Introduction to Psychology

Konstruksi Alat Ukur PsikologiPersonality and Measurementwww.humanikaconsulting.com

Personalitypatterns of behaving and thinking that are consistent across a variety of situations

What is Personality?

1. Psychoanalytic2. Trait3. Humanistic4. Socio-CognitiveFour Theories of Personality

Freuds theory: unconscious motivations influence personalityThe Psychoanalytic Theory

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Psychoanalysis (Freud)Theory: our actions are due to unconscious conflictsTherapy: treating psychological disorders by uncovering and interpreting unconscious conflictsThe Psychoanalytic Perspective

Free Associationmethod of exploring the unconsciousperson relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassingThe Psychoanalytic Perspective

Unconscious (Freud) A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memoriesTwo main unconscious instincts: sex and aggressionPreconsciousinformation that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awarenessThe Psychoanalytic Perspective

1. Id2. Ego3. Superego

Three Personality Structures

Freuds idea of the minds structurePersonality Structure

IdSuperegoEgoConscious mindUnconscious mind

Idunconscious psychic energystrives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive instinctsoperates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratificationPersonality Structure

Superegoour consciencegiven to us by family/societyoperates on morality principle, sets standards right vs. wrong

Personality Structure

Egoconscious part of personalitymediates conflict between id and superegooperates on the reality principle, delays gratification of id impulsesPersonality Structure

Defense Mechanismsconflicts of id and superego produce anxietydefense mechanisms reduce anxiety by distorting reality

Defense Mechanisms

Regression retreating to behavior appropriate for an earlier stage of development (e.g., temper tantrum)Repressionpushing anxiety arousing thoughts into the unconscious (e.g., serious traumas like rape)Defense Mechanisms: Examples

Reaction Formation expressing feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings (e.g., Ban the filth! I hate homosexuals!)Defense Mechanisms

Projection disguising our own impulses by attributing them to others (e.g., You always start arguments!)Rationalization making up an untrue justification to ourselves for doing something (e.g., sour grapes)Defense Mechanisms

Displacementshifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a less threatening object or person (e.g., kicking the dog!)

Sublimationrechanneling of unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities (e.g., a great artist who paints nudes!)Defense Mechanisms

Projective Tests used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT tests)How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects his or her motives into the ambiguous stimuli

Assessing the Unconscious

Assessing the Unconscious--TAT

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) people express their inner motives through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used projective testa set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach

Assessing the Unconscious -- Rorschach

Assessing the Unconscious--Rorschach

used to identify peoples inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Good tests are reliable and validreliable: consistent, getting the same results each time the test is administeredvalid: measure what it is suppose to measurePersonality Tests

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(+) Can help us understand ego defenses used by everyone (and OK to use if not overused)(+) Alerts us to the unconscious causes of behavior(-) Assessment is subjective (TAT, Rorschach)(-) Reliability and validity of measurement are problemsCritique of Psychoanalytic Theory

Trait a characteristic pattern of behaviorusually assessed by self-report inventories

The Trait Theory

Personality Inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to assess traitsobjective scoring -- a real plus!Assessing (Measuring) Traits

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality testsdeveloped to identify emotional disordersAssessing Traits: An Example

Nothing in the newspaper interests me except the comics.

I get angry sometimes.

MMPI: example of items!

Empirically Derived Test 1. Select two groups of subjects (e.g., clinically depressed vs normals) 2. give a large pool of questions to them 3. keep only those questions that discriminate between groups

MMPI -- validity

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) test profileMMPI Hysteria(uses symptoms to solve problems)Masculinity/femininity(interests like those of other sex)T-score

123456789100 30 40 50 60 70 80 Hypochondriasis(concern with body symptoms)Depression(pessimism, hopelessness)Psychopathic deviancy(disregard for social standards)Paranoia(delusions, suspiciousness)Psychasthenia(anxious, guilt feelings)Schizophrenia(withdrawn, bizarre thoughts)Hypomania(overactive, excited, impulsive)Social introversion(shy, inhibited)Clinicallysignificantrange

After treatment(no scoresin the clinicallysignificant rangeBeforetreatment(anxious,depressed,and displayingdeviantbehaviors)

Two Factor Trait Theory of PersonalityThe First Trait Theory

UNSTABLESTABLEcholericmelancholicphlegmaticsanguineINTROVERTEDEXTRAVERTEDMoodyAnxiousRigidSoberPessimisticReservedUnsociableQuietSociableOutgoingTalkativeResponsiveEasygoingLivelyCarefreeLeadershipPassiveCarefulThoughtfulPeacefulControlledReliableEven-temperedCalmTouchyRestlessAggressiveExcitableChangeableImpulsiveOptimisticActive

The Big Five Personality FactorsTrait Description

Emotional Stability Calm versus anxious Secure versus insecure Self-satisfied versus self-pitying

Extraversion Sociable versus retiring Fun-loving versus sober Affectionate versus reservedOpenness Imaginative versus practical Preference for variety versus preference for routine Independent versus conformingAgreeableness Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus suspicious Helpful versus uncooperativeConscientiousness Organized versus disorganized Careful versus careless Disciplined versus impulsive

(+) Can help us categorize and predict others behavior (+) Can aid in self understanding(+) Measurement of traits can be done objectively (reliably and validly)(-) Traits describe behavior, but dont explain behavior(-) Trait theory underestimates the power of the situation in determining behaviorCritique of Trait Theory

Self-Conceptones perception of oneself: Who am I? Ideal Selfthe self I would like to beReal Selfthe way I really am

Humanistic Theory: Emphasis on the SELF

Self ConceptHumanistic Theory: The SELVES

Ideal SelfReal Self(defensemechanisms)(low self-esteem)

Self-Esteem ones feelings of high or low self-worthPhysicalIntellectualSocial

Humanistic Theory: Emphasis on the SELF

Low Self-Esteem: Experiments tell usheightened prejudiceheightened judgmentalismHigh Self-Esteem:lower levels of depression

High Self-Esteem: A Good Thing?

Self-Serving Bias a readiness to perceive oneself favorablysomewhat likely to go to heaven?OJ Simpson, Bill Clinton, Michael Jordon, Mother Theresa, or ________ !!Humanistic Theory: One more SELF!

Individualism (West)defining ones identity in terms of personal attributes (introverted, etc.)giving priority to ones own goals over group goals Collectivism (East)defining ones identity with group identifications (bin, means son of)giving priority to the goals of ones group over ones own goalsHumanistic Theory: A Western Perspective

Humanistic Perspective

Morality Defined by individuals Defined by social networks (self-based) (duty-based)Attributing Behavior reflects ones personality Behavior reflects socialbehaviors and attitudes and rolesValue Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism

Concept Individualism Collectivism

Self Independent Interdependent (identity from individual traits) (identity from belonging)

Life task Discover and express ones Maintain connections, fit in uniqueness

What matters Me--personal achievement and We--group goals and solidarity; fulfillment; rights and liberties social responsibilities and relationships

Coping method Change reality Accommodate to reality

Relationships Many, often temporary or casual; Few, close and enduring;confrontation acceptable harmony valued

(+) Makes the SELF central to our understanding of behavior(-) Culture-bound theory (applies to the West)(-) Is too subjective, not objective(-) Maybe overly optimistic view of human nature (all of us are moving toward self-actualization?)Critique of Humanistic Theory

Behavior is due to Social influences (other people)Cognitive influences (how we perceive ourselves and our social environment)Social-Cognitive Theory

Social-Cognitive Theory (Model)

Social Influences:My friends dowell in school.Behavior(I perform wellin school)Cognitive Influences:I know if I work hard,I can do well in school)

Learned HelplessnessSocial-Cognitive Perspective- Learned HelplessnessBad EventsCognition: I perceive I dont have control

I feel helpless

Personal Controla cognitive factor (in the model)our sense of controlling our environments rather than feeling helplessSocial-Cognitive Theory

Internal Locus of Control the perception that one controls ones own fateExternal Locus of Control the perception that outside forces determine ones fate

Locus of Control

Positive Psychologyscientific study of ways to foster a healthy personality and communityKey Concept: Learned Optimismexpecting positive events to occur an seeing oneself as competent.research: optimistic people live longer/healthier livesSocial-Cognitive Perspective

(+) Based on solid research(+) Takes into account both personality (especially cognition) and social situation(-) Underemphasizes importance of traitsCritique of Social-Cognitive Theory

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