person-environment congruence and job satisfaction

Journal of Vocational Behavior 29, 216-225 (1986)

Person-Environment Congruence and Job Satisfaction

JOHN C. SMART

College of Education, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

CHARLES F. ELTON

Department of Higher Education, University of Kentucky

AND

GERALD W. MCLAUGHLIN

O&e of Institutional Research, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

The results of this study generally support the premise that job satisfaction is positively related to the congruence between the personality types of individuals and their work environments. Person-environment congruence is positively related to the intrinsic job satisfaction of males and females. However, gender-specific differences are apparent in terms of the relationship between person-environment congruence and extrinsic (males only) and overall (females only) job satisfaction. These relationships are consistent for all personality types included in the study. The implications of these findings for further research and for the selection and placement of individuals in work settings are discussed. o 1986 Academk RCSS, IIIC.

A basic tenet of Holland’s (1973) theory of careers is that “vocational satisfaction, stability, and achievement depend on the congruence between one’s personality and the environment (composed largely of other people) in which one works” (p. 9). This belief is a corollary of his assumption that exemplary vocational behavior is a consequence of the successful efforts of individuals to search for and be attracted by environments that encourage, reinforce, and reward their distinctive patterns of attitudes, competencies, and interests. Holland (1973, 1985) suggests that (a) most people can be characterized by their similarity to each of six personality types (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) that reflect most of what is known about individuals, and (b) there are

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PERSON-ENVIRONMENT CONGRUENCE 217

six analogous work environments that characterize the prevailing physical and social settings in society. The degree of congruence between individuals’ primary personality type and their respective work environment is the basis for hypothesized vocational consequences (e.g., stability, success, satisfaction) resulting from person-environment interactions.

Spokane (1985) concluded from his extensive review of current findings that “higher congruence was substantially related to greater job satisfaction” (p. 319). The empirical foundation for this broad conclusion is weakened, however, by several limitations in studies that have examined this relationship. First, much of the current evidence is based on studies of single occupational groups, for example, accountants (Aranya, Barak, & Amemic, 1981), engineers (Meir & Erez, 1981) nurses (Hener & Meier, 1981), and teachers (Wiggins, Lederer, Salkowe, & Rys, 1983). Second, many studies have focused only on overall job satisfaction and have not examined the degree to which person-environment congruence is related to satisfaction with different dimensions of the job (e.g., Wiggins et al., 1983). Third, virtually all studies failed to include controls for other known correlates of job satisfaction (e.g., educational degree level, organizational size).

The most comprehensive assessment of the congruence-satisfaction hypothesis advanced by Holland (1973, 1985) was conducted by Mount and Muchinsky (1978) who found that congruent workers (n = 277) had significantly higher satisfaction scores on all five scales of the Job De- scriptive Index (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969) than incongruent workers (n = 85). They also reported significant interactions between the congruence and work environment main effects on four of the five satisfaction scales and on the total satisfaction score. The interaction findings are highly important, for they demonstrate that the congruence-satisfaction hypothesis advanced by Holland is not equally valid for individuals in all six work environments included in his theory.

Two potential problems are evident in the Mount and Muchinsky (1978) study. First, they were constrained to two levels of person-environment congruence due to sample size limitations. For example, there were but 11 and 12 incongruent workers in the Conventional and Realistic categories, respectively. Second, there were highly uneven cell sizes in their analyses. This is an important consideration, since uneven cell sizes could have contributed to the statistical significance of the interaction terms.

The central purpose of this study was to assess the hypothesis advanced by Holland (1973, 1985) that job satisfaction is positively related to person- environment congruence. Of particular interest are (1) the extent to which this hypothesis is valid for three different dimensions of job satisfaction, (2) the degree to which the findings are consistent across the six primary personality types proposed by Holland, and (3) the similarity of the findings for males and females.

218 SMART,ELTON,ANDMCLAUGHLIN

METHODS

Sample

Data for this study were obtained from respondents to the 1971 and 1980 Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) surveys described by Astin (1982). The overall sample consisted of 10,326 individuals attending 487 colleges and universities across the country. All respondents completed the initial CIRP survey upon entering college in the fall of 1971. This survey obtained a broad array of information on students’ family back- grounds, high school experiences, initial educational and occupational aspirations, and personal characteristics. The same respondents completed a follow-up instrument in 1980 that collected information on their actual college experiences and their educational and occupational activities in the intervening 9-year period.

A stratified random sampling procedure was used based on the respondents’ (1) last undergraduate major, (2) congruence between their undergraduate major and current (1980) job, and (3) gender. Only those employed full-time in 1980 were considered. Eighty-five and 70%, respectively, of the men and women respondents were employed on a full- time basis. Seven percent of the men and 13% of the women were employed on a part-time basis.

The 1980 CIRP survey contained a list of 68 possible undergraduate majors. The authors classified respondents’ undergraduate majors according to the six primary personality types proposed by Holland (1985): Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Those majors that were not clearly assignable to one of the primary personality types (e.g., “other business, ” “military science”) were deleted from the sample. The level of congruence between respondents’ personality type and current job was obtained from the following item in the 1980 CIRP survey: “Is your current or most recent job related to your undergraduate major?” The three response categories for this item were: 3 = “yes, closely related”; 2 = “yes, somewhat related”; and 1 = “no, not related.” Respondents’ gender was indicated on the 1971 CIRP survey.

This procedure yielded a 6 (Holland personality type) x 3 (congruence level) x 2 (gender) sampling design. Table 1 shows the original number of respondents in each cell of this sampling design and the number of respondents actually selected for inclusion in this study. The objective of this sampling design was to obtain an equal number of respondents in each cell given the previously stated interest in the interaction between personality type and congruence level. Thirty individuals were randomly selected from each of the sampling cells with two exceptions: (1) the Realistic category was deleted from the study for females due to an inadequate sample size (n = 27), and (2) it was possible to obtain only 24 females in the Conventional category who perceived no relationship


TABLE 1 Initial Cell Distributions and Sampling Percentages

Congruence levels by gender

Males Females Personality types

Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Social

Enterprising

Totals

High

61 45%

403 7%

122 25%

298 10%

198 15%

114 26%

1,202 15%

Moderate

36 83%

342 9%

87 34%

182 16%

253 12% 42 71%

942 1%

Low

34 88%

251 12%

188 16%

330 9%

203 15% 39 77%

1,045 17%

High

169 18%

191 16%

897 3%

105 29% 72 42%

1,434 10%

Moderate

150 20%

151 20%

325 9%

117 26% 30

100% 773

19%

Low

89 34%

296 10%

501 6%

90 33% 24

100% l,@)O

15%

between their personality type and current job. This sampling design resulted in a total sample of 540 males and 474 females used in the analyses described below.

Variables

In addition to respondents’ primary personality type, congruence level, and gender (as described above), information was obtained on five additional variables from the 1980 CIRP survey. Respondents’ highest earned degree was a three-level measure coded: 1 = less than baccalaureate, 2 = baccalaureate, and 3 = graduate degree. The size of the organization in which respondents were employed in 1980 was a seven-level measure ranging from 1 (“I work alone”) to 7 (“25,000 or more”).

Respondents were asked in the 1980 CIRP survey to indicate their overall job satisfaction and their satisfaction with 12 aspects of their current job. Response categories for these items were: 3 = “very satisfied,” 2 = “somewhat satisfied,” and 1 = “not satisfied.” Two factorially derived job satisfaction scales were identified from respondents’ reported satisfaction with the 12 specific aspects of their current job. Intrinsic job satisfaction was defined as the unweighted average score of respondents on the seven following items: “variety of activities,” “opportunity to contribute to society, ” “opportunity to be creative,” “opportunity to use training or schooling, ” “decision-making power, responsibility,” “challenge,” and “competency of the people you work with.” Extrinsic job satisfaction was defined as the unweighted average score of the three

220 SMART, ELTON, AND MC LAUGHLIN

following items: “income,” “fringe benefits,” “job security.” Cronbach’s (1960) (Y measure of internal consistency was .86 for intrinsic and 56 for extrinsic job satisfaction. Respondents’ overall job satisfaction was a single item in the 1980 CIRP survey.

Analyses

Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) procedures were used to analyze the data. Separate analyses were performed for males (n = 540) and females (n = 474). The independent variables in each analysis were Holland personality type and perceived congruence level. There were three congruence levels in both analyses (high, moderate, low). All six Holland personality types (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) were included in the analysis for males, while the Realistic category was deleted in the analysis for females. This yielded a 6 x 3 MANCOVA design for males and a 5 x 3 MANCOVA design for females. The dependent variables in both analyses were the three job’ satisfaction measures (i.e., overall, intrinsic, extrinsic). Re- spondents’ highest earned degree and the size of the organization in which they were employed were used as covariates in the analyses since both measures have been shown to be highly related to job satisfaction (Hodson, 1984; Rhodes, 1983).

RESULTS

The results of the MANCOVA test of the within-cells regression effect was statistically significant (‘JJ < .OOl) for both males (F(6, 1036) = 5.37) and females (F(6, 850) = 8.85). The regression slopes of the dependent variables on the covariates were essentially the same for males (F(102, 1450) = 1.23, p > .05) and females (F(84, 1188) = 0.93, p > .05) and significantly (p < .OOl) different from zero (males: F(6, 968) = 10.51; females: F(6,794) = 11.02). Respondents’ scores on the three dependent variables were then adjusted to control for differences associated with the covariates. The resulting adjusted mean scores for the dependent variables are the scores that would be expected or predicted for each group. if the covariate means for the group were the same as the grand mean for each covariate (Huitema, 1980).

The MANCOVA results for both males and females indicated that neither the personality type main effect (males: F(15, 1430) = 1.64; females: F(12, 1124) = 1.22) nor the personality type x congruence level interaction term (males: F(30, 1521) = 0.92; females: F(24, 1233) = 1.22) was statistically significant (r, > .05). However, the congruence level main effect was statistically significant in both analyses (males: F(6, 1036) = 10.19, p C .OOl; females: F(6, 850) = 3.58, p < .002). These results indicate that there are significant differences among the adjusted mean scores of the three job satisfaction measures for males and females


based on the level of congruence between their current job and undergraduate major (Holland personality type), and that these differences are consistent across the primary personality types included in the analysis for males and females. Table 2 presents the unadjusted and adjusted group means for the dependent variables.

Mules. Inspection of the univariate F values (df = 2, 520) in the analysis for males suggested that the overall difference among the three congruence levels was due to variation in the adjusted mean scores of the intrinsic (F = 22.24, p < .OOl) and extrinsic (F = 3.85, p < .05) job satisfaction measures. Those whose jobs were closely (x = 2.45) or moderately (;i;; = 2.40) congruent earned significantly higher scores on intrinsic satisfaction than their counterparts in the low-congruence category (x = 2.09). Those whose jobs were moderately congruent (x = 2.29) have a significantly higher adjusted mean score on the extrinsic satisfaction

TABLE 2 Unadjusted and Adjusted Means of Job Satisfaction Scales

Job satisfaction scale means

Independent variables Overall

Males

Intrinsic Extrinsic Overall

Females

Intrinsic Extrinsic

Congruence levels: High

Moderate

Low

Personality types: Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Social

Enterprising

Conventional

2.49 (2.48) 2.48

(2.48) 2.33

(2.34)

2.51 (2.51) 2.50

(2.53) 2.38

(2.37) 2.50

(2.47) 2.36

(2.35) 2.34

(2.36)

2.46 (2.45) 2.41

(2.40) 2.07 w9)

2.35 (2.37) 2.35

(2.38) 2.36

(2.33) 2.34

(2.31) 2.24

(2.23) 2.25

(2.28)

2.16 (2.16) 2.28

(2.29) 2.16

(2.16)

2.16 (2.17) 2.39

(2.36) 2.17

(2.18) 2.07 (2.09) 2.16

(2.16) 2.25

(2.24)

2.49 (2.49) 2.33

(2.33) 2.20

(2.20)

2.33 (2.34) 2.34

(2.34) 2.32

(2.32) 2.37

(2.37) 2.34

(2.34)

2.37 (2.37) 2.24

(2.24) 2.07

(2.07)

2.17 (2.17) 2.31

(2.30) 2.21

(2.20) 2.29

(2.29) 2.14

(2.17)

2.24 (2.24) 2.24

(2.24) 2.15

(2.16)

2.29 (2.27) 2.13

(2.18) 2.09

(2.10) 2.25

(2.25) 2.31

(2.25)

Note. Adjusted means are in parentheses.


measure than their peers in the high- (x = 2.16) and low- (x = 2.16) congruence categories.

Females. The univariate F values (df = 2,427) for females indicated that the overall difference among the three congruence levels was due to significant 0) < .OOl) variation in the adjusted mean scores of intrinsic (F = 10.33) and overall (F = 6.88) job satisfaction. Inspection of the adjusted group means in Table 2 indicates a linear progression of intrinsic and overall job satisfaction scores as the congruence between the job and primary personality type of females increases (i.e., higher levels of congruence are associated with higher scores on both satisfaction measures).

DISCUSSION

Job satisfaction is a complex construct that is related to myriad individual and organizational characteristics (Hodson, 1984; Rhodes, 1983). The findings of this study support the need to control for such attributes in order to make more rigorous assessments of theory-based hypotheses concerning satisfaction in work settings. Both covariates used in this study (i.e., highest earned degree, organizational size) contributed to significant adjustments in one or more of the dependent variables and may be useful control measures in future job satisfaction studies.

Three findings of this study demonstrate that job satisfaction is related to person-environment congruence in a manner generally consistent with that proposed by Holland (1973, 1985). First, the significant congruence main effect for males and females provides direct support. This is most evident in the findings pertaining to the intrinsic job satisfaction measure. For both sexes, intrinsic satisfaction is significantly and positively related to person-environment congruence. The relationship is somewhat stronger for females where there is a virtual linear association between the levels of intrinsic satisfaction and congruence. The relationship is slightly less clear for males in the sense that the adjusted mean scores on this measure for those in the high- and moderate-congruence levels are not dissimilar, though they are significantly higher than the scores of males in the low- congruence level.

Second, the failure of the personality type main effect to reach a sufficient level of significance for males and females provides direct support. Holland’s hypothesis suggests that vocational (job) satisfaction is a function of the “fit” between individuals and their environments and provides no theoretical basis for assuming that this relationship should vary as a result of the individuals’ personality types.

Third, the failure of the congruence-personality type interaction term to reach a level of significance for males and females provides further support by indicating that the relationship between congruence and job satisfaction is consistent across gender and personality type. Again, Holland


(1973, 1985) provides no theoretical basis for assuming that the postulated consequences (i.e., vocational success, stability, and satisfaction) of the person-environment fit hypothesis should vary across either gender or personality type.

The finding that the level of job satisfaction for males and females does not vary according to their primary personality type is in contrast to earlier findings by Mount and Muchinsky (1978) and Wiggins et al. (1983). Both studies reported significant variability among the personality types in terms of their degree of job satisfaction. Similarly, the absence of a statistically significant interaction between congruence level and primary personality type for males and females in this study is not consistent with the results reported by Mount and Muchinsky (1978). To reconcile these discrepancies is virtually impossible given differences among the respective studies in terms of the size and nature of their samples, measurement of variables, and forms of analysis. For example, Mount and Muchinsky (1978) used measured interest type to examine congruence, while respondents’ expressed/perceived congruence between their undergraduate majors and current jobs was used in the current study.

In two specific instances, however, the relationship between person- environment congruence and job satisfaction is not as straightforward as might be assumed. First, the specific nature of the relationship appears to be somewhat different for males and females. This gender variation is most evident in the findings that person-environment congruence is uniquely related to the overall job satisfaction of only females and the extrinsic job satisfaction of only males. Such gender variation has not been explored in prior research on this topic and warrants attention in future studies. Second, the relationship between congruence and extrinsic job satisfaction for males is not linear as assumed in Holland’s (1973, 1985) hypothesis. Moderately congruent males express a higher degree of extrinsic job satisfaction than their counterparts in the high- and low- congruence categories. Confidence in this finding is limited, however, due to its marginal significance (p < .05).

These collective findings have several implications for scholars and practitioners. While a number of job satisfaction theories have been advanced (e.g., Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, & Capwell, 1957; Lawler, 1967), many studies have not been guided by such theoretical frameworks (Locke, 1969) and those that have been theory based often shed little light on the correlates and consequences of this phenomenon (Lawler, 1973). It would appear from the findings presented above that Holland’s (1973, 1985) theory provides a sound framework for the study of job satisfaction. But several refinements are suggested. For example, scholars would be advised to incorporate multiple dimensions of job satisfaction in their studies since the findings of this study indicate that the “person- environment fit” hypothesis is not equally applicable to all dimensions


of job satisfaction. Thus, the hypothesis should not be regarded as uni- versally applicable. Further research would also appear to be warranted on the gender-specific findings that emerged, specifically that person- environment congruence is uniquely associated with the extrinsic satisfaction of males and the overall satisfaction of females. Finally, the nonlinearity of the relationship between person-environment congruence and the extrinsic satisfaction of males warrants additional study. While this finding is not robust, the possibility of a nonlinear relationship is intriguing, and not consistent with Holland’s hypothesis.

The findings reported above also have implications for vocational coun- seling and for the selection and placement of individuals in work settings. If clients seek job satisfaction, counselors would be advised to emphasize the importance to them of finding a job that is consistent with their personality. Similarly, to the extent that job satisfaction is a goal of an organization, their officials would be advised to be particularly attentive to the selection and placement of employees in job settings that are consistent with their personality types. The theoretical postulates advanced by Holland (1973, 1985) would appear to be equally useful to scholars and counselors as they seek to understand and promote vocational satisfaction.

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Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., Peterson, R. O., & Capwell, D. F. (1957). Job attitudes: Review of research and opinion. Pittsburgh: Psychological Service of Pittsburgh.

Hodson, R. (1984). Corporate structure and job satisfaction: A focus on employer characteristics. Sociology and Social Research, 69, 22-49.

Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall.

Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall.

Huitema, B. W. (1980). The analysis of covariance and alternatives. New York: Wiley. Lawler, E. E. (1%7). The multitrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job

performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 51, 369-381. Lawler, E. E. (1973). Mofivation in work organizations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Locke, E. A. (1%9). What is job satisfaction? Organiza?ional Behavior and Human Per-

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Mount, M. K., & Muchinsky, P. M. (1978). Person-environment congruence and employee job satisfaction: A test of Holland’s theory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 13, 84- 100.

Rhodes, S. R. (1983). Age-related differences in work attitudes and behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 93, 328-367.

Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. (1969). The measurement ofsatisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Spokane, A. R. (1985). A review of research on person-environment congruence in Holland’s theory of careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 26, 306-343.

Wiggins, J. D., Lederer, D. A., Salkowe, A., & Rys, G. (1983). Job satisfaction related to tested congruence and differentiation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 23, 112- 121.

Received: April 14, 1986.

person-environment congruence and job satisfaction

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