personal and organizational responses to work-nonwork interface as related to organizational...

Personal and Organizational Responses to Work- Nonwork Interface as Related to

Organizational Com m i tment

AARON COHEN~ Department of Political Science

University of Haifa Haifa. Israel

This research examined how the response of employees and organizations to the mutual influences between work and other domains was related to 2 forms of organizational commitment (OC): commitment to the local unit and commitment to the head office. All 720 employees of a school district in Western Canada were surveyed by mail questionnaires. Three hundred usable questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 42%. The findings showed that nonwork domain variables affected OC. Positive nonwork-to-work spillover and organizational responses to nonwork, namely separation and respect, were related to commitment to the head office and individual coping strategies were related to commitment to the local unit. The paper concludes with conceptual implications regarding research on OC.

The concept of organizational commitment (OC) has grown in popularity in the literature of industriallorganizational psychology and organizational behavior (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Of all the forms of commitment it is OC which “is currently enjoying widespread popularity” (Griffin & Bateman, 1986, p. 166). This interest is apparent from the numerous studies that have examined the relationships between OC and its antecedents and outcomes (e.g., Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). A primary reason for such attention is that OC is perceived as an attitude which can predict turnover better than other work attitudes, especially job satisfaction (Williams & Hazer, 1986). Moreover, it has been argued that organizations whose members have higher levels of commitment will show higher performance and productivity, and lower levels of absenteeism and tardiness (Bateman & Strasser, 1984; Morris & Sherman, 1981). Aside from the influence of OC on these important behaviors, it is argued that the high degree of attention devoted to this form of

‘Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Aaron Cohen, Department of Political Science, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 3 1905 Israel. e-mail: rspc927@uvm. haifa.ac.il.

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Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1997, 27, 12, pp. 1085-1 114. Copyright 0 1997 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved.

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commitment stems from the fact that it “is theory based, broad in focus, holds significant integrative potential, and may be more manageable than other forms” (Griffin & Bateman, 1986, p. 166).

Most OC research has focused on determining its situational and personal antecedents and on testing its ability to predict work outcomes (Cohen, 1991; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Far less attention has been paid to the relationship between OC and nonwork participation (Romzek, 1989). Early research on the workhonwork relationship emphasized the need for further empirical explora- tions of how the nonwork domain was related to behavior and attitudes in the workplace (Blamer, 1964, 1969; Goldthorpe, Lockwood, Bechhofer, & Platt, 1968, 1969, 1971). Some of this research (Goldthorpe et al., 1968) predicted that in the future workers would emphasize their nonwork needs at the expense of their commitment to their employer. This argument has not been tested em- pirically. The early studies regarding work as a central life interest (Dubin, 1956; Kornhauser, 1965; Orzack, 1963) are perhaps the first empirical research to have dealt directly with the relationship between one form of commitment and nonwork domains. The few later studies that have examined nonwork directly demonstrate the potential of nonwork experiences to contribute to our understanding of OC (Kirchmeyer, 1992; Romzek, 1989).

This research examines the relationship between OC and nonwork domains, and its potential contribution in this regard is threefold. First, it explores nonwork domain variables that affect OC and possible differences in the way they affect it. Second, it examines the relationship between work-nonwork domains using a multidimensional approach to OC. It differentiates between commitment to the local unit and commitment to the head office. While previous findings supported the conceptual usefulness of such a distinction (Gregersen & Black, 1992; Reichers, 1985, 1986), hardly any research has applied it. Third, it tests the possibility that the effect of nonwork domain variables on OC is not direct but moderated by the importance one assigns to nonwork. Such interaction effects have not been tested in previous research.

Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

Work and Nonwork Domains

The relationship between work and nonwork domains is the basis of three competing models of this relationship (Champoux, 198 1; Judge & Watanabe, 1993, 1994; Kabanoff, 1980; Rain, Lane, & Steiner, 1991). The models are based on a role theory concerning the importance of, and effort devoted to, multiple roles. The same persons are typically engaged in distinct institutional spheres (e.g., the family, the work organization), each of these spheres having

WORK-NONWORK INTERFACE 1087

expectations regarding appropriate behavior. Accordingly, individuals may need to manage potentially competing expectations from a variety of work and nonwork spheres (Randall, 1988).

The spillover or expansion model states that the nature of one’s work experiences will carry over into the nonwork domain and affect attitudes and behaviors there. The spillover model can be understood in terms of a transference of beliefs, attitudes, and values learned in one setting to another setting. Hence, the degree of involvement at work will be directly related to the degree of involvement in social roles outside the workplace. The compensatory or scarcity model states that workers who experience a sense of deprivation at work will compensate in their choice of nonwork activities. This model suggests that individuals who are not involved in their work will seek involvement outside it. An individual holding a job that has no place for creativity will compensate by choosing creative nonwork activities. The third model can be termed the segregation model, suggesting that no relationship exists between one’s work and nonwork domains. The institution of work and the various social institutions in the nonwork sphere are physically, temporally, and functionally segregated, making separate and virtually independent value and behavioral demands on the individual. In the segregation model, the study of work involvement could be conducted with no concern for nonwork roles. Reviewing the empirical literature, Champoux (1 98 1) concluded that the evidence so far does not allow any conclusion as to which of the models is most valid, and therefore we cannot describe in any definite way the conditions under which an individual will fol- low any of the three. In a more recent study by Tait, Padgett, and Baldwin ( 1989), their 44 correlations suggest that the spillover hypothesis may be the most accurate means of characterizing the job/life-satisfaction relationship. However, a number of studies have found support for either the compensatory or the segregation hypothesis (Rain et al., 199 1).

Although organizational thinkers now entertain little doubt as to the ability of nonwork participation to influence OC, they remain uncertain as to how it occurs. Kirchmeyer (1992) argued that resource enrichment from nonwork involved increasing not only the individual’s capacity to meet work demands and his or her value to the employer, but his or her sense of personal competence as well. According to Crouter ( I 984), employer-based family supports such as child care and flexible work schedules rest on the belief that they facilitate employees’ abilities to cope with nonwork demands, and in so doing improve performance and commitment at work. Attitudes toward both work and nonwork also have been associated with certain personal strategies that individuals use to manage the work-nonwork interface (Gray, 1983; Hall, 1972; Kinnier, Katz, & Berry, 199 1 ; Kirchmeyer, 1993). Effective coping with multiple domains may influence OC through its positive effect on domain experiences and also

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will enhance personal competence, a factor associated with OC (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990).

Little research has been undertaken on the relationship between OC and the nonwork domain. Randall (1988) related OC to a set of questions dealing with the effort devoted to, and the importance of, seven nonwork activities, and concluded that OC may be relatively immune to the influence of claims outside work. Romzek (1 989) found that OC had a positive effect on nonwork satisfaction. Wiley (1987) found a negative effect ofjob-person conflict and a positive effect of job-family conflict on OC. Wiley interpreted the positive effect of job-family conflict as indicating that increased OC may result in increased perceptions on the part of the individual or family role senders that he or she is not fulfilling family role obligations. Kirchmeyer ( 1992) found that OC correlated positively with the hours spent on, and resources provided by, certain nonwork activities. Furthermore, nonwork factors contributed significantly to the pre- diction of OC after the effects of common work-related correlates were con- trolled. Hence, Kirchmeyer concluded that there was strong support for the expansion model. Steffy and Jones (1988) found that extra-work factors strongly influenced career commitment and moderately influenced OC. Finan- cial security, behaviors coping with multiple domains, and marital satisfaction positively predicted career commitment. OC was higher among financially in- secure women engaged in individual career planning.

Commitment to the Local Unit and to the Head Office

The few conflicting results regarding the relationship between OC and nonwork domains demonstrate the need for further research. The present paper dis- tinguishes between commitment to the specific organization for which one works, mostly schools in this research, and commitment to the head office, in our case the school district covering all of the schools. This paper follows Gregersen and Black ( 1 992), who examined the relationship of several antecedents of commitment to the parent company and to the local work unit. How- ever, Gregersen and Black examined the commitment of American expatriate managers to their parent company and local work unit during repatriation, while this paper examines the commitments of school district employees to their local unit and to their head office in a stable environment. This distinction follows Reichers’ (1985, 1986) recommendation regarding the need for empirical analysis of multiple commitments. Reichers (1985) argued that for many employces “the organization” was an abstraction represented in reality by groups and individuals (e.g., co-workers, supervisors, customers) that col- lectively comprised the organization. For example, Becker ( 1992) argued that for some people, identification with the work group could be central to their


attachment to the workplace, while for others, internalization of their super- visor’s values might be critical. Thus, a multiple commitment approach could aid in organizational diagnosis and intervention procedures to pinpoint the strength, presence, or absence of particular commitments.

This paper argues that the local unit and the head office represent different entities. Thus, there will be differences in the level of commitment to each of them, as well as in their antecedents. Because employees work, spend their time, and have their daily experiences within their local unit, it can be expected that the level of commitment will be higher to the local unit than to the head office. According to Yoon, Baker, and KO (1994), the mechanism that leads to stronger commitment in local units is stronger interpersonal attachment among members in such units. They defined personal attachment as the degree of affective personal relationships an individual has with other members in her or his immediate local work unit. Interpersonal attachment produces a stronger commitment to subgroups than to the larger group, because the credit for positive affect from interpersonal bonds is likely to be attributed to the proximal subgroups, while the blame for negative affect is likely to be attributed to the large group (Lawler, 1992). Hudson and Sullivan ( 1 985) found that employees’ level of commitment to local organizations was stronger than that to multinational firms. They explained their findings in the intrinsically stronger moti- vators that local units could offer and the potential alienation among employees in multinational firms. But because employees are aware that policies regarding them and their local units are determined at the head office it can be expected that organizational responses and policies regarding the work- nonwork interface will have a stronger effect on commitment to the head office than on commitment to the local unit.

Hypothesis l a . The level of commitment to the local unit will be higher than to the head office.

Hypothesis Ib. Organizational responses and policies regarding the work-nonwork interface will have a stronger relationship with QC to the head office than with OC to the local unit (the direction of the relationship of each response is explained in Hypotheses 4a and 4b).

Spillover Variables

From an attitudinal perspective, the spillover hypothesis indicates that one domain “spills over” into the other such that workers who have (dis)satisfying jobs will have (dis)satisfying lives, and vice versa (Judge & Watanabe, 1994).

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Judge, Boudreau, and Bretz ( 1994) explained that individuals satisfied with their lives may be more likely to be satisfied with their jobs because their positive disposition toward life influences their recall and interpretation of job conditions and past job events. The spillover hypothesis was supported in most research examining the relationship between job and life satisfaction (Judge & Watanabe, 1993, 1994; Rain et al., 1991). This line of reasoning will direct the spillover hypotheses here.

An individual who is committed to an organization is involved in or enjoys membership in that organization. Of all the proposed antecedents of OC, those concerning the work experience itself have demonstrated the strongest relationships with it (Allen & Meyer, 1990). The more favorable the experience at work, the stronger the psychological attachment to the organization tends to be. Similarly, the more nonwork participation enhances the work experience, the stronger the psychological attachment should be. Kirchmeyer ( 1992) supported this line of reasoning with a sample of young business-school graduates. Those who perceived their involvement in parenting, community work, and recreation as supporting and facilitating work were highly committed to their employers. This study hypothesizes that the association between the two OC focuses examined and nonwork-to-work spillover will be positive with positive spillover and negative with negative spillover.

Hypothesis 2. High OC will be associated with high positive spillover and with low negative spillover from nonwork to work.

Personal Responses to Nonwork

This paper also examines the relationship between the way individuals cope with work-nonwork issues and OC. Randall (1988) found a positive relationship among the effort devoted to nonwork domains, its perceived importance, and OC. The relationship between importance and commitment was stronger than between effort and commitment. A possible reason is that the value people assign to nonwork domains has a stronger effect than has the actual effort in- vested because often people are not able to fulfill all of their nonwork plans. Yet for many, nonwork domains might still be an important component of their life despite their inability to be more active. Therefore, this study uses only the variable importance of nonwork, and not the variable perceived effort for nonwork. From the above literature review, one would expect that the perceived importance of nonwork domains be related to OC. Randall found positive, although modest, correlations between perceived importance of political activities, friends, family, and religious organizations and OC. Based on this finding a positive relationship between the two will be expected here.


The personal strategy used to cope with the demands and responsibilities of multiple domains appears to affect the experience of interdomain conflict (Hall, 1972; Kirchmeyer, 1993). Successfully coping with multiple domains involves good personal organization and an appropriate attitude. Kirchmeyer found that strategies aimed at altering one’s own attitudes as opposed to altering those of others, and increasing one’s personal efficiency as opposed to de- creasing one’s activity level or relying on others, appeared to be most effective in helping managers to cope with multiple domains.

This paper therefore anticipates that the way individuals cope with their nonwork domains will affect their OC. Effectiveness in dealing with the work- nonwork interface should result in fewer work-nonwork conflicts and prevent the consequent negative attitudes toward the work setting. Parasuraman and Hansen (1 987) found that coping strategies moderate the relationship between work stressors and OC by increasing commitment for those who apply more coping strategies. It follows that employees who deal more effectively with pressure from nonwork claims are expected to be more committed to work focuses than individuals who handle that pressure less effectively.

Hypothesis 3a. Greater OC will be associated with greater perceived importance of nonwork domains.

Hypothesis 3b. Greater OC will be associated with greater personal coping strategies.

Organizational Responses to Nonwork

Of equal importance to personal coping strategies is the way organizations cope with the work-nonwork interface (Kirchmeyer, 1995). Kanter (1977) identified two opposing types of employer responses to work-nonwork issues. One response posits separate work and nonwork worlds. In this case, employers expect employees to leave their nonwork lives at the office or factory door and are concerned mainly, if not exclusively, with employees’ work behaviors. A second type of response is termed “integration.” Here employers assume re- sponsibility not only for employees’ work lives but for aspects of their nonwork lives as well. This response aims at closing the work-nonwork gap; it can reduce the conflict between work and nonwork domains and should result in more favorable attitudes toward the organization. Hall and Richter’s (1988) findings on the work-family interface suggested that organizations should adopt a third type of response, which may be termed “respect.” Unlike the separation response, this entails acknowledging and valuing employees’ nonwork lives. It aims not at closing the work-nonwork gap, but at maintaining and respecting it.

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That is, rather than taking over nonwork responsibilities for employees, it provides employees with personal resources to fulfill such responsibilities them- selves.

Thus, the way the organization responds to the nonwork domains of its employees is expected to affect their OC. The greater the integration and the respect shown by the organization with regard to its employees nonwork domains, the higher will be their level of OC. A greater separation response on the part of the organization will lower the level of OC.

Hjpothesis 4a. Supportive organizational responses to nonwork domains of organizations’ employees (e.g., respect and integration) will be related positively to OC.

Hypothesis 4b. Nonsupportive organizational responses to nonwork domains of organizations’ employees (e.g.. separation) will be related negatively to OC.

Interaction Effects

This paper argues that the variables importance of nonwork and personal coping strategies and the three organizational response variables might affect OC not directly but through a more complex interaction. Employees who value their nonwork domains and cope effectively with the pressures from the work- nonwork interface will adjust better to their work setting and, as a result, will be more capable of fulfilling their nonwork plans. The work setting will not be perceived as interfering with their nonwork plans, and therefore they will be more committed to their organization. Employees who assign high importance to nonwork domains, but who do not cope effectively with pressures from these and from their work, will experience more pressures as a result of their ineffec- tive coping strategies. They will be less capable of fulfilling their nonwork plans and may attribute some of this inability to the pressures from their work setting. As a result, they may be less committed to the organization.

Another expected interaction is between the variables importance of nonwork domains and organizational support for them. For employees who value their nonwork domains, more organizational support for nonwork issues, demonstrated in the respect and integration types of responses, will increase their ability to participate in nonwork domains and will result in higher levels of OC. The opposite is expected when the organization is not supportive, as demonstrated in a separation type of response. In such cases, employees who value their nonwork domain might feel frustrated by their inability to fulfill nonwork needs because of lack of support from their organization. Some of this


frustration will be attributed to the work setting, and to the organization in particular, and will result in lower levels of OC.

Finally, the use of three moderators in the relationship between nonwork domains and OC raises the possibility of a three-way interaction effect. It is reasonable to expect that the interaction between the variables importance of nonwork domains and personal coping strategies will differ according to the organization’s support for nonwork. That is, the interaction of importance of nonwork domains and personal coping strategies will operate differently with and without organization support. When the organization supports the nonwork domains, the effect of the variable importance of nonwork domains on OC will be positive for employees who cope effectively with their nonwork domains. One who values her or his nonwork domains and who uses effective coping strategies to prevent work-nonwork conflicts, responds with higher levels of OC when the organization supports his or her nonwork domains. On the other hand, one who values his or her nonwork domains and who uses effective coping strategies to prevent work-nonwork conflicts, but who finds out that the organization does not support coping efforts, will react negatively and thus show lower levels of OC.

Hypothesis 5a. The effect of nonwork domains on OC will be stronger for employees who cope effectively with their nonwork domains than for employees who cope less effectively.

Hypothesis 5b. The effect of nonwork domains on OC will be positive when the organization supports the nonwork domains of its employees and negative when it does not.

Hypothesis 5c. The effect of nonwork domains on OC will vary depending on personal coping strategies as well as organizational support for nonwork domains.

Method

Participants

All 720 employees of a school district in western Canada were surveyed. Questionnaires were sent by mail and 300 usable questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 42%. Thirty-three percent of the sample were females. Table 1 contains a summary of the demographic characteristics of the sample. The mean age of the respondents was 42.1 years; and the mean tenure in the local unit (mostly schools), school district, and occupation were 7.6 , 11.2, and 14.2

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Table 1

Means, Standard Deviations, and Corelations Among Study Variables

M SD 1 2 3 4

Control variables 1. Gendera 2. Education 3. Years in occupation 4. Income

Commitment variables 5. Commitment to

school 6. Commitment to

school district

Spillover variables 7. Positive work-to-

nonwork spillover 8. Negative work-to-

nonwork spillover

0.67 0.47 6.93 2.08

14.18 8.58 10.47 0.51

33.96 6.09

30.72 7.86

30.09 5.29

13.67 5.30

Personal responses to nonwork 9. Importance of

nonwork domains 22.50 3.58 10. Coping strategies 28.92 5.06

Organizational response to nonwork 1 1. Separation of work

and nonwork domains 8.81 2.80

and nonwork domains 10.99 3.58

domains 9.00 3.70

12. Integration of work

13. Respect for nonwork

-.20*** -.30*** .27*** -.43*** .74*** .48***

.15**

.13*

.05

-.16**

.06

.14*

.oo

.09

-.01

.03 -.07

-.12* -.02

-.13* .02

.26*** .02

.05 -.oo

.07 .01

.oo .00

-.06

-. 11

.16**

.20***

.oo

.06

.06

aO = male, 1 = female. * p I .05. **p I .01. ***p <.001


(Reliabilities in Parentheses)

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

( 3 5 )

.58*** (.92)

.16** .21*** (.74)

-.12* -.14* .04 (.81)

.05 .09* .23*** -.04

.23*** .20*** .23*** -.30*** .23*** (.72)

-.17** -.25*** -.15** -.06 -.OO -.O1 (.54)

. I 1 .30*** .14** -.02 .02 .14** -.17** (.71)

.18** .33*** .05 -.08 -.I 1 .18*** -.17** .58*** (.74)

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years, respectively. Sixty-seven percent of the sample had completed their university education. Of the university graduates, 16.4% possessed an M.A. or Ph.D. degree. Seventy percent of the sample were in teaching positions, 10% in administrative positions, and 20% in clerical, maintenance, or caretaking positions.

Measures

Control variables. The following control variables were applied. Gender (0 = male, 1 = female); education, a scale of 1 (elementary school) to 7 (higher university degree); years in occupation; and annual income were measured as interval variables.

Organizational commitment. This paper utilizes a definition and measurement of OC proposed and tested by Cohen ( 1993). OC was defined as an affective attachment to the organization, expressed in one or more of the following dimensions: (a) identification-adoption of the goals and values of the commitment objects as one’s own; (b) affiliation-feelings of belonging to the commitment objects, being part of them; and (c) moral involvement-internalization of the roles of the commitment objects, demonstrated in feelings of care and concern for them.

The respondents answered the same questions for each type of commitment (school, school district). The items for the identification dimension were: “I find it very easy to identify with the objectives of this organization,” “Most of the values I believe in are demonstrated by this organization,” and “There are a lot of similarities between my personal goals and the goals of this organization.” The items for the affiliation dimension were: “I talk to my friends about how great it is to work idbelong to this organization,” “I am proud to work for/be a member of this organization,”and “I feel myself a part of this organization.” The items for the moral involvement dimension were: “I take personally any problem that occurs in the organization,” “I become upset when things are not working out as they should in my organization,” and “I really care about everything that happens in my organization.” A 7-point scale of agreement was employed, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Nonwork domains variables. Eight items from Kirchmeyer’s ( 1992) measure of positive nonwork-to-work spillover were employed. Each item began with the phrase “Being involved in nonwork activities” and concluded, for example, with “earns me certain rights and privileges that otherwise I could not enjoy,” “gives me support so I can face the difficulties of work,” and “improves my image at work.” Kirchmeyer (1995) also developed a measure of negative nonwork-to-work spillover to correspond to her positive one. All eight items were used here. As in the positive measure, items began with the phrase “Being invohed in nonwork activities” and concluded, for example, with “demands


time from me that could be spent on my job,” “makes me so irritable that I take it out on the people at work,” and “makes it hard to adjust back to the way I must act at work.” A 5-point scale of agreement was employed for both positive and negative spillover scales.

The variable importance of nonwork domains was measured according to Randall (1988). Respondents were asked “How important is this activity to you?” Seven potential outside domains were explored: jobs outside the work organization, hobbies and recreational activities, religious organizations, political parties, family and relatives, friends, and a miscellaneous category of other organizations. A 5-point scale format was used for all response categories, ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). The total importance of external claims was calculated by summing the perceived importance of each claim. The variable personal coping with multiple domains was measured using eight items from a scale developed by Kirchmeyer (1993). These items represent effective strategies identified in her study and suggest a coping theme of good personal organization and an appropriate attitude. Examples include “increase my efficiency by scheduling and organizing role activities carefully” and “develop attitudes which put role demands in a positive light.” A 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not &pica1 of me) to 5 (vely typical of me) was applied.

The three types of organizational responses to nonwork domains were all based on Kirchmeyer’s (1995) measures. Four items were selected to measure organizational respect for nonwork support. These particular items dealt with individual perceptions of the organization’s respect-type response to nonwork, and included “considers employees’ personal lives when making important de- cisions about careers,” ‘Laccommodates employee’ special nonwork needs,” and “is flexible about employees’ work schedules.” Four other items were selected to measure the organization’s integration-type response regarding work and home. These items included individual perceptions such as “offers personal counseling and assistance programs to employees” and “encourages a lot of integration between employees’ work and nonwork lives.” Finally, three items were used to measure individual perceptions of the organization’s separation- type response to nonwork, and included “prefers employees to keep work and nonwork as separate worlds” and “considers employees’ nonwork lives to be employees’ private domain.” A 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not typical of my organization) to 5 (very typical) was applied for all three variables.

Data Analysis

Exploratory factor analysis was performed first to test whether the factor structure of the items confirmed the existence of two clear factors representing the two commitment focuses. Such an analysis can detect problematic items

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which share similar factor loadings or have high factor loading on the factor they are not expected to load on. Such findings represent overlap among items that can be solved by omitting the problematic items. In the next step, confirmatory factor analysis using LISREL VIII (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993) was applied to test the discriminant validity of the two OC foci.

Hypothesis l a was tested by a t test to evaluate the significance of the difference between commitment to the local unit and commitment to the school district. Hypothesis 1 b was examined by a test that compared the differences between two correlation coefficients for correlated data. This comparison was performed to test whether organizational response variables had a stronger effect on OC to the head office than on OC to the local unit. The regression analysis provided some additional evidence for Hypothesis 1 b. All of the other hypotheses were tested by correlation and regression analyses.

Each regression in this study was conducted as follows. In the first step, the control variables (gender, education, years in the occupation, and income) were entered. In the second step, the two spillover variables were entered into the equation. In the third step, variables representing personal responses to nonwork (total importance of outside ties, personal coping strategies) were entered. In the fourth step, the three organizational responses to nonwork variables (respect, integration, and support) were entered. In the following steps, the interaction effects were entered into the equation.

An interaction effect of importance of nonwork domains was performed with each of the three organizational response types separately for the two commitment focuses examined in this study. One set of interactions was for Importance of Nonwork Domains x Respect, another for Importance x Integra- tion, and a third for Importance x Separation. In each of the three subsequent steps, a two-way interaction effect was entered into the equation and, in the final step, the three-way interaction effect was entered. Each of the interactions is presented to permit interpretation of two-way interactions if the three-way interaction is not significant, or interpretation of main effects when the two- way interactions are not significant. While all of the analyses are discussed, because of space limitations not all of them are presented in the tables. Following Aiken and West (1991), the three variables included in the interaction were centered to minimize multicollinearity.

Results

All of the items of the two commitment forms were subjected to a principal components factor analysis and varimax rotation. A factor analysis of the 18 items was intended to indicate whether the two forms represented different dimensions and a distinct construct. The analysis revealed four factors. The first


factor included six items from the commitment to the school district construct, and the second factor included the same six items for the commitment to the school construct. The six items represented the identification and the affiliation dimensions. The third factor included four items, two of them representing the moral involvement dimension from the commitment to the school district construct and the other two representing the same dimension but from the commitment to the school construct. The fourth factor included two items, one of them representing the moral involvement dimension from the commitment to the school district construct, and the other representing the same dimension but from the commitment to the school construct. This result shows clearly that the three items representing the moral involvement dimension are the reason for overlap of the two commitment focuses and definitely can decrease the discriminant validity between the two constructs. Therefore, it was decided to omit the three items of moral involvement from the two constructs and to use for each of them the six items that represent the affiliation and identification dimensions. The reliability for each of the six-item scales was high, .85 for commitment to the local unit and .92 for commitment to the school district.

To establish the discriminant validity of the two commitment constructs, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed using LISREL VIII. The two- factor model placed the 12 indicators of commitment to the school district and commitment to the local unit on separate latent factors. This model was compared with a one-factor model where all 12 indicators were forced into a single latent factor. The fit of each measurement model was assessed with five indices: (a) chi-square ratio, (b) chi-square/degrees of freedom ratio, (c) adjusted goodness of fit (AGFI) index, (d) root-mean-square residual (RMSR), and (e) root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA). The findings revealed that the two-factor model fit the data better than the one-factor model. Chi square ( N = 284) for the two-factor model was 75.10 0, < .05) with 53 degrees of freedom (df), and for the one-factor model it was 24 1.60 (p < .OO 1) with 54 df: Chi- squareldf ratio was 1.41 for the two factors and 4.47 for the one factor. AGFI, RMSR and RMSEA for the two factors were .98, .06, and .04 for the two factors, and .94, .lo, and . I 1 for the one factor, respectively. One should particularly note the very large difference between the fit indices regarding the chi square and the chi-squareldf ratio which emphasized the better fit of the two- factor solution.

As the two models are nested models, a chi-square difference test (Bollen, 1989) was applied to compare them. The statistic for this test is calculated as the difference in the usual chi-square estimators for the restricted and unre- stricted models, with dfs equal to their difference in dJ A significant chi square will indicate that the constraints imposed on the restricted models reduce their fit in comparison with the saturated or the hypothesized models. The chi-square

1100 AARON COHEN

difference test (Bollen, 1989) showed that the restrictions added to the alterna- tive one-factor model significantly reduced the fit of this model, compared with the two-factor model, x2(N = 284, df = 1) = 166.64, p < .001. All of the above findings suggest that despite the relatively high correlation between them ( r = .58;p < .001) the two commitments represent different constructs.

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and the intercorrelations among the research variables, demonstrating acceptable psychometric properties of the variables. Two high correlations between the independent variables should also be mentioned: r = .69 between income and education, and r = .58 between integration and respect. But these two correlations did not exceed .70, the common criterion for multicollinearity. The results o f t tests supported Hypothesis 1 a. The level of commitment to the local unit was significantly higher than commitment to the school district (difference mean: 3.22); t ( N = 284) = -8.26, p 5 ,001.

Hypothesis 1 b predicted that organizational response variables would be related to commitment to the school district more strongly than to commitment to the local unit. A t test for the significance of the difference between the correlations of each commitment to the three organizational response variables was performed. The findings showed that the correlation between commitment to the school district and integration response ( r = .30) was significantly higher, t (N = 276) = 2.74, p I .05, than between commitment to the local unit and integration response ( r = . I 1). They also showed a significantly higher correlation t (N= 25 1) = 2 . 8 0 , ~ I .05, between commitment to the school district and the respect response ( r = .18) and commitment to the local unit and the respect response ( r = .33). No significant difference was found for the relationship between commitment to the school district and separation ( r = -.25) and commitment to the local unit and separation ( r = -. 17), although the direction of this correlation was as expected. The regression analysis in Table 2 provides additional support to the difference in the relationship between each of the commitment focuses and the nonwork domain. First, the explained variance is higher for commitment to the school district (R2 = .28) than for commitment to the local unit (R2 = .17). Second, the variables representing organizational response variables had almost no effect on commitment to the local unit, but two organizational responses, mostly separation and respect, were related to commitment to the school district. While not directly related to Hypothesis lb, other differences in the regression equations, are also worth noting. For example, positive spillover was related to commitment to the local unit only in Step 2 of the regression equations but was consistently related to commitment to the school district in all of the steps in the equations. Coping strategies were related to commitment to the local unit, but not to commitment to the school district. All of these findings show that the two commitments are related differently to aspects of nonwork domains, and in particular to organizational response variables.

WORK-NONWORK INTERFACE I I O I

Table 2

Regression Results (Standardized Coefficients) for Commitment to the School and to the School District as Dependent Variables

Variables Step 1 Step2 Step 3 Step4 Step 5 Step Saa .-

Commitment to school

Control variables Genderb Education Years in occupation Income

Spillover variables Positive nonwork-to-work

spillover Negative nonwork-to-

work spillover Personal responses

domains Importance of nonwork

Coping strategies

Separation between work and nonwork domains

Integration between work and nonwork domains

Respect for nonwork domains

Organizational responses

Interactions Importance of Nonwork x

Personal Coping Strategies Importance of Nonwork x

Respect for Nonwork Personal Coping

Strategies x Respect for Nonwork

Importance of Nonwork x Personal Coping Strategies x Respect for Nonwork

R' (adjusted)

F A R ~ F for AR2

.14 . I2 .09

.13 .13 .12 -.02 -.01 -.01 -.08 -.07 -.I0

.14* .I0

-.13 -.07

-.03 .18*

. I2 . I 1

.I4 .13 -.oo -.01 -.06 -.05

.08 .06

-.08 -.07

.OO -.03

.14 .16*

-.14* -.12

-.05 -.02

.I6 . I3

-.09

. I I

.13 -.oo -.06

.09

-.08

-.01 .15*

-.08

-.04

.I6

-.lo

.14* -.03

.07 .oo

-.01 -.14* .03 .06 .09 .I3 .I7 . I6

(.01) (.04) (.06) (.09) (.11) (.lo) 1.81 2.50* 2.68** 2.93** 2.72*** 2.68***

.03 .03 .04 .04 .03 3.79* 3.10* 3.33** 2.39* 1.86

(Table continues)

1102 AARON COHEN

Table 2 (Conrinued)

Variable Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step4 Step 5 Step 5aa

Control variables Genderb Education Years in occupation Income

Spillover variables Positive nonwork-to-work

Negative nonwork-to- spillover

work spillover Personal responses

Importance of nonwork domains

Coping strategies

Separation between work Organizational responses

and nonwork domains Integration between work

and nonwork domains Respect for nonwork

domains Interactions

Importance of Nonwork x Personal Coping Strategies

Importance of Nonwork x

Respect for Nonwork Personal Coping

Strategies x Respect for Nonwork

Importance of Nonwork x Personal Coping Strategies x Respect for Nonwork

R’ (adjusted)

F At?’ F for AR’

Commitment to school district

-

.12 -. 1 1 .50

-.o I

.03

1.57 (.Oil

~

.I0 .08 . I2 . I0 . I 1 -.I4 -.I5 -.I3 -.I4 -.I4 .08 .07 . I 0 .09 .09 .01 -.01 .06 .08 .08

.24*** .20** . 15* .14* .17*

- . lo -.05 -.08 -.06 -.07

.01 .06 .03 .05

. I 4 .06 .09 .06

-.IS** -.17** -.13*

. I 1 . I4 . I 1

.22** .I6 .2 1 **

-.07 -.06

.17* .02

.09 -.I0

.07 -.13* .09 . I 1 .23 .28 .26

(.06) (.07) (.19) (.23) (.21) 3.58** 3.18** 5.87*** 5.24*** 5.01***

.06 .02 .12 .05 .03 7.42*** 1.92 11.77*** 3.63** 2.27 -___. ~ - ~~

aStep 5a refers to the equation that includes the variable separation from nonwork in- stead of the variable respect for nonwork. bO = male, 1 = female. *p I .05. **p 5.01. ***p I ,001.


Hypothesis 2, which predicted an effect ofthe spillover variables on OC, re- ceived only partial support. Table 1 shows that the two spillover variables were related to the commitment focuses in the correlation analysis. Negative spillover was negatively related to commitments to the local unit and the school district, and positive spillover had positive correlations with these two commitments. But the effect became weaker in the regression analysis. Posi- tive nonwork-to-work spillover was strongly related to commitment to the school district. It was also related to commitment to the local unit in the second step in the regression equations, an effect that disappeared in the following steps (Table 2). Negative nonwork-to-work spillover was not related to either of the OC focuses in either regression analysis.

Hypotheses 3a, dealing with the relationship between importance of nonwork domain and OC, was not supported by the data. A very modest and positive correlation was found between importance of nonwork domains and commitment to the school district ( r = .09, p 5 .05), but no significant effect was found in the regression analysis between any of the commitment focuses and importance of nonwork. Hypothesis 3b was supported by the data. Table 1 shows significant positive correlations between coping strategies and both forms of OC. The regression analysis shows a significant positive effect of coping strategies on commitment to local unit. This effect was found in Step 3 in the regression equation and remains in the final equations (Steps 5 and 5a).

Hypotheses 4a and 4b, predicting relationships between organizational responses and OC, were supported in general by the data. First, the correlation analysis in Table 2 shows that the two supportive organizational responses, integration and respect, were positively related to the two forms of OC. The correlations were significant except for the one between integration and commitment to the local unit. Separation, the nonsupportive organizational response, was negatively and significantly related to the two OC forms. The regression results show a strong effect of two organizational response variables, separation and respect, on OC to the school district. The respect response had a positive effect on commitment to the school district, while the separation response had a significant negative effect. But the relationships of the response variables with commitment to the local unit, which were significant in the correlation analysis, were not in the regression analysis. Only the separation response had a significant negative effect on commitment to the local unit (Table 2, Step 4).

Hypothesis 5a, predicting an interaction effect of importance of nonwork domains and coping strategies, was not supported by the data. The results did not reveal any such significant interaction, Hypothesis 5b, expecting an interaction effect of importance of nonwork domain with the three organizational responses to nonwork, was partly supported by the data. A consistent interaction effect of importance of nonwork and the respect response was found for the two

1104 AARON COHEN

OC forms, as can be seen in Table 2, Step 5. Figures la and Ib show that the pattern was similar for the two interactions. For employees who perceived their nonwork domains as important, higher respect for nonwork by the organization increased commitment both to the local unit and to the school district. For employees who perceived their nonwork domains as not important, higher respect for nonwork by the organization had no effect on commitment. The findings in Table 2 and Figures la and Ib show a stronger interaction effect on commitment to the school district. The interaction of importance of nonwork with the two other organizational response types did not reveal any significant effects. These interactions are not presented in the tables because of space limitations.

Hypothesis 5c, which predicted a three-way interaction effect, was supported only for the separation type of response. This interaction is presented in Table 2, Step 5a. Note that while the three-way interactions and the equations with them were significant, the contribution of the interactions to the explained variance of the two OC forms was not. Plotting the three-way interaction is ac- complished by plotting two-way interactions at values of the third variable (Aiken & West, 199 1). Aiken and West further argue that the analyst is not confined in selecting the third variable and that plotting the interaction in various ways can often be useful in the interpretation of higher order interactions. At first, the interaction was plotted for two levels of the separation response. The pattern of the interaction was the same for low as for high levels of separation. Employees who assigned high importance to nonwork domain and applied more coping strategies increased their OC. This interaction was not plotted because of the similarity in its pattern. However, when the interaction was plotted with two levels of coping strategies, differences in the pattern of the interaction was found between high and low levels of coping strategies. This interaction was plotted and is presented in Figure 2. As can be seen from Figure 2, the pattern of the interaction was similar for commitment to the local unit (Figures la and Ib) and for commitment to the school district (Figures 2c and 2d). The pattern that emerges from Figure 2 is that for employees with low coping strategies (Figures 2b and 2d), those who assign low importance to the nonwork domain, more separation will increase their commitment more than for those who assign high importance to the nonwork domain. The opposite effect was found for those with high coping strategies (Figures 2a and 2c). For this group, more separation will increase commitment for those who assign high importance to the nonwork domain than for those who assign low importance to the nonwork domain.

Discussion

The goal of this paper was to examine the relationships between nonwork domains and OC. Its main contributions are an examination of the relationship


0 ,

Legend

- High importance of nonwork domains - - Low importance of nonwork domains

Low respect High respect Organizational response to nonwork

25

20 ._ z c a 5 15 :: f.

-

a 0 c c

10 1 .- E

u : 5

B

Legend

High importance of nonwork domains Low importance of nonwork domains

1106 AARON COHEN

35 -

40

35

30 - 0

2 25

L f 5

a, +s 2 20 c C

._ E 15-

0

10-

5 -

0- Low sel

__---- __- -

Legend


30- - 0

2 25-

f 20-

al

C

c E 5 'E 15-

0

10-

5 -

High separation I ration

Organizational response to nonwork

Legend


B

0 ) I Low separation High separation

Organizational response to nonwork


20- C

m E I

'E Legend


" I I

Low separation High separation Organizational response to nonwork

- C

c E 6 - ._ E

Legend


" 1 ~ I

Low separation High separation Organizational response to nonwork

Figure 2. A (High coping strategies), B (Low coping strategies)-A three-way interaction effect on commitment to the school. C (High coping strategies), D (Low coping strategies)-A three-way interaction effect on commitment to the school district.

1108 AARON COHEN

between nonwork domains and two OC forms simultaneously, commitment to the local unit versus commitment to the head office, and a search for possible complex interaction effects of nonwork domain variables in their relationships with OC. The findings show that the effect of nonwork domains on OC was both meaningful and complex. It was meaningful because nonwork domains affected the OC forms examined in this study, particularly commitment to the school district. It was complex because variables that represent nonwork domains affected the forms of OC both directly and indirectly through interaction effects.

The effect of nonwork domains on the two focuses of OC, namely, commitment to the local unit and commitment to the school district, was quite strong. A significant amount of the variance in OC, mainly of commitment to the school district (Rz = .28), was explained by the nonwork domain variables. This finding is important in light of the fact that OC is thought to be affected mainly by work setting variables (Mowday et al., 1982). Thus, the findings do not support Randall’s (1988) conclusion that OC is not related to nonwork domains. One should also note that the control variables had no significant effect on OC. Moreover, the possible effect of type of daily work (teaching vs. not teaching) was also tested and had no effect on commitment. This shows that the effect of nonwork domains on commitment was not dependent on gender, education, income, or daily work, and it emphasized the importance of the concept of nonwork.

The findings of this research support previous arguments about the need to apply a multidimensional approach regarding the concept of OC. Some differences in the effect of nonwork variables on the two commitment forms are worth noting because they support the argument presented earlier that the local unit and the head office represent different entities. Commitment to the school district was found to be more strongly related to nonwork domains than commitment to the local unit. The stronger relationship of commitment to the school district with nonwork domain variables, particularly organizational responses to nonwork, shows that the commitment focus responsible for policy regarding nonwork domains will be more strongly affected. While the employees in this sample were more committed to the local unit than to the school district, they clearly realized that policy was determined in the head office, and that caused a strong effect of organizational response variables on commitment to the head office. This was demonstrated in the stronger effect of all the organizational response variables on commitment to the school district. Also, the significant effect of positive nonwork-to-work spillover on commitment to the school district but not on commitment to the local unit indicates that employees assign more importance to the effect of nonwork activities on their status at the head office than at the local unit.

One should also note the significant effect of personal coping strategies on commitment to the local unit but not on commitment to the school district. This


finding shows that the daily pressures employees experience come from the local unit, and the more successful they are in coping with them, the more committed they are. All of these findings, together with the result of the confirmatory factor analysis, support the notion that the two OC focuses represent different entities.

One may argue that the relatively high correlation between the two OC forms revealed concept redundancy. Some of this redundancy can be attributed to common method error and to the cross-sectional design of this study. An- other explanation for this correlation is that the higher interpersonal attachment experienced in the local units and the greater OC there may create subgroup fragmentation, thereby hampering individual members’ commitment to the larger organization (Yoon et al., 1994). However, another possible reason is that some redundancy among OC forms should be tolerated. Conceptu- ally, it can be argued that perfect interdependence does not reflect reality in the workplace. It makes more practical sense to suggest that forms of OC are likely to be correlated and dependent simply because they are likely to be correlated within the minds of the employees. For example, Stagner (1956) described dual commitment to union and employer as a phenomenon arising from people’s tendency to perceive their work situation as a unit rather than sharply differen- tiating the union role from the management role.

The findings show that organizational response variables are useful in ex- plaining OC, a fact that has important practical implications. Organizations may increase the positive attitudes of their employees by showing more respect for their nonwork domains, as demonstrated by the positive effect of the integration and respect responses on commitment to the school district. On the other hand, they can weaken these attitudes by showing no concern for their employees’ nonwork domain needs, as demonstrated by the negative effect of the separation response on commitment to the school district. This finding is interesting in comparison with the weak effect of personal coping strategies on OC forms. It is the way in which organizations react to the nonwork domains of their employees, rather than management of the work-nonwork interface by employees, that can increase OC. It is interesting that the magnitude and direction of the effect of the three response variables was very similar to that found by Kirchmeyer (1 995) in a sample of Canadian managers. This similarity in results strengthens the findings and conclusions of this research.

Conceptually, the findings of this study tend to support the expansion or the spillover model to the work-nonwork relationship. As Table 2 shows, most of the significant correlations between nonwork domain variables and OC focuses were positive. The variable positive nonwork-to-work spillover had positive correlations with the two commitment forms. Moreover, there were no significant correlations between negative nonwork-to-work spillover and the two OC

11 10 AARON COHEN

forms. The variable importance of outside ties had a positive significant correlation with the two OC forms. The positive effect on OC of organizational support, namely integration and respect for the nonwork domains, and the negative effect of the separation response also support the expansion model. Thus, there seems to be no support for the argument that OC is immune to the influence of claims outside work.

However, the effect of nonwork domains on OC is complex, as demonstrated in the interaction effects. The pattern of the interactions found here is interesting and important both conceptually and practically. All three types of organization response were tested for a possible interaction with importance of nonwork domains. The findings revealed a consistent interaction of the respect response with importance of nonwork domains for the two commitment forms. For the two other organization responses, integration and separation, no interaction was found. Understandably, the respect type of organizational response seems common in many organizations. Conceptually, it is a compromise between a response favor- ing separation of work from nonwork and a very active integration of work and nonwork. Organizations should note that a resepct-type response on their part may increase commitment only for those employees who value their nonwork domains and perceive them as an important part of their lives. It will not affect, or might even lower, the level of commitment by employees who assign low importance to their nonwork domains. So before determining their response to their employees’ work-nonwork interface, organizations should first collect infor- mation about the importance of nonwork domains, and then respond selectively according to the perceived importance of nonwork domains.

The three-way interaction had a somewhat weaker effect on the two OC forms, but also emphasized the role of the perceived importance of nonwork domain in moderating the relationship between the separation response and OC. However, the three-way interaction revealed a more complex relationship by emphasiz- ing personal coping strategies as a variable that shaped the effect of separation and importance of nonwork domain. The three-way interaction effect seemed to emphasize the role of the individual in determining her or his relationship with the work-nonwork interface. One who values nonwork domain and ap- plies more coping strategies will be more committed, even if the organization prefers employees to keep work and nonwork as separate worlds and does not support them in dealing with the pressures of nonwork domains. This finding suggests that organizations should detect and hire employees who apply high- coping strategies that will not need any organizational assistance in their nonwork life. However, the three-way interaction should be replicated in future research before any definite conclusion based on the above finding can be made.

The variance explained by nonwork domains is relatively high, in particular for commitment to the head office. This is important because nonwork domains

WORK-NONWORK INTERFACE 11 11

are not expected to be the main determinants of OC (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mowday et al., 1982). Future research should test the effect of nonwork domains together with work-related predictors of OC such as job perceptions and job satisfaction. This will indicate whether the effect of nonwork domain variables is over and above work-related variables and will strengthen their contribution in understanding OC. The relationships found here between nonwork domain variables and OC justify future research in this area. The findings of this study strengthen Kirchmeyer’s (1 992) conclusion that to truly understand the individual at work, not only should his or her work life be considered; life away from work must also be taken into account. Altogether, nonwork aspects should receive further attention in future research to clarify the effect of nonwork to work domains on employees’ attitudes and behaviors in general and on OC in particular.

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