personality and developnent

8/13/2019 Personality and developnent

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Personality & Managerialconveys a message to the public. Thus, he conveys a message of

self and the role he played. That is what he speaks through. The

study of personality includes how people affect others and in that

their physical appearance, like body features, height, weight, body

colour, facial features, even their behaviour, interaction with others,

being courteous or discourteous all get included. Thus, individual

differences form a distinct personality of his or her own.

People have some traits in common but they also have other traits

which are not common with others. In this way people are different

than others. Traits like aggressiveness, anger or short temperedness

behaves in some manners when a particular type of situation arises.

Such traits become so important in the behaviour of that person

that people choose to address him by those specific traits like calm,

aggressive or angry. e is addressed so because people choose a

small number of traits in an individual. These traits are very

prominent and visible repeatedly in his behaviours.

In this unit we will understand the concept of personality along

with the various theorys of personality.

1.2 !"#!$PT "% P$&S"#'(IT)_____________________________________________

The concept of personality is *uite comple+. $ven today, the

psychologists do not agree to any one definition. In one study ordon

'llport, a well known psychologist, gave as many as-fifty definitions

of personality. 'fter considering historical, theatrical, theological,

uristic, sociological, biosocial, omnibus, psychiatric and other

definitions, 'llport put forth the following definition/ 0Personality is

the dynamic organi1ation within individual of those psycho2physicalsystems that determine his uni*ue adustment to the environment.

The 3ord dynamic used in this definition refers to the changing

nature of personality. 3hereas 0organi1ation4 emphasi1es the

patterning of the independent parts of the personality of the

independent parts of the personality structure, each of which has a

special relation to the whole. It may also be noted that

0psychophysical system4 is composed of habits, attitudes, emotional

states, sentiments, motives and beliefs, all of which are psychological

but have a physical basis in the individuals neutral glandular, or

general bodily 5 -states.

The analysis of the above definitions gives the following elements

personality /

6. Personality represents certain distinctive traits

7. It is an integrating and organi1ing agent between physiologic,

and psychological facets of an individual.8. It is uni*ue in nature.

9. It becomes habitual to the person.

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;. It resulting finally into action behaviour in relation to a

person, organi1ation or situation.

Definition of Personality

0Personality includes e+ternal appearance and behaviour, inner awarness

of self as a permanent organi1ing force and the particular pattern or

organi1ation of measurable traits, both inner and outer4.

2 Flayed L Ruch

0Personality means how a person affects others and how he understands

and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable

traits and the person situation interaction4

2 Fred Luthans

Personality denotes the distinctive traits of an individual, the stable and

shifting pattern of relationship between these traits and the ways to traits

interact to help or hinder the adustment of a person to other people and

situations4.

2 Morgan and King

0Personality is stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine

those commonalities and differences in the psychological behaviour


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Personality & Managerial6Sgenerally more important in determining a person s temperamentPeror!ance ", .

, .

,than values and ideals.

2. #rain 2 'nother biological factor that influences personality is the role

of brain of an individual. Though some promising in roads are made by

researchers, the psychologists are unable to prove empirically the

contribution of human brain in influencing personality. Preliminary results

from the electrical stimulation of the brain = research gives indication

that better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come

from the study of the brain.

3. P$ysi%al Traits 2 'n individuals e+ternal appearance may have a

tremendous effect on his personality some people give relatively higher

weightage to the physical feature of an individual while defining his

personality good physical appearance is an asset for the ob of a sales

person and public relations.

&. E'otional (a)e*+, or Te',era'ent * Temperament and other non2

intellectual personality traits are distributed according to the normal

distribution. Temperament is the degree to which one responds

emotionally.

-. Interest * The individual normally has many interests in various areas.

The top e+ecutives in any organi1ation should provide opportunities like

ob rotation and special training programme to satisfy the interests of

e+ecutives. The successful persons in the same occupation have to a large

e+tent, the same interests.

. (oti/es 2 ?otives are the inner drives of the individual. They represents goal2

directed behviour of individual. ' motive is a cognitive factor which operates in

detemining ones behaviour towards goal. Individual differ in variables which

determine the inner drives. The group, behaviour of an individual to accomplish the

goal varies because of shapehis inner drive.

1 & ,i

0. Fa'ily Fa%tors 2 %amily influences the behaviour of a person

especially in early stages. The nature of such influence will depend P erson

upon the following factors 2 are no

!harac

6 Socio2$conomic level of the family on valu

7 %amily si1e relates

8 >irth order !onscit

9 &ace inhibito

&eligion t con or; ie or si

@ Parents educational level

A eographic location, etc. 6; P$%

%or instance, a person brought up in a rich family has a different lndividu

9 personality as compared to a person who belongs to. a poor familyAll,ort

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The family si1e wil l also affect the behaviour of a chi ld. The

personality of a single child is different from the personality of aperson who is brought up in a family of two on more than two siblings.

Similarly, the personality of a person brought up in nuclear family

will be different from the of a person brought up in a oint family.

Studies have also shown that first borne children are more

responsible, rational, independent, ambitious and more sensitive

to social acceptance. The family environment has a great influence

on the development of personality of a child.

. So%ial Fa%tors 2 The development of individual personality is

also influenced by social factors. The infront ac*uires those behaviour

patterns the standards of the community where the family lives.

The status of the family in the society influences individuals

perception about self, others, work, money.

. Sit+ational Fa%tors 2'n individuals personality may change in

different situations. The demands of different situations may call

for different respect of ones personality. Therefore, we should not

look at personality factor in isolation. 'lthough certain

generali1ations can be made about personality there are significant

individual differences which are further influenced by situational

factors.

The relationship of the above factors affects the formation and

development of personality. Physiological inheritance is entirely an

internal contribution. roup and the culture are the early

environmental factors that influence later behaviour. %amily and

the social setting during early stages of education are the importantfactors which influence the initial formation of personality. 3hatever

the child learns, lasts for life time. (ater in life, it is the peer

groups of primary affiliations at work, social activities, etc, which

shape the personality of an individual.

1.&PERSONAIT! AND CHARACTER

Personality is often confused with !haracter4 but the two terms

are not synonymous, and so cannot be used interchangeably.

!haracter implies a moral standard and involves a udgement based

on values. 3hen used in connection with personality, character

relates to behaviors that is regulated by personal effort and will.

!onscience, an essential element of character, is a pattern of

inhibitory conditioning which control the persons behaviour, makingt conform to the socially approved patterns of the group with which

le or she is identified.

.- PERSONAIT! AND INDI4ID5AIT! _6

Personality Concept &

Theories

.ifferentlndividuality4 refers to the uni*ueness of personality. 'ccording to family2

5llport, 0personality itself is a universal phenomenon though it is:; F


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Personality & Managerialfound only in individual forms4. ' person has many attributes or

Peror!ance

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The core of personality pattern which provides its unity was referred perfom

to as 0self by Games. Self is the sum total of all that person can call vvith ot

his. %reud refered to it as the ego and Sullivan sued the phase

0the self system4. owever, in the recent years, what a person 0can 1.0.1 C

call his4 has been spelled out in more definite terms. It has beenE Th eself

referred to as his4. %reud refused to it as the 0ego4 and Sullivan

characteristics of the human species, and many that resemble his

cultural fellows, but he weaves them all in to a uni*ue idiomatic

system. 0$ach person is a uni*ue and never repeated phenomenon4.

)ou may, for e+ample, find any number of brave men, but each

mans braverH2 will differ *ualitatively from that of the others.

People are commonly described as belonging to certain4 types4. "ne

person maH- be said to be of the ambitius type, second of the 0morose

type4, and still another of the 0stingy type4, while it is true that

people resemble one another in some respect, this does not mean

that they are alike in all respects. $ach person is to some e+tent

uni*ue. e is an individual, even though in some respects he may

be characteri1ed as belonging to some common 0Type4, say, gentle,

kind, mature, active, etc. It may also be noted that individuality is a

product of both heredity and environment.

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P$&S"#'(IT)

P'TT$

The personality pattern is composed to a core called 0self concept4

and an integrated system of learned responses, called 0traits4. These

are inter related, with the core influencing the traits, which are

the individuals characteristics methods of adustment to life

situations. To show the interrelationship, the pattern can be

compared to a wheel in which the huh represents the concept of

self and the spokes represent his traits.

1.0 SEF CONCEPT

used the pharse 0the self system4. owever, in the recent years,

what a person 0can call his4 has been spelled out in more definite


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/

about

spects

,

/steem

,

the 0real

udes the

(ities

and /s,

beliefs

:stic.

The ke

iitory self2

B the 0sel

his means

7and thenccepted by

my have a

basic self

may be realistic in the sense that it is within the reach of the person, or it

may be so unrealistic that it can never be achieved in real life. In

childhood, the discrepancy between the ideal self2concept and the basic,the transitory and the social self2concept is usually large. Towards

adolescence, the discrepancy normally diminished as the other self2

concepts become stronger and play a larger role indetermining the

persons image of himself. In adulthood and middle age, the ideal self2

concept usually has little impact on the persons concept of himself.

6. T$"&I$S "% P$&S"#'(IT)______________________________________________

Narious authors have contributed immensely in the ptudy of personality.

They have given various theories on psycho2'nalytical and psychological

factors of personality. 'n overview of these theories are given below 2

1..1 %reud Psycho2'nalytical Theory of Personality_________________________

Sigmund %reud is credited with the Psycho2analytical theory of personality.

It is based on the notion that person is motivated more by unseen forces

than by conscious and rational thoughts. %reud noted that his patients

behaviour-could not always be consciously e+plained. It was a clinical

finding that let him to conclude that the maor force which motivates a

human being is his unconscious framework. This framework includes three

conflicting psychoanalytic concept, namely, the Id, the ego an the super

ego.Their brief description is as follows/

7i8 T$e I" 2 The Id is the foundation of the unconscious behaviour and is

the base of libido derives. In simple words, Id is the source of psychic

energy and seeks immediate satisfaction of biological on instinctual needs.

These needs include se+ual pleasure and other biological pleasures. Id has

animalistic instincts of aggression, power and domination. It demands

immediate pleasure at whatever cost. 's individual matures, he learns tocontrol the Id, but even then it remains a diving force throughout life and

an important source of behaviour.

al believes 7ii8 T$e E9o /2 The ego is associated with the realities of life. Gust ctions. It

is as Id is the unconscious part of human personality, ego is the (stantly told conscious and

logical part. $go is concerned about the realities of dmself as L e+ternal environment.

The ego of a person keeps the Id in check f2concepts whenever it demands immediate

pleasure. 3ith its logic an intellect, ie, peer, oi ego controls the Id so that the pleasures

unconsciously demanded by the human beings are granted at an appropriate time and

place and in an appropriate manner.

nat a persoi

ay be

relatec

7Hi8 T$e S+,er E9o 2 The super ego is the higher level force to

restrain in Id and is described as the conscience of a person. The

super ego represents the norms of the individual, his family and

Personality Concept

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Personality & Managenalthe society and is an ethical constraint on the behaviour. ThePeror!ance " c K

conscience of a person continuously tells him what is right and

what is wrong. ' person may not be aware of the working of the

super ego, because conscience is developed by the cultural values

inculcated in a person by the family and the society. The Id, the $go

and Super $go are inter2related. In order to. create a normal

personality, there must be a proper balance in the relationship among

these forces. %or e+ample, if the super ego is overdeveloped, a man

will become very impractical and irrational. e will feel guilty over

trivial matters. Such a person cannot e+ist in normal life. "n the

other hand, an under2developed, Super $go would let the Id urges

loose, which would make a man highly immoral or with very few

moral. Then there will not be much difference between the man

and the animal. That is why, there must be a proper balance between

these three forces.

1..2 %reudian Stages of Personality Jevelopment/_________________________

%reud proposed that ones personality develops as ones age

increases. e divided personality development under ifve stages,

i.e. oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. Their brief description is

given below 2

7i8 Oral Sta9e 2 In this stage the infant first e+periences social

contact with the outside world through mouth 2 crying and swelling,

drinking, laughing, eating crisis develops if the child is weaned.

7ii8 Anal Sta9e 2 Primary source of pleasure is the process of

elimination crisis stages when the child starts toilet training.

7iii8 P$alli% Sta9e 2 In this stage child discovers himself. e reali1es

all his important organs, Ni1. eyes, hands, e+perience sensual and

se+ual desires

7i/8 aten%y Sta9e 2 %reud opined that se+ual instincts lie dormant (UG

from the age five to the beginning of adolescence, i.e. the tenth 2now

year of a child. The modified version of his theory refers to sensual

development. The main crisis of this stage is that there is no achi

e

child

significant impact of parents. The social process influence personality

development.7i/: 9

7/8 Genital Sta9e 2 In this stage adolescent starts feeling all sensesand c

seriously. e is particular about se+. The main crisis is that the attachment with

parents is reduced. %reud proposed that if the child is not satisfied with the needsof the earlier stages, he ties to emercsatisfy his needs at a later stage. Smoking,

gum chewing, etc. are 7/8 A% observed in those children who did not get parental

affection at the of iden initial stage. !ritics have critici1ed %reud for his se+ based

theor= 2inderV on personality development. ?any authors have branded %reud

asestabli silly and bi1aue, as he did not include the development of otherThe au

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ere is no

organs, i.e. physical and sense organs. Juring the fourth stage, child does

not develop his personality according to %reud, but learns the ma+imum

during the pre2adolescence and the adolescence stages from parents,

classmates and family friends. The %reudian theory cormotes that many

human drives and motives lie hidden in the minds of people and can be

brought to the personality surface through the sociali1ation process.

1..3 $rikson Stage of Personality Jevelopment_____________________________

$rikson critici1ed the heavy emphasis given by %reud on the se+ual and

biological factors in the developing personality. e felt that relatively more

attention should be given to the social factors. e identified eight stage of

life that characteri1e the unending development of a person. e

characteri1ed each stage by a particular conflict that needs to be resolved

successfully before a person can move to the ne+t stage. owever, these

eight stage are2 not totally separable, and the crisis are never fully

resolved. ?ovement between stages is developmental as e+plained below /

7i8 Infan%y 2 Juring the first year of life, a child resolves the basic crisis

of trust Ns. mistrust. 'n infrant who is cared for in an affectionate way

learns to trust other people. (ack of love and affection results in mistrust.

This stage makes a serious impact on a child that influence events for

remaining life.

7ii8 Early C$il"$oo"* In the second and third years of life, a child begins

to assert independence. If the child is allowed to control those aspects of

life that the child is capable of controlling, a sense of autonomy will

develop. If the child encounters constrant disapproval by elder a sense of

self2doubt and shame is likely to develop.

7iii8 Play A9e 2 The four and five years old seeks to discover ust how

much he can do. If a child is encouraged to e+periment and to achieve

reasonable goals, he will develop a sense of initiative. If the child is

blocked and made to feel incapable, he will develop a sense of guilt and

lack of self2confidence.

Personality Concept &Theories

7i/8 S%$ool A9e 2 %rom age @ to 67, a child learns man new skills

E all senses develop social abilities. If a child e+perience real progress at ais that the rate compatibiewith his abilities, he or she will develop a sense of

that if the enterprise. The reverse situation results in a sense of inferiority,i, he ties to

ng etc. are 7/8 A"oles%en%e 2 The crisis of the teenage years is to gain a sense ction at

the of identify rather than to become confused about who you are, while ased theory

undergoing rapid biological changes, the teenager is also trying to ed %reud as establish

himself or herself as socially separate from the parents, ent of otheiThe autonomy,

initiative and enterprise developed in earlier stages

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Personality & Managerialarevery important in helping the teenager to successfully resolvePeror!ance , . . . , . , , ,

this crisis and prepare for adulthood.

7/i8Early A"+lt$oo" 2 The young adult during the twenties faces

the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. The sense of identify developed

during the teenage years allows the young adult to begin developing

deep and lasting relationships.

7/ii8 A"+lt$oo" 2 Juring this stage, the adults face the crisis of


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resolve personality. ?uch also depends upon individuals perception,

self concept and adaptation and adustment.


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Z2222222222222222The descriptive characteristics of these traits are given below /

pping5words T$e?#iS Fi/e@ Personality Traits

.undred and !


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Personality & Managerial

Peror!ance

1.. ?yers and >riggs Type Personality_____________________________________

?yers and >riggs developed four types of personalities based on

their researches. They are 2

1. $+trovent


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sed on

others. They are leaders. Social workers, teachers, doctors and

professionals.

;. Enter,risin9 Personalities 2 Persons possessing enterprising

personalities are self confident, ambitions, domineering and active.

They like dominating activities and holding power. Such person are

lawyers, agents, manager and specialists.

@. Artisti% Personalities 2 They are imaginative, disorderly,

emotional and impractical. They prefer ambiguous and unsystematic

activities. Such people are painters, writers, dances and musicians.

1. S5??'&) ___________ `

The term Personality has been derived from the latin term per

sona which means to speak through. !ommon usage of the

Personality signifies the role which the person displays to the public.

Personality of an individual is uni*ue, personal and a maordeterminant of his behaviour. >ecause of differences in personality,

individuals differ in their manner of responding to different

situations. Personality is a set of traits and characteristics, habit

Br e+ample patters and conditioned responses to certain stimuli that formulate

the impression an individual makes upon others.

s shown

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The factors which shape the personality of an individual are heredity,

brain, physical traits, emotional make2up, interest, motives, family

ctors, social factors and situational factors.

e Personality pattern is composed of a core calld self concept

d an integrated system of learned responses, called 0traits4 the

lf2concept has three maor components the perceptual, the

nceptual and the attitudinal. Self concept has four dimensions

namely, basic self2concept, transitory self2concept, social self2

d``p2ness fM66M@6ideal self2concept.

native, socialarious authors have given different theories on personality. %reud low 2 n

his Psycho2analytical theory has given the concept of IJ, ego and arfuper ego. e

divided personality development under five stages 2 Ers- . Dral. anal, phallic,

latent and genital.chanism, In

Inkson critici1ed no %reud theory and has given eight stages ofersonality Jevelopment namely infancy, early childhoodE play age, nation

person,

age, adolescence, early adulthood, adulthood and mature us. Theyadulthood. !hirs 'gryris has given the immaturity2?aternity theory, reporter2 attlet

identified si+teen primary traits of personality, which is ient practifentiWnedin his !attels

trait theory. 'ccording to >ig %ive Traits &ations ThWdel-the>ig %ive Personality Traits

are conscientiousness and e accountanBeners toe+perience.

arl Gung has propsed four dimension of personality namely thinking,

tiveness sensatiWnand intuition. ?yers2>riggs Type Indicator TI=, well recogni1ed in the field of organi1ational behaviour. It fore (ike to aeve

Personality Concept &

Theories

: 6A6

ions of

fied si+

tigative

5NIT*2 E(OTIONS

with in

etermine C

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y in the C

Cs. 5nit

ality2 7.6.

(I his. 7.7

7.8

7.9

7.;

earnin9 O:e%ti/e

'fter the end of this Onit, you will be able to understand 2

The concept of the term $motion

Narious types of $motions.

Jifferent theories of $motions.

The concept of $motional Intelligence.

Significance of $motional Intelligence.

Narious methods of managing emotions at work.

7.;.6 Significance of $motional Intelligence

7.;.7 'pplication of $motional Intelligence in organi1ation.

7.;.8 !omponents of $motional Intelligence in work organi1ation, elf

concept-7.@ ?ethods of ?anaging $motions at work.

nt. 7.A Summary

ievelopmenfc. Reywords7.\ uestions

2.1 INTROD5CTION

ty-

n our day to day life we all come across the word 0emotions4. They ire an

important part of the human behaviour and interplay of motions has a big

impact on the organi1ation behaviour as well.

n general, the term emotion is used to designate 0a state of

tmsciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings. It is distinguished

from other mental states, from cognition, volition nd awareness of

physical sensation4. %eeling refers to 0any of the abective reactions,

pleasant or unpleasant4 that one may sperience in a situation.

.2 BHAT ARE E(OTIONSle term emotions is derived from the (atin word ?overe which eans to

move, to e+cite, to stir of, or to agitate. The traditional Citers regarded

emotion as a base instinct to be subdued or pressed. >ut the modern

writers view it as safeguard of survival id an enrichment of e+perience

throughout the process of

Peror!ance

Personality & Managerialpersonality development. $motional e+pression provides a powerful

communication system, one that is especially important early in

life before language develops. 'n infants cry of distress brings a

caregiver running,, a babys beaming smile invites love and care

from the parents. 's development proceeds, voice, face, gesture

and posture continue to communicate feelings to others and to

influence their behaviour. ' scream of fear can crowd to panicE a

smile can sometimes defuse the most dangerous of situations and

create instant bonding among stranger.

$motions play an important role in many maor psychological

disorders witnessed by the blunted emotional e+pression seen in

schi1ophrenia, the e+treme elation or sadness in manie2depressive.

In fact 0?ental disorder4 and emotional disorder are used almost

synonymously in everyday language.

2.3 E(OTIONA PROCESSING

N

T

Si

ch

tu

th

e

n

w

b

prow do emotional reactions come about, and what the inputs into

emotional processing ' very simple, laypersons e+planation of the

process is that emotional feelings are incontrast with rational

thinking comes from the 0head4. %or e+ample, a young manager 5

given a choice between two assignments undergo the following

cognitive processing. 0?y 0head4 tells me to get involved with proect

> will be more fun, I like the people better, and I can take more

pride in any results we achieve4. "bviously, such emotions often

win out over rational thinking in what people decide, do or how theY

behave.

$motions may be both positive and negative. Positive emotion

include love and affection, happiness, surprise, and negativ2

emotions include fear, sadness, anger, disgust and shame. Thei

brief description is given below 2

$me+

ever

situE

prod

at t(

7M

Ty,e of E'otions

A. Positi/e E'otions

C (oveX'ffection 2 'cceptance, adoration, longing, devotio

infatuation

C appinessXGoy 2 !heerfulness, contentment, bliss, delig

amusement, enoyment, enthrallment, thrill, euphoria, 1estC Surprise 2 'ma1ement, wonder, astonishment, shock.

#. Ne9ati/e E'otions

C %ear 2 'n+iety, alarm, apprehension, concern, *ulm, drefright, terror.

C Sadness 2 rief, disappointment, sorrow, gloom, despai

suffering, deection.

C 'nger 2 "utrage, e+asperation, warth, indignation, hospit

irritability.

3.S

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C Jisgust 2 !ontempt, disdain, abhorrence, revulsion, distaste.C Shame 2 uilt, remorse, regret, embauassment, humiliation.

2.& TEORIES "% E?"TI"#________________________________________________

Narious theories have been given on emotions by different authors. The

brief description of their theories are given below2

6. a'es * an9e T$eory 718

Subective emotional response are the result of physiological changes

within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends

messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action

ultimately produces motor, autonomic and endocrine responses. These

responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is perceived by the

brain. Therefore, it is cyclical process. This theory argues that

physiological behaviours precede emotion.

7. Cannon*#ar" T$eory 71208

$motion providing events induce t h e . subective- emotional e+periences

and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through e+periences, individuals

begin to ac*uire certain e+pectations for every given situation. These

e+pectations provide a filter and every situation is processed through this

filter. Juring this process, brain produces the emotion and corresponding

physiological behaviours at the same time.

8. S%$a%ter*Sin9er T$eory 7128

e emotion

d negativiame. Thei

>oth feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal

of what caused those responses produces emotions. ow one

interprets the peripheral response will determine the emotion heX

she feels. Individuals label the emotional response depending on

what we think is causing the response. %or e+ample when someone

interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal.

Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted to a particular emotion,

it can be fear, surprise, e+citement and astonishment depending

(g, devotionon arousal is labeled.

.. &. aar+s a,,raisal T$eory 718

iliss, deligh

ahoria, 1est.'n individual makes an initial sometimes unconscious cognitive hock

appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threatE copingaction is taken if necessaryE and the individual takes a closer look and

identifies the emotions he on she is feeling, nulm, drea-. Beiners attri+tion T$eory 71 128

=om despair2ertain attributions produce specific emotions. "nce the initial evaluation

has been made the individual looks at what caused the hospitalifvent These attributions

of causality can modify the emotion felt.n t is the interaction of the

perceived internal and e+ternal causes,

)!otions

:76 6


17/68


Peror!ancecontrollability and outcome that will determine the emotional response.

3hat are the basic emotions "rtony and turner ut

alternatively, the higher the rank of a person considered to be a star

performer, the more emotional intelligence capabilities show up as the

reason for his or her effectiveness.

'ccording to Janiel oleman,

0$motional intelligence refers to emotional awareness and emotional

?anagement skills which provide the ability to balance emotion and

reason so as to ma+imi1e long2term happiness4. $motional Intelligence

includes components like self2awareness, ability to manage moods,motivation, empathy, and social skills such as cooperation and leadership.

'ccording to oleman, there are hundreds of emotions along with their

blends, variations and nuance. owever, some of the main emotions with

their blends are as follows/

1. An9er 2 %ury, outrage, resentment, wrath, e+asperation indignation,

ve+ation, acri money, animosity, annoyance irritability, pathological

hatred and violence.

2. Sa"ness 2 rief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, sel pity,

lonliness, deection, despair and pathological serve depression.

3. Fear 2 'n+iety, apprehension, nervousness, concern, misgivin

wariness, fright, terror, phobia and panic.

&. En:oy'ent 2 appiness, oy, relief, content pride, sensu pleasure,

thrill, amusement, pride, sensual, satisfactio euphoria and at the

e+treme, mania.

-. o/e 2 'cceptance, friendliness, trust, kindness, affinit

122F


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19/68

devotion, adoration, and infatuation.. S+r,rise 2 Shock, astonishment, ama1ement and wonder.

0. Dis9+st 2 !ontempt, disdain, scorn, abhorrence, aversion, distaste

and revulsion.

. S$a'e 2 uilt, embarrassment, chagrin, remorse, humiliation, regret

and mortification. .

2.-.1 Si9nifi%an%e of E'otional Intelli9en%e is i',ortant in

the following ways____________________________________________________

1. General Ha,,iness 2 $motional Intelligence leads to general

happiness. iven below shows the features of a persons felling

with high and low $. igh $ generates positive feelings which

results into general happiness. 's against this, (ow $ generates

negative feelings which results into general unhappiness.

Feelin9s Jit$ Hi9$ an" oJ EK

otional 2


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8. ?otivation

9. $mpathy

;. Social skill

' passion to work for

reasons that go

beyond money or

status 2 a propensity

to pursue goals with

energy and

persistence.

The ability to

understand the

emotional make up of

other people. Skill in

trating people

according to their

emotional reactions.Proficiency inman2

aging relationship

and building

networks an ability to

find common ground

and build rapport

Strong drive to achieveoptimism even in the

face of failure2

o r g a n i 1 a t i o n a l

commitment.

$+peritse in building and

reataining talent

c r o s s 2 c u l t u r a l

sensitivity to clients and

customers.

$ffectiveness in

leading change 2

persuasiveness, e+pe2

rtise in building and

leading teams

tness ar

nfort wit

change.

2. ?$T"DS OF ('#'I# $?"TI"#S 'T 3"&L________________________

?anaging emotions at work and in other walls of life is essential for

success. There are certain emotions like fear, anger, etc which should be

controlled as they affect life adversely. Similarly, the lotions which aregratifying like happiness, contentment, etc. 8uld be developed and

emphasi1ed. $mployees in an organi1ation adopt several methods for

managing their emotions effectively le of the methods are described below

/

Self*aJareness 2 %or managing emotional intelligence, it is y that people

must develop self2awareness, i.e. they should able to evaluate themselves

in the light of their emotions and igs. The ability to be aware of the

relationship between 8ns and actions, i.e. also important being aware what

emotions caused what actions. This awareness helps an individual to

positive emotions and overcome negative emotions.

trol of E'otions 2It is necessary that one should be able to

t$ose emotions which are dysfunctional like anger, fear et%.these emotions may be channeli1ed to positive ones +o+s

practice. "ne of the better ways of overcoming these is to refrain

from taking any action when an individual is of s+%$ emotions.

'fter a certain period of time, he may o$is nor'al behavioural

pattern for taking -any action.

it$y 2 $mpathy is act of 0putting ones legs in another

)!otions

f 7; 6

Personality & Managerialshoes4 that is, understanding the emotions and feelings of others

while interacting with them. It is important to listen to others without

getting carried away by ones own personal emotions. $mpathy helps in

understanding any situation in a better way.

9. Coo,eration 2 It is an attitude of collective actions with another or

other persons towards a common goal. Since employees work as team in

an organi1ation, it is essential for them to know how and when to take the

lead and 3hen to follow. This knowledge brings better cooperation in

teamwork.

;. Resol/in9 Confli%ts 2 People in conflict are generally locked into a

self2perpetuating emotional spiral in which the genesis, of the conflict is

usually not clear. Therefore, by managing the emotional issues, conflicts

can be resolved.

@. Co,yin9 Jit$ An9er 2 'nger is one of the most common negative

emotions. $veryone gets angry at some point of time. 'nger is maor

departure from normal behaviour caused by situational variables. 'nger is

often dysfunctional because any action taken during this period may

depart from rationality. Therefore, there is a need for overcoming anger.

The steps to cope with anger are as follows 2

C 'nger should be restrained and controlled by compassion to oneself

and others and by resorting to core values.

C It is desirable to analyse the cause of anger a+id the situation under

which anger takes place so that these causes and situation are

modified to produce positive thinking.

C It is better to avoid maor actions during the period when one is angry

because these actions tend to be irrational.

C "ne should develop skill to avoid to psychological hunt b developing

strong sense of sense2concept, that is, what one i and how one

should behave in abnormal conditions.

2.0 SO??'&) ___________________________________

The term emotion is derived from latin word movere which mean to

move, to e+cite, to stir of, or to agitate. The traditional writer regarded

emotion as a base instinct to be subdued emotion as base instinct to be

sub direct on repressed. >ut the modem writer view it as a safeguard of

survival and an enrichment of e+perienc throughout the process of

personality development.

$motions may be both positive and negative. Positive emotion include love

and affection, happiness, surprise and negative emotio include fear,

sadness, anger, distrust and shame.

$motional intelligence is the ability to command respect by buildini

relationship on the ability to get along with the people and situation Includes components like self2

awareness, ability to manage mood motivation, empathy, and social skills such as cooperation an

:7@ F leadership. C


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has also been different. Attitudes

'ttitudes are evaluative statements. These are fre*uently used in

describing people, obects and events and e+plaining the peoples

behaviour. These reflect how one feels about something or some body.

3hen I say, 0I like &am4. I am e+pressing my attitude about &am. Thus,

we can say that attitude is a bent of mind, predisposition of certain

actions.

3.2 ?$'#I# '#J J$%I#ITI"#

'n attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about something

2 a person, a place, a commodity, a situation, or an idea. It e+presses an

individuals positive or negative feelings about some obect. It describes

an individuals feelings, thoughts and pre disposition to act towards some

obect in the environment.

attitude is a predisposition to respond in a positive or negative y tosomeone or something in ones environment. %or e+ample, en a person

says, that he 0likes4 or 0dislikes4 someone, an attitude being

e+pressed. To take another e+ample, the statement I love key and

football4 conveys ones general attitude towards sport a rson may

develop love for hockey football which playing the game the

%$il"$oo" or by watching the game on television. 'ttitudes y be

regarded as varying in several ways.

8 Dire%tion* %or or against something.

De9ree* %avourable. To be neutral in attitude is to be indifferent the

obect.

8 Intensity 2 Jgree of confidence.

me important definition of attitudes are as given below 2

'n attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an obect or pmbol

of that obect in a certain way4. 2 Kat+ and cotland

An attitude is a predisposition react to a situation, person, or Jncept with

a particular response. This response can be either ositive or negative. It is

a learned reaction2one that results from a individuals past observation,

direct e+perience, or e+posure to

the personalil ters attitudes. 2 a!eul !. Certo

that persoi ttitudes is a mental and neutral state of readiness, organi1ed

as attitude gh e+perience, e+erting a directive or dynamic influence upon

Ciable in hi idividuals response to all obects and situations with which it

2logical attnbul rea5ec

rtant of attitudiKKKKKKKKKKK

2 .3.Allport

asgiven formfo NAT5RE OF ATTIT5DES

y.. %rom the twl m a5ovedefinitions of attitudes we can bring about the

now, interestbowing salient features which contribute to the meaning of , over the y eatra


24/68


Peror!ance'ttitudes refer to the feelings and beliefs of individuals or groups : oet,

of individuals. %or e+ample 0e has a poor attitudes4, I like her

attitudes4. >eGi

part

The feelings and bel iefs are directed towards other people, 5 obects or

ideas when a person says, I like my ob4. It shows that he has a positive

attitudes towards his ob. whic

'ttitudes constitutes a psychological phenmomenon which cannot be

directly observed. owever, an attitude can be Mr $ observed indecently by

observing its conse*uences. %or e+ample, if a person is very regular in his

ob, we may infer that he l ikesW- 5 his ob very much.sna)e

'ttitudes often result in and affect the behavior or actions o(2onsic

the people. 'ttitudes can often lead to intended behavior ii there are.no

e+ternal intervention. #"A.

'ttitudes are evaluative statements, either favourable o2e v

unfavourable. 3hen a person says he likes or dislike somethingE Ore

or somebody, an attitude is being e+pressed.

'ttitudes are gradually ac*uired over a period of time. Th]

process of learning attitude starts right from childhood ar

continues throughout the life of a person. In the beginning, tl

family members may have great impact on the. attitude of 6

child.

'll people, irrespsecitve of their status and intellegence hoi

attitudes.

'n attitudes may, be unconsciously held. ?ost of our attitude

may be about those obects which we are not clearly awarePreudicial furnishes a good e+ample.

3.& ATTIT5DES AND OPINION sr_i"e fi

'ttitude and opinion are used closely with each other. >ut there

a basic difference in these terms. 'ccording to Thursten 0"pini

are e+pression of attitudes4. 'ttitudes tend to be generali

predisposition to react in some way towards obects or conce

"pinions, on the other hand, tend to be focused on more spec/

aspects of the obect or the concept.

?c!ormick and Tiffin observe that the measurement of attitudeE

generally based on the e+pressions of opinion. >ut we sho distinguish

between attitude scale which, like a thermomete barometer, reflectsthe generali1ed level of individuals aptitu towards some obect or

concept and opinion survey, which typi are used to elicit the opinions of

people towards specific aspect, for e+ample, their work situations.

Dire%t

Of T

to I

5enc

3.- ATTIT5DE AND #EIEF

Though closely related with each other, a difference can be


25/68

groups

tikeher

people,

a which

can be

e+ample

,

between attitude and belief.

>elief is a hypothesis concerning the nature of the obects, more

particuarlly, concerning ones udgment of the probability regarding

/heir nature. >elief reveals that what one supposes to be true.

>elief may also be e+plained as the congnitive component of attitude

which reflects the manner in which an obect is perceived.

%or e+ample, a boss may believe his subordinate to be very hard

working. >ut infact, he may or may not be hard working. The attitude

of the boss towards the subordinate reveals whether he like him or

not. The positive attitude and the conse*uent liking may rather

make the boss condone all the bad *ualities in the subordinate and

ictions Wf!onsider him hardworking.Ehavior if

3. ATTIT5DE AND 4A5ESirable M6 he values of an individuals generally reveal the moral side of his

something tature. These include his ideas about what is good or bad, what

ihould be done and what should not be done. These are some of the

Things which are inculcated in the individuals since childhood.time.

Ihood am

inning, thi

titude of

gence holi

lonesty is the best policy4. ' worker must be honest to his work4

re statements of values. It is an evaluative statement that 0onest

rkers are good4 are reveals the attitude of a person towards honest

rkers. It can be said that values-are one of the determinants of

ies attitudes. 'n individuals considers an honest workers to be

=d because of his values that 0' workers must be honest to his

rk4.ur attitude

ly aware M6.A FOR(ATION OF ATTIT5DES

ttitudes are ac*uired and not inherited. ' person can ac*uire titude from

several source as discussed below 2

>ut there

in 0"pinioi

generali1f

or concept

more

Dire%t Personal e>,erien%e 2'ttitude is learnt through specific

erience with the obect of the attitude. %or instance, often a

ies of rewarding e+perience in dealing with a person we usually

le to like him. Similarly a series of frustrating negative

Erience will usually engender an unfavourable attitude.

Asso%iation 2 'ttitudes towards one obect may develop from 8f attitudes ociating

that obect with another obect about which attitudes it we shoure been previsouly

formed.

ermometer goc2a (earning or(o"ellin9* 3e often observe how other person al s ap ilave. 3e may interpret the behavior of a person in terms of the vhich typic tO


26/68

a person has about the obect. It makes no difference whether or

not this information imperially correct. %or e+ample, a person seekinga ob may learn from some sources that in a particular company,

the promotion chances are very favourable. In reality, it may or may

not be correct. )et the information that the person in using is the

key to his attitudes about the company and the ob.

2. E'otional or Affe%ti/e Co',onent 2 The informational

components sets the stage for the more critical part of attitude, its

affective component. The emotional component involves the persons

feelings or affect. This component can be e+plained by this statement.

-I like this ob because, the future prospects in this company are

very good4.

3. #e$a/io+ral Co',onent 2 It consists of the tendency of a person

/o behave in a particular manner towards an obect. %or e+ample,

ihe concerned individuals in the above case may decide to take up

the ob because of good future prospects.

"ut of the three components of attitudes, only the bevaioural

components can be directly observed. "ne cannot see another

persons belief the informational components= and his feelings ut still understanding these two components is essential to

understand the behavioural components of attitudes.

3. T!PES OF BORL REATE ATTIT5DES

' person may posses hundreds and thousands of attitudes, but

organi1ational behavior focuses an a very limited number of ob

related attitudes. These attitudes are generally evaluations which

employees hold about their work environment. These attitudes may

If or thG befavourable or unfavourable, positive or negative. ?ost of the

attitudi research has been done with the following work related attitudes

U


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3. Instr+'ental

iividua

l s his

or rho

have (

the

ob

Bnt C It is

md felling

8 to

ones

implies

2linked and

M four

a basis fo/

.udes provic

informatioi

ile individu us

to e+pre of a

group tend

to von E as a

mean who

wants

0)ouve got

mpany since

eld attitudes ma+imi1e rewards and minimi1e sanctions. ence, attitudes

towards other people might be held because of past positive or negative

e+periences. >ehaviour or knowledge which has resulted in the

satisfactions of needs is thus more likely to result in a favourable attitude.

&. E9o*Defensi/e

'ttitudes may be held in order to protect the ego from an undesirables

truth or reality. People often form and maintain certain attitudes to protect

their own self images. %or e+ample workers may fell threatened by the

employment or advancement of minority or female workers in the

organi1ation. The threatened workers may develop preudices against the

new workers. They may develop an attitude that such new comers are less

*ualified and they might mistreat these workers. This attitude help the

workers protect the ego and is known as an ego defensive attitude. The

ego defensive attitude is used by the employees in coping with a feeling of

threat of guilt.

3.11 $%%$!TS "% $?P(")$$ 'TTITOJ$S____________________________________

'ttitudes of employees have direct impact on the performance at ob. %or

e+ample, an employee with a positive, attitudes towards his ob and

organi1ation would 2

Try to give his best performance .

o for the e+tra mile in facing difficult tasks.

?aintain discipline and obey rules.

>ehave in a friendly and courteous manner with his colleagues. (ike

to be present at his work in time $noy the e+perience at workplace.

?aintain loyalty to the organi1ation.

(ike to continue relationship with organi1ation.

"n the other hand, an employee with a negative attitude would 2

#ot be at his best of efficiency.

>e absent from workplace at slightest prete+t.

!onsumer and waste valueable resource.

Take pleasure in damaging the reputation of this superiors and

organi1ation.

(ike to leave the organi1ation at earliest.

#ot cooperate with superiors and colleagues.

#ot maintain cordially relations with people at workplace. Jistract

customers.

&esist any change


29/68


Peror!ance3.12KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK !'

#I# $?P(")$$ 'TTITOJ$S_________________________________________%rom above paragraphs, the need and the Importance to having positive

attitude in employee is well understood.

'n organi1ation can use following methods for developing positive

attitude amongst its employees 2


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31/68

i aware

mt. 3h

erceptio

E

perceivi/ they

altered

les, vali

gration

les and

personE

Ceby

pe

meanin

option

&.2 ?$'#I# '#J J$%I#ITI"# "% P$&!$PTI"#

Perception includes all those processes by which an individualreceives information about his environment 2 seeing, hearing,

feeling, tasting and smelling. 'll the processes are important but

the first three, i.e. seeing, hearing and feeling 2 are the dominant

senses. Thus, perception basically refers to the manner in which a

person e+periences the world . It is the process by which people

organi1e, interpret and e+perience ideas and use stimulus materials

in the environment so that they satisfy their needs.

Perception is the process through which the information form outside

environment is selected, received, organi1ed and interpreted to make

:m meaningful to you. This input of meaningful information result

decision and actions.

few definitions of perception as given by different authors are 2

Perception is the process by which people organi1e, interpret and

e+perience ideas and use stimulus materials in the environment,

that the satisfy their needs4. 21oseph Reit+

8erception may be defined as a process by which individual organi1e

ad interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to

leir environment4 2 "P" Ro22ins

8erception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting,

rgani1ing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimulator

e4. 2 3dai Pareck

)3 NAT5RE OF PERCEPTION

-eople working in an organi1ation differ in terms of physical

laracteristics


32/68


Peror!ancePerception is a basic cognitive or psychological process. The manner

in which a person perceives the environment affects I his behaviour.

Thus, peoples actions, emotions, thoughts, or feelings are triggered

by the perception of their surroundings.

C Perception is a subective process and different people mayl

perceive the same environment differently based on whatE particular

aspects of the situation they choose to absorb, hoY they organi1e this

information and the manner in which the= interpret it to obtain the

understanding of the situation.

&.& FACTORS INF5ENCING PERCEPTION

The factor that influence perceptual mechanism are of two kinds namely

internal and e+ternal. These are discarded below 2

Internal Fa%tors

The internal factors are the needs and desires of individuals individual

personality and the e+perience of people.

7/i8 Nee" an" Desires 2 Jepending on the needs and desires of a

individuals, the perception varies

7/ii8 Personality 2 Individual personality has a profound

influent . on perceived behaviour as for e+ample.

9 M

C Secure individual tends to perceive others as warm, not col

C Individuals do not e+pose by e+pressing e+treme udgments

others.

C Persons who accept themselves and have faith an thi

individuality perceive things favourale.

C Self2accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked, want

and accepted by others.

7/iii8 E>,erien%e 2 $+perience and knowledge has great influei

on perception. Successful e+perience enhance and boost tl

perceptive ability and lead to accuracy in perception of a per/

whereas failure erodes self2confidence.

E>ternal Fa%tors

The e+ternal factors which influence the perception are si5

intensity, fre*uency status, etc.

7i8 Sie 2 The bigger the si1e of the perceived stimulus, the hiV

is the probability that it is perceived. Si1e attracts the attentior

an individual. It establishes dominance and enhances percept

selection.

7ii8 Intensity 2 Intensity attracts to increase the select

perception.

7iii8 FreM+en%y 2 &epeated e+ternal stimulus is more attenl

attracting than a single time.

I


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iXiour

sed below2

etc. that

,ed through

etation.

utputs are

les, etc.

utputs.

TheU

s from th

in uts.

7a8 Nee"s an" "esires 2 Jepending on the needs and desires of an

individual, the perception varies.

78 Personality 2 Individual personality has a profound influences

on perceived behaviour as for e+ample2

C Secure individuals tend to perceive others as warm, not cold.

C Individuals do not e+pose by e+pressing e+treme udgments of

others.

C Persons who accept themselves and have faith in their

individuality perceive things favourably.

C Self2accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked, wanted

and accepted by others

7%8 E>,erien%e 2 $+perience and knowledge has great influence

on perception. Successful e+periences enhance and boost the

perceptive ability and lead to accuracy in perception of a personwhereas failure erodes self2confidence.

7"8 earnin9 2(earning, a cognitive factor, has considerable

influence on perception. It creates e+pectancy in people. People

tend to perceive what they want to perceive. ' number of illustrations

have been used by psychologists to demonstrate the impact of

learning on perception. %or e+ample in fig. 9.7, one tends to read

the sentence, because of prior learning in the triangle as 0turn off

e engine4. It takes few seconds for the reader to reali1e that

ere is an e+tra 0the4 in the sentence. The illustration shows that

ing creates e+pectancy in an individual and e+pectancy makes

see what he wants to see. C

through

the

ultaneousl

E things, thi

lal selectivit

e

environmerase which

Dse which

eds.

(interval

the following

%ig. 9.7 Impact of (earning

lal Fa%tors

important factors which determine perceptual selection as

2 The bigger the si1e of the stimulus, the higher is the

lity that is perceived. The si1e always attracts the attention

it establishes dominance. The si1e may be the height or

of an individual, sign board of a shop, or the space devoted to

isement in the newspaper. ' very tall person will always

out in the crowedE a very short person will always attract

Perception

:98F

Personality & Managerialattention. ' full page advertisement in a newspaper will always

catch attention as compared to a few lines in the classified section, i

78 Intensity 2 It attracts to increase the selective perception. A: fewe+amples of intensity are yelling or whispering, very brighti colours, very

bright or very dim lights. Intensity will also include behavioural intensity.

7%8 FreM+en%y 2 The stimulus which is repeated attracts greater

attention as compared to a stimulus that is not repeated. It isl because of

this that supervisor make it a point to give the necessary directions again

and again to the workers

7"8 Stat+s 2 igh status people can e+ert greater influence on the

perception of the employees than the low status people. There wi? always

be different reactions to the orders given by the foreman] the supervisor or

the production manger

7e8 Contrast 2 'n obect which contrasts with the surroundings

environment is more likely to be noticed than the obects whicl> blends in

the environment. %or e+ample, the $IT sings in th cinema halls which

have red lettering an a black background arD attention drawing.

7f8 (o/e'ent 2 The principle of motion states that a moving obec]

receives more attention than the obect which is standing still, moving car

among the packed cars would catch our attention fastei

798 No/elty an" Fa'iliarity 2 This principle status that new obec] in the

familiar settings or familiar obects in new settings will drs! the attention

of the perceiver. ' familiar face on a crowded railwa platform will

immediately catch attention.

&.0.2 Perceptual "rgani1ation____________________________________________

The perceived inputs are organi1ed into meaningful pictures to tiperceiver. "rgani1ing the information that is incoming into] meaningful

whole is called 0organi1ation4. The process is also labeli(= as 0gestalt

process4. estalt is a erman word meaning 0to organi1f There are

different way by which people organi1e the perceivl inputs. "bects and

events. These are disc cured below 2

7i8 Fi9+re an" Gro+n" 2 The %igure round principle is genera

considered to be the most basic from of perceptual organi1atid This

principle states that the perceived obect or person on evU stands out

distinct from its background and occupies the cognifr space of the

individual. %or e+ample as you read this page, you [ white as the

background and black as the letters or words tol read. )ou do not try to

understand what the white spaces ami the black letters could mean.

(ikewise, in the organi1ational sett] some people are more noticed or

stand out than others. Thus,] perceiver tends to organi1e only the

information which stands

: 99 F significant to the individual.

7ii8 Per%tmeaningf

orga

efficientF2E

det

tM7]f

U my I

/nryi"

tend


37/68


38/68

7ii8 Per%e,t+al Gro+,in9 2 rouping is the tendency stimuli into

meaningful patterns. %or instance, if we perceive obects of people with

similar characteristics, we tend to groi;p them together and this

organi1ing mechanism helps us to deal with information efficiently rather

than getting bogged down and confused with so many details. rouping is

possible depending on


39/68


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permanent. Themporary changes may be only refle+ive and fail to Learning0 Concept and

represent any learning. If reinforcement does not accompany the Theories

practice, the behavior will eventually disappear.

-.2 ?$'#I# '#J J$%I#ITI"#______________________________________

In a (aymans view, 0(earning is something we did when we went to

school4. In reality, each of us is continuously going to school. (earning is

occurring all the time. 3ith every new e+perience, new event or new

situation we learn something. >ut this concept of (earning is purely

theoretrical. 3e cannot observe leaning as we can observe the personality

of a person or his attitude. 3e can see the changes taking place but not

the leaning itself. %ew Important definition of leaning are 2

-(earning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a

result of e+perience or reinforced practice4 2 /"R" Hilgrad

-(earning is any permanent change in thebehavior of a person that

occurs a a result of e+perience4. 2 "P" Ro22ins

-(earning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, responds s a

result of e+perience in a manner different from the way he .rmerly

behaved4. 2 4"M" c5ehee

According to the 6ictionary o Psychology,

0(earning means the process of ac*uiring the ability to respond

ade*uately to a situation which may or may not have been previously

encourntered, the favourable modification of response tendencies

conse*uent upon previous e+perience, particularly the building of a new

series of comple+ity coordinated motor response, the fi+ation f items in

memory, so that they can be recalled or organi1ed in the process of

ac*uainting insight into situation4.

fhus, in simple words, learning can be defined as a permanent Ihange inbehavior through education and training, practice and feperience.

8 NAT5RE OF EARNING _________________________________________________

Com the above definitions of learning, we find the following

iportant implications in this process 7-

. C$an9e in #e$a/io+r 2 (earning involves change in behavior,

though the change may be good or bad from an organi1ations pont

U view. The change in behavior need not be an improvement over

k previous behavior, although learning usually cannotes improved

[tavior.

!hange in >ehaviour ?ust be &elatively Permanent 2 'll the

l$ge do not reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should

[relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflection

[I fail to represent any learning. 'ny temporary change in :9\F

(ogical proces to e+plainunderstand

n the behavic

s accompanie

ich are relat


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Personality & Managerialbehaviour caused due to fatigue or drugs or temporary adaptation I . i Peror!ance

are not covered in learning. I recaG

3. !hange must be based on some e+perience practice or training ls 'i

2 The behavioural change must be based on some from of practice, 0. : e+perience

or training. 'ny change in behavior due to physical recal maturation, any disease

or physical damages do no constitute and s leamming. This change may not be

evident until a situation arises , recen in which the new behavior can occur. I-.- E

&. Reinfor%e'ent 2 The practice or e+perience must be reinforced *****************in

in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does not accompany the

practice or e+perience the behavior will eventually disappears, l,

-. (earning is &eflected in >ehaviour 2 ' change in an individuals a!tlWn.

thought process or attitudes not accompanied by behaviour is not 5 ee5ng

learning. %urther learning needs to result in behavior potentialit= 5eterm.

and not necessarily in behavior itself. %or e+ample, if a person is /curv

rtty re,

thinking of using drugs, but has not actually used them and hi

finds out that a friend of his has died because of drugs, he wil

never get involved with drugs. This e+periences has changed hiF

behavior potential.

-.& PRINCIPE OF EARNING

(earning is a very comple+ and wide topic. 3hen we talk aboi

learning, it can be referring to any type of learning from sim/

alphabets to designing a computer system. %ollowing are tl

principle of learning in formal training situations.

1. Fee"a%) 2 (earning can be a more effective process when be

the instructor and trainee give feedback to each other. The instructFneeds feedback to know how the trainee is progressing and

trainee needs the feedback to know his level of performance.

2. A%ti/e earnin9 2 (earning can be more effective and *uiet

the trainee is actively involved in the learning process. 3e alY

learn by doing. This applies to all forms of learning.

3. Reinfor%e'ent 2 'ccording to this principle 0(earning which

rewarded is more likely to be retained4. This is how we make

children, students and even our pets learn.

&. (eanin9 (aterial 2 The material supplied to the trainee sha

be meaningful. e can understand arid learn more, if the mat5

supplied is related to his e+isting knowledge.

-. (+lti,le sense learnin9 2 The !hinese proverb pictured sts

this principle. The presentation methods which makes use of

or more senses are more effective than using one sense

enerally, the most important senses for learning are SIT

$'&I#.

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42/68

. O/erlearnin9 2 If an individual fre*uently makes attempts to recall

the learned materials, forgetting is reduced and the material is memori1edin his brain.

0. Pri'ary an" De%en%y 2 This principle states that trainees can recall

those things the learn first and hold true in all conditions and sometimes

they act against one another e.g. when the most recent impressions

change or blot our first impressions .

-.- DETER(INANTS OF EARNING

The important factors that determine the learning are as follows 2

1. (oti/e 2 ?otives are the drives which prompt people to take action.

?otives are generally subective and represent the mental feelings of

human beings. ?otives are dynamic in nature and determine the direction

of an individuals behavior. (earning cannot occur without motives.

(earning is complete only when motives are fully reali1ed and translatedinto.

2. Sti'+li 2 Stimuli are the obect that e+ist in the environment in which

person lives. These are those obectes and language which draw the

attention of people. $mployee get stimuli from the action of their spurious.

Stimuli increase the probability of eliciting a specifice response from a

person.

3. Reinfor%e'ent 2 &epeated action is reinforcement. It may be

positive, negative, punishment and e+tinction. It may be defined as

anything that tends to increase the strength of response and induces

repetition of behaviour, that preceded the reinforcement. $ffective

modification of behavior cannot take place without reinforcement.

: &. Attention 2 'nother determinant of learning is the degree of ttention

of learners. The degree of attention depends upon the iture of stimuli. 'll

stimuli are paid attention to. !areer oriented luli are generally levels of

individuals influences their desires learn and motives for needy fulfillment.

Re%o9nition 2 The stimuli which are generally paid attention by the

individuals are recogni1ed as acceptable factors of learning, len

employes pay attention to stimuli, they recogni1e it for learning oses.

The level for recognition depends upon the levels of values, sferences,

need and desires of the individuals.

Retention 2 It means remembrance of learned behavior over le.

Permanent retention becomes a habhit which helps continuous

iprovement in behavior and performance habits help the velopment of

capability and capacity of individuals. abits translate aretical knowledge

into practice.

Effort 2 $fforts made by individuals are another determinant of ling.

$fforts are automatic outcomes of good habits. $fforts =mes the

stimuli for learning after development of the stand

Learning0 Concept and

Theories

;6Q


43/68

Personality & Managerialands of the employees.Peror!ance

. ReJar" 2 It is a very important determinant of learning. If after thelearning process is over, the individual are offered rewards, the learning

process becomes more acceptable. &ewards may be monetary or non

monetary. The behavior of the employees decides the level and form of

reward. The reward reinforcement makes employees learn more than

positive reinforcement behavior.

-. T$"&I$S "% ($'I# _______________________

' theory of learning would be able to e+plain all aspects of learning


44/68

salivating. This response was instructive or unconditioned. Pavlov Learning/

ne+t began to ring a bell at the same time as the meat was presented.

&inging the bell in itself, without the presentation of meat, was

connected to any responses. >ut by ringing the bell at the same

rune as presentation of meat 'vlov established a relationship between

the two stimuli2the bell and the meat 2 in the mind of the dogs. >y

continuing this process, the ringing of bell alone was sufficient

stimulus to elicit a response of salivating, even when no meat was

presented. Thus, the bell became a conditioned stimulus, resulting

in conditioned or leaved response.

ie figure ;.6 e+plains that the meat was an unconditioned stimulus,

caused the dog to react in a certain way i.e. noticeable increase

salivation. This reaction is called the unconditioned response,

le bell was an artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus. >ut

en the bell was paired with the ne+t


45/68

Personality & Managerialthat individuals e!it responses that are re9arded and 9ill to e!it Peror!ance,, ", -,

5rpcnnncpc that arp pithpi2 n nt rpwarprl nr prp nnnishprl "nerant

conditioning agrees that beahaviour is a functioin of conse*uences.

>ehaviour is likely to be repeated if the conse*uences are favourable.

>ehaviour is not likely to be repeated if the conse*uences areunfavourable. Thus the relationship between behavior and conse*uences is

the essence of the operant conditioning.

>ased upon this direct relationship between the conse*uences and the

behavior, the management can study and identify this relationship and try

to modify and control behavior. ence, certain types of conse*uences can

be used to increased the occurrence o a desired behavior and other type of

conse*uences can be used to decrease the occurrence of undesired

behavior.

"ne can see e+amples of operant conditioning in the organi1ation. %or

instance, working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the

person to keep working hard in the future. "n the other hand, if a boss

assures his subordinate that he would be suitably compensated in the ne+tperformance appraisal, provided the employee works over time. owever,

when the evaluation time comes the boss does not fulfill hius assurance to

his subordinate, ever though the latter heads worked overtime. #e+t time,

the subordinatd coolly declined to work overtime when the boss re*uests

him to d* so. Thus, it can be concluded that the behavior conse*uence5

decrease the rate of response

"perant conditioning techni*ues are e+tensively used in clinics and

educational research, control of alcohdism. and control of deviar

children in a classroom.

-..3 !ognitive (earning_____________________________________________

The pioneer of cognitive learning theory is $dward Tolman, developed

and tested this theory through controlled e+perimer Osing rats in hislaboratory, he showed that they learnt to ri through a complicated ma1e

towards their goal of food. It wd observed that rats developed

e+pectations at every choice point the ma1e. Thus, they learnt to e+pect

that certain cognitive ci related to the choice point could ultimately lead

to food. The learnii took place when the relationship between the cues

and e+pects was strengthened because the cues led to e+pected goals.

The cognitive theory recogni1es the role of an organism in receivir

memori1ing, retrieving and interpreting the stimulus and react to it. The

cognitive e+planation of learning differs from classi5 conditioning and

operant conditioning. 'ccording to Tolman, !ognit approach could be

termed as stimulus approach i.e. are stimi leads onother.

;9

!ognitive learning is achieve by thinking about the percei


46/68

relationships between events and individuals goals and e+pectations.

Learning 0

!ognitive theory of learning assumes that the organism leaves the

meaning of various obects and events and learned response depend

upon the meaning assigned to stimuli. !ognitive theorist argue that

the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory, which preserves

and organi1ed information about the various events which occur in

a learning situation. 3hen a test is conducted to determine how

much has been learned, the subect must encode the test stimulus

and scan it against his memory to determine an appropriate action.

3hat is done will depend upon the cognitive structure retrieved

from memory.

Today, the cognitive theory is much alive and relevant. In

organi1ational behavior the cognitive approach has been applied

mainly to motivation theories.

$+pectations, attributions and locus of control and goal setting are

all cognitive concepts and represent the purposefulness of

organi1ational behavior. ?any researchers are currently concerned

about the relationship or connection between cognition and

organi1ational behavior.

-..& Social (earning________________________________________________________

Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people

nd ust by being told about something, as well as by direct

+periences. ?uch what we have learnt comes from observing and

t-`iitating models parents, teachers, peers, superiors, film start etc.

is view that we can learn through both observation and direct

+perience has have called social learning theory. This theory

ssumes that learning is not a case of environmental determinism

/lassical and operant views=,. &ather it is a blending of both. This,

C-cial learning theory emphasis the interactive nature of cognitive,

/havioural and environmental determinants.

le influences of model is central to the social learning view point,

our process have been formed to determine the influence that a

odel will have on an individual.

. Attention Pro%ess 2 People learn from model only when they

cogni1e and pay attention to its critical features. 3e tend to be

ost influences available. Important to us or similar to use in our

timation.

Retention Pro%ess 2 ' models influences will depends upon

w well the individual remembers has models action after the

el is not longer readily available.

(otor Re,ro"+%tion Pro%ess 2 'fter a person has seen a new

avior by observing the model, the waterlring must be converted

doing. This process then demonstrates that the individual can

form the modelled activities.

Concept

and

: ; ; F


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48/68


Peror!ance&. Reinfor%e'ent Pro%ess 2 Individuals will be motivated to e+hibit

the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

>ehaviour that are positively reinforced will be given more attention,learned better and performed more often.

The figure ;.7 illustrates the effect of the social learning model on the

individuals.

%ig. ;.7 $ffect of Social (earning on Individual

-.0 REINFORCE(ENT THEOR!

&einforcement theory is based on the use operant conditioning bE the

management to motivate the workers. It is *uite often appliei in practice.

%or instance, parents reward their children for gooi behavior. In education,

teachers invoke the law of effect by awarding grades for various levels of

performance. >y understanding ho5 operant conditioning works and how

we are caught up in it, we gai/ insight about how and why people behave

as they do. Thus, w learn to recogni1e environmental stimuli and probable

response thereby improving our ability to predict behavior.

The logic of reinforcement theory is simple. Its advocates point o that

evidence abounds throughout human history that we all adhe to its

tenets. 3e do learn from touching a. hot stove, and understand electric

shock rather well often we stick a finger in light sacket whether or not

we agree with the concept of oper conditioning, we cannot avoid it.

"perant conditioning is a powerful tool for managing people

organi1ations. ?ost behaviours in organi1ations are learn controlled and

altered by the conse*uences , i.e., operant behavio ?anagement can

use the operant conditioning process successf to control and influences

the behavior of employees by manipula its reward system. If one e+pect

to influence behavior, he must be capable to manipulate the

conse*uences. Thus, it can be conclu that the behavioural

conse*uences that are rewarding incre the rate of response, while the

aversive conse*uences deer

f Learning from : ] (Seh avio

Personal factors -> Past consequences conditional

Organisational factors -> and experiences

rewards, outcomes,

->predisposition to

act or not

->

Environmental factors -> punisments, etc! to act

performan

"result of

condition

learning)

:;@F Fig. &.3 'einforcement oel

the rate of a response. ' conceptual model of reinforcement theory Learning0 Concept and

is shown in fig. ;.8. Theories

&einforcement principle lays down that behavior depends upon its

conse*uences. In other words, if the conse*uences of behaviour are the

desired ones, the behavior will be strengthened. If the conse*uences are

otherwise, the behavior will be weakened. It works on the basis of simple

logic that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by

undesirable conse*uences.

&einforcement is the process by which certain types of beahviour are

strengthened. Thus, a 0reinforce4 is any stimulus that causes a certain

behavior to be repeated that the employees behave in a manner that is

desirable. !onversely, they are interested in eliminating undesirable

behavior among workers. >y introducing some reinforces, the organi1ation

can maintain or increase the probability of such behaviours as *uality,

performance high level of attendance and punctuality and so on. Somereinforess work by their application to a situation, while others work by

their removal from the situation. Thus, the reinforces work as behavior

modifiers.

-.0.1 Strategies of &einforcement Insect

There are four strategies of reinforcement or behavior modification as

shown in fig. ;.9. These are 2

Positive reinforcement

#egative reinforcement

$+tinction Punishment

Pleasant or Desirable Unpleasant or Undesirable

Events Events

Event is

#pplied

PO$%&%'E

(E%*O(+EE& eaviour

.ecomes more li/el0 to occur

again

P1%$2E&

eaviour .ecomes less li/el0 to

occur again

E3&%+&%O

eaviour .ecomes less li/el0

to occur again

E4#&%'E

(E%*O(+EE& eaviour

.ecomes more li/el0 to occur

again

Event is

5itdrawn

%ig. ;.9 Types of &einforcement

Positive &einforcement

.curs when a desirable event is supplied to a person following

e behaviors. The pleasant event y ignoring the disruptive

employee, attention is with held and possibly also the motivation

for fighting.

7i/8 P+nis$'ent

This strategy is applied when an unpleasant or undesirable even

occurs following some behavior and makes the behavior less likely

to occur in the future. %or e+ample, a supervisor might scold and I

employee each time the employee performs a task incorrectly. The I

supervisor might feel that the scolding will act as punishment fori

poor performance.

-.0.2 Schedules of &einforcement__________________________________________

Schedules of reinforcement could be continuous and partial.

!ontinuous schedule of reinforcement involves administering thd

reinforce each and every time the desired behavior occurs. 3hilahis schedule can be very effective in the early stages of learning

new types of behavior, it becomes difficult to e

personality and developnent

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