high, low)• Ego resiliencyEgo resiliency (high, low)(high, low)

• Results in four possible personality typesResults in four possible personality types


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• Robins, John, Caspi, Moffat, and Robins, John, Caspi, Moffat, and Stouthamer Loeber (1996) focused on three Stouthamer Loeber (1996) focused on three types:types:

• Resilient typeResilient type• Overcontrolling typeOvercontrolling type• Undercontrolling typeUndercontrolling type


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• Hart, Atkins, and Fegley (2003) replicated Hart, Atkins, and Fegley (2003) replicated Robbins et al. (1996) and reported stability Robbins et al. (1996) and reported stability of types over timeof types over time

• Other research has failed to replicate these Other research has failed to replicate these types findingtypes finding heterogeneityheterogeneity and blending of and blending of typestypes


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• Nagin and Tremblay (2001) explored the Nagin and Tremblay (2001) explored the heterogeneity issue in their research on heterogeneity issue in their research on conduct disorderconduct disorder

• Analyses focused onAnalyses focused on developmental developmental trajectoriestrajectories, , or behavioural changes over or behavioural changes over timetime

• Found four different types of boys within Found four different types of boys within their sampletheir sample


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Allport’s Bold AssertionsAllport’s Bold Assertions• Personality has more than nominal Personality has more than nominal

existenceexistence• A personality trait is more generalized A personality trait is more generalized

than a habitthan a habit• A personality trait is dynamic, or A personality trait is dynamic, or

discriminativediscriminative• A personality trait may be established A personality trait may be established

empiricallyempirically

Personality TraitsPersonality Traits

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Allport’s Bold AssertionsAllport’s Bold Assertions• A personality trait may be established A personality trait may be established

empiricallyempirically• A personality trait is not synonymous with A personality trait is not synonymous with

moral or social judgementmoral or social judgement• A personality trait may be viewed in the A personality trait may be viewed in the

light of the personality which contains itlight of the personality which contains it• Acts, and even habits, that are Acts, and even habits, that are

inconsistent with a trait are not proof of inconsistent with a trait are not proof of the nonexistence of the traitthe nonexistence of the trait


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Allport’s Conceptualization of TraitsAllport’s Conceptualization of Traits• Common traits vs. Unique TraitsCommon traits vs. Unique Traits• Phenotypical vs. Genotypical Personal Phenotypical vs. Genotypical Personal

DispositionsDispositions• PseudotraitsPseudotraits• Cardinal, Central, and Secondary Cardinal, Central, and Secondary

Dispositions Dispositions


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Traits Versus TypesTraits Versus Types• Types are believed to arise from certain Types are believed to arise from certain

conditions that must be presentconditions that must be present• Traits involve a gradual acquisition of Traits involve a gradual acquisition of

behaviours that can fall along a behaviours that can fall along a continuum continuum

• Types areTypes are discrete discrete; Traits are; Traits are continuous continuous


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SituationismSituationism

Mischel’s Challenge to the Trait ApproachMischel’s Challenge to the Trait Approach• Mischel (1968, 1969)Mischel (1968, 1969) concluded that traits concluded that traits

alone are poor predictors of behavioursalone are poor predictors of behaviours• Mischel argued that it isMischel argued that it is the the situationsituation that that

produces changes in behaviour, rendering produces changes in behaviour, rendering personality traits not as stable as assumedpersonality traits not as stable as assumed

• Mischel found only 9% of the variance in Mischel found only 9% of the variance in behaviour is explained by traits, based on behaviour is explained by traits, based on his estimatedhis estimated personality coefficientpersonality coefficient of .30of .30

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The Trait-Situation Interaction in The Trait-Situation Interaction in Personality ResearchPersonality Research

• InteractionismInteractionism refers to joint function of refers to joint function of person and situation on behaviourperson and situation on behaviour

• Endler (1983)Endler (1983) distinguished between distinguished between mechanistic and reciprocal models of mechanistic and reciprocal models of interactionisminteractionism– Mechanistic modelsMechanistic models focus on how the focus on how the

situation impacts on behavioursituation impacts on behaviour– Reciprocal modelsReciprocal models focus on the interplay of focus on the interplay of

person and situation on behaviourperson and situation on behaviour

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• Endler’s interaction model of trait anxiety Endler’s interaction model of trait anxiety distinguished between trait and state anxietydistinguished between trait and state anxiety– Trait anxietyTrait anxiety: : typical level of anxietytypical level of anxiety– State anxietyState anxiety: : current level of anxietycurrent level of anxiety

• One version of Endler’s Model proposes an One version of Endler’s Model proposes an interaction amonginteraction among stress, anxiety, and copingstress, anxiety, and coping

• Perception of threat is aPerception of threat is a processprocess that involvesthat involves person variablesperson variables and and situation variablessituation variables

The Trait-Situation Interaction in The Trait-Situation Interaction in Personality ResearchPersonality Research

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Beyond TraitsBeyond Traits

Personality Capabilities and the Maximal Personality Capabilities and the Maximal versus the Typical Personalityversus the Typical Personality

• The concept ofThe concept of Personality CapabilitiesPersonality Capabilities allows a distinction between the typical and allows a distinction between the typical and the maximum capability the maximum capability

• Personality Capabilities are thePersonality Capabilities are the maximal maximal tendenciestendencies in a person’s range of behavioursin a person’s range of behaviours

• Maximal approachMaximal approach requires reporting requires reporting possible characteristicspossible characteristics

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Beyond TraitsBeyond Traits

Metatraits and TraitednessMetatraits and Traitedness• MetatraitsMetatraits are those traits highly relevant to are those traits highly relevant to

a persona person• A concept isA concept is ““traitedtraited”” if it is high in trait if it is high in trait

relevance.relevance. • Trait relevance validityTrait relevance validity is the degree to is the degree to

which a construct is relevant to the target which a construct is relevant to the target populationpopulation

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How Many Supertraits Are There?How Many Supertraits Are There?

• A A supertrait supertrait is one that is universal and is one that is universal and explains a large proportion of variance in explains a large proportion of variance in behaviourbehaviour

• Identification of supertraits begins with theIdentification of supertraits begins with the lexical approachlexical approach: : selection of personality selection of personality terms in a languageterms in a language

• Factor analysesFactor analyses reduces the terms to create reduces the terms to create clusters of related itemsclusters of related items

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Eysenck’s Big ThreeEysenck’s Big Three• Three SupertraitsThree Supertraits are heritableare heritable (genetic)(genetic)

with physiological substrateswith physiological substrates• Three Super TraitsThree Super Traits

– E E extroversion-dimensionextroversion-dimension– N N neuroticism-emotional stabilityneuroticism-emotional stability– P P psychotocism-ego control)psychotocism-ego control)

(acronym - (acronym - PENPEN))

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Eysenck’s Big ThreeEysenck’s Big Three

Hierarchical Structure of Eysenck’s ModelHierarchical Structure of Eysenck’s Model

• At the first level of the four-tiered At the first level of the four-tiered hierarchy arehierarchy are personality statespersonality states

• At the second level areAt the second level are habitual actshabitual acts

• At the third level areAt the third level are trait levelstrait levels

• At the fourth (top) level areAt the fourth (top) level are supertraitssupertraits (P, (P, E, N)E, N)

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Five-Factor Models and the Big SevenFive-Factor Models and the Big Seven• Norman (1963) reported 5 factors:Norman (1963) reported 5 factors:

1.1. ExtroversionExtroversion

2.2. AgreeablenessAgreeableness

3.3. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

4.4. Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability

5.5. CultureCulture

• Goldberg, (1993) coined these factors theGoldberg, (1993) coined these factors the Big 5Big 5

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Five-Factor Models and the Big SevenFive-Factor Models and the Big Seven• Costa and McRae (1992b) developed theCosta and McRae (1992b) developed the

NEO-OI-R ScaleNEO-OI-R Scale to assess personality in to assess personality in their revised version of the Big 5:their revised version of the Big 5:

1.1. NeuroticismNeuroticism

2.2. Extroversion/ introversionExtroversion/ introversion

3.3. OpennessOpenness

4.4. Agreeableness/antagonismAgreeableness/antagonism

5.5. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

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Five-Factor Models and the Big SevenFive-Factor Models and the Big Seven• Digman (1997) identified two factorsDigman (1997) identified two factors

((alpha, betaalpha, beta))• Other researches identifiedOther researches identified seven factorsseven factors

with the additional factors describingwith the additional factors describing positive and negative self-evaluationspositive and negative self-evaluations

• The Five Factor Model was found to be The Five Factor Model was found to be highly replicable across cultureshighly replicable across cultures

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The Predictiveness of Specific “Narrow” TraitsThe Predictiveness of Specific “Narrow” Traits• Small, specific factors, are also important to Small, specific factors, are also important to

predict outcomes measurespredict outcomes measures• Watson (2002) examined academic Watson (2002) examined academic

procrastinationprocrastination• Van Eerde (2002)Van Eerde (2002) used aused a meta-analysismeta-analysis to to

reveal a strong, negative association reveal a strong, negative association between conscientiousness and between conscientiousness and procrastinationprocrastination

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Supertraits across CulturesSupertraits across Cultures• The The Five-Factor Five-Factor Model has gained support Model has gained support

through cross-cultural replicationthrough cross-cultural replication• However, specific factors emerge in specific However, specific factors emerge in specific

regionsregions• Cross-cultural psychologists distinguish Cross-cultural psychologists distinguish

between andbetween and etic etic approach andapproach and emic emic approachapproach

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Challenges for the Five-Factor ModelChallenges for the Five-Factor Model• McAdams (1992) criticizes the Five-Factor McAdams (1992) criticizes the Five-Factor

Model as moreModel as more descriptive than explanatorydescriptive than explanatory• Authors have questioned the model’s clinical Authors have questioned the model’s clinical

utilityutility• Others challenge the model’s validity by Others challenge the model’s validity by

stating it does not capture other broad stating it does not capture other broad personality traits such as honesty and personality traits such as honesty and moralitymorality

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Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Locus of ControlLocus of Control

• Locus of controlLocus of control refers to differences in refers to differences in perception ofperception of internal vs. external control internal vs. external control over reinforcementsover reinforcements

• Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale is a 29-item Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale is a 29-item forced choice measureforced choice measure

• Rotter’s scale was designed asRotter’s scale was designed as unidimensionalunidimensional measure of locus of controlmeasure of locus of control

• Locus of control is multi-faceted and should Locus of control is multi-faceted and should be viewed asbe viewed as multidimensionalmultidimensional

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Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Locus of ControlLocus of Control

Spheres of ControlSpheres of Control• The Spheres of Control Scale (Paulhus, The Spheres of Control Scale (Paulhus,

1983)1983) is a 30-item multidimensional is a 30-item multidimensional measure ofmeasure of personal personal control,control, interpersonal interpersonal control, andcontrol, and socio-political socio-political controlcontrol

• Levenson’s IPCLevenson’s IPC Locus of Control Scale Locus of Control Scale consists of eight measuresconsists of eight measures

• Important to assess locus of control across Important to assess locus of control across variousvarious cultures and age cohortscultures and age cohorts

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Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Analysis of a Key Personality Trait: Locus of Control Locus of Control

The Desire for ControlThe Desire for Control• The Desire for Control ScaleThe Desire for Control Scale (Burger & (Burger &

Cooper, 1979) is a 20-item measure of the Cooper, 1979) is a 20-item measure of the level of motivation to have control in one’s lifelevel of motivation to have control in one’s life

• Gebbhardt and Brosschot (2002) isolatedGebbhardt and Brosschot (2002) isolated three factorsthree factors

– Desire to be in charge of andDesire to be in charge of and control otherscontrol others– Desire to establish a sense ofDesire to establish a sense of control over control over

personalpersonal outcomes outcomes involving the selfinvolving the self– Willingness toWillingness to relinquish control torelinquish control to other other

peoplepeople

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Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale.resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or from the use of the information contained herein.from the use of the information contained herein.

personality theory & research: gordon l. flett personality theory & research: an...

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