PERRY POPS

BIOLOGYYYYYYYYYYYY

2.0It’s back!

EVOLUTIONA development that involves the series of gradual

adaptations by which organisms have become more complicated over many generations

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck• Theory of Use & Disuse• Theory of Acquired Traits (acquired traits can be

acquired by the following generation)• Environmental influences can affect phenotype

THEORY OF EVOLUTION• Founded by Charles Darwin & Alfred Russel Wallace• Concepts:– Reproduction: organisms reproduce more than what’s

enough to replace them (but population = fairly constant)– Competition: organisms must compete for scarce

resources (Struggle for Existence)– Variation: within populations = variety of characteristics

others will be able to survive more effectively (Survival of the Fittest)

– Adaptation: organisms adapt in order to survive and reproduce (Natural Selection)

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION• Fossils: preserved remains; show gradual changes in evolution• Vestigial structures: remains of used-to-be useful organs

(appendix, coccyx/tailbone)• Geographical distribution: organisms with similar

characteristics but belong to diff. continents = common ancestors

• Comparative biochemistry: proteins/genetic sequences as basis for evolutionary relationships

• Comparative Anatomy Structure: Homologous – same design w/ diff. functions; Analogous – diff. designs w/ same functions

• Comparative embryology: similarities in the development of offspring (reptiles – birds – mammals)

TAXONOMY

TAXONOMY: ANIMAL KINGDOM

Vertebrates(with backbones)

Pisces (fish)Amphibians (frogs)Reptiles (snakes, turtles)Aves (birds)Mammals

Invertebrates(without backbones)

Coelenterates (jellyfish, hydra)Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

Nematodes (roundworms)Mollusks (slugs, snails)Echinoderms (starfish)

ArthropodsCrustaceans (crabs, shrimps)

Myriapods (centipedes)Insects

Arachnids (spiders, scorpions)

ECOLOGY

• Study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological environment

• Biosphere– Thin mantle of life covering the earth

• Biomes– Broad units of vegetation influenced by latitude, elevation,

moisture and temperature regimes

KINDS OF BIOMESBIOME MOISTURE TEMPERATURE VEGETATION ANIMALS

Arctic Tundra Dry/wet seasons Cold all year round

Shrubs, grasses, lichens, mosses

Birds, insects, mammals

Deciduous ForestLow, distributed throughout the

yearWarm summers,

cold wintersTrees, shrubs, herbs, lichens,

mossesBirds, insects,

mammals

Desert Sporadic, highly localized

Great daily range (extremes)

Trees, shrubs, succulents

small mammals, birds, reptiles

Taiga Moderate, varies throughout year

Cold winters, cool summers

Evergreen, tamarack Birds, mammals

Tropical Savannah Wet/dry seaons hot Trees, vines,

stranglers, fungiSmall mammals,

birds, insects

Tropical Rainforest

Wet/short dry season hot Trees, vines,

stranglers, fungiSmall mammals ,

birds, insects

Marine Environment

The open ocean, litoral regions, benthic regions, rocky shores, sandy shores, estuaries, associated tidal marshes

ECOSYSTEM• Locale or habitat as an integrated whole factors: biotic

(living) and abiotic (non-living)• Habitat – where biotic and abiotic factors can be found; have

their own animals and plants – Community – all living things in the habitat– Population – members of the same species in the same

habitat– Niche – the role of an organism in a habitat

• Members of a community depend on:– Energy: (in the form of) food that flows from the

community’ originally from the sun– Nutrients: recycled within a community and an ecosystem

FEEDING TYPES• Autotrophs – make their own food; the source of energy

(producers)• Heterotrophs – cannot make their own food (consumers)

– Herbivores: primary consumers that eat plants– Carnivores: secondary consumers that eat primary

consumers • Omnivores – can eat plants and meat

– Scavengers – feed on dead organisms (vultures, hyenas)• Oligotrophs – producers/synthesize their own food in extreme

conditions, when food is scarce act as consumers under normal conditions (conditional autotrophs/heterotrophs)

• Decomposers – recycle nutrients from dead organisms (fungi and bacteria)

FOOD CHAINThe passing on of energy/ nutrients that are recycled within an

ecosystem (Food webs – interconnected food chains)

HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT• Pollution from fossil fuels: burning of fuels by

industry, power stations, and vehicles

• Deforestation: trees can be harvested and replaced BUT rate of harvesting is much greater than the rate of replacing

• Toxin accumulation: mainly due to non-specific/specific herbicides and insecticides

COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS• Competition: organisms compete for shared resources with

short supply; more successful organisms survive• Predation: consumption of one organism, plant/animal, by

the other• Parasitism: two organisms living together; one benefits at the

expense of the other• Co-evolution: evolution of one species depends on part of

another’s evolution• Succession and climax communities: gradual changes in

vegetation over time

PLANTS

• PLANT LIFE CYCLE– Annual• any plant that germinates, grows, flowers, sets seed,

and dies within one year– Biennial• plants that flower, set seed, and die in their second

year– Perennial• plants that flower and set seed for two or more years

• PLANT CELL TYPES– Parenchyma• cell walls are uniformly thin and can either be meristematic

(capable of cell division) or permanent.• carry out physiological functions such as photosynthesis,

storage and secretion, and wound healing – Collenchyma• made up of unevenly thickened primary cell walls• functions as support tissue in young, growing parts of plants

(strength and mechanical support)– Sclerenchyma• cells have secondary cell walls containing lignin• important for strength and support

• PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS– Ground

• fundamental tissue system in plants• consists of parenchyma, collenchyma, & sclerenchyma tissues

– Dermal• consists of the epidermis• some parts contain stomata (openings which gases are

exchanged with the atmosphere) or cuticle (to prevent water loss)• epidermis is later on converted to peridermis (made up of

dead, waterproofed cells, mainly cork tissue)– Vascular

• xylem: conduction of water and dissolved nutrients– conducting cells: tracheid and vessel elements

• phloem: conduction of food– primary cells: sieve elements

• TROPISMS– growth responses of plants to obtain

enough water, minerals, and sunlight–Phototropism• with respect to a light source• plant naturally grows towards the brightest

light source–Geotropism• with respect to gravity

–Hydrotropism• with respect to water

• Stems– usually above the ground– increases in length

through apical meristem at the stem tip

• Leaves– functions in

photosynthesis, stores food and water

– sites of transpiration and provides structural support for the plant

• Flowers– reproductive organs

of certain plants• Roots– anchors plant to its

substrate and absorbs water and minerals– types: fibrous

(monocot) and tap (dicot) roots

BODY CAVITIESFRONT

(VENTRAL/ANTENOR)BACK

(DORSAL/POSTERIOR)

Pericardial Cavityhouses the heart (that is located in the thorax/chest)

Cranial Cavity Protects the brain

Thoraic CavityBetween the neck and the abdomen; contains the lungs

and the heartSpinal Cavity Protects the spinal

cord

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Houses the digestive,

excretory & reproductive

systems

BODY TISSUESA. Epithelial – protects the body from injuries/infection: skinB. Connective – support and hold parts of the body together:

A. Fibrous, elastic, blood, lymph B. tendon = bone to muscle, ligament = bone to bone

C. Muscular – contrast and relax: A. striated (joined together), B. smooth (involuntary, internal organs), C. cardiac (involuntary, heart)

D. Nervous – transfer information: neurons ganglia (nerve nuclei)

MUSCULAR SYSTEM• Allows manipulation of the environment, movement, facial

expression, posture; produces heat (= 620 muscles!)

SKELETAL SYSTEM• Protects/supports body organs; framework for muscles (= movement);

• bone marrows = blood production; stores minerals (=206 bones!)• Joint – connection between bones

• Cartilage – between bones (shock absorber)• Ligaments – holds bone to bone

• Tendons – muscle to bone

ENDOCRINE SYSTEMGlands secrete hormones regulate processes

GLAND HORMONE FUNCTION

Pituitary (“Master Gland”)

Oxytocin Smooth muscle control, labor, milk

Vasopressin/ADH Kidney/urine control

Pineal Melatonin Regulates wake/sleep patterns

ThyroidThyroxine Increases metabolism

Calcitonin Controls calcium intake

Adrenal (Suprarenal)

Gluccorticoids Increase blood sugar

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine “fight or flight” hormone/adrenalin

ENDOCRINE SYSTEMGLAND HORMONE FUNCTION

PancreasInsulin Lowers blood sugar

Glucagon Releases glucose from the liver

Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Increase calcium levels

OvariesEstrogen

Secondary sex characteristics for femalesProgesterone

Testes Testosterone Secondary sex characteristics for males

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM• Blood vessels– transports blood which carries O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes,

etc.– veins: carries blood towards the heart– arteries: carries blood away from the heart– capillaries: exchange vessels

• Blood– complex substance which carries substances through cells

• Heart– acts as a pump which moves the blood through a network

of tubes called blood vessels

• Pulmonary Circulation– carries

deoxygenated blood away from the heart and to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart

• Systemic Circulation– carries oxygenated

blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution of cells

• indigestible foodstuff are eliminated as feces

• PATHWAY OF FOOD– mouth

• mechanical digestion: mastication– salivary glands

• will turn into bolus– pharynx

• passage of food and air• epiglottis closes over the trachea

– esophagus– stomach

• through peristalsis– small intestine– large intestine– rectum

• waste materials

• OTHER PARTS– liver• functions in

metabolism• produces bile

– gallbladder• fat digestion• stores bile

– pancreas• secretes

pancreatic juice and insulin

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body

• regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the body

• detoxification of blood

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• Skin– sudiferous (sweat glands)– sebaceous (oil glands)– helps remove the additional wastes produced by

these glands

• Liver– detoxifies and breaks down chemicals, poisons,

and other toxins

• Urinary System– Kidney• Nephron – functional unit of a kidney; acts as filters• Glomerulus• Bowman’s capsule• Loops of Henle

– Ureter• propels urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

– Urethra• connects urinary bladder to the outside of the body

– Bladder• collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal

by urination

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

• the gaseous exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs

• Respiration– carried on by the expansion and contraction of the lungs

• Breathing– process which delivers oxygen to the body’s cells and

removes carbon dioxide produced from cellular respiration

AIR PATHWAY

• mouth or nose• pharynx• larynx• trachea• bronchus• lungs– bronchiole– alveoli

**overall function: production of offspring• ovaries produce eggs and female sex

hormones; mammary glands produce milk

MALE REPR DUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE REPR DUCTIVE SYSTEM

• testes produce sperm cells and male sex hormones• ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable

sperm to the female reproductive tract

PARTS• uterus– passes the male’s sperm through to the fallopian tubes– hosts developing fetus– also known as the womb

• ovaries– produces the egg cells

• vagina– also known as the birth canal

• cervix• fallopian tubes/oviducts• reproductive tract

• penis– male copulatory organ

• testicles– produces semen and sperm cells– epididymis: maturation and storage for sperm– seminiferous tubules: where sperm cells are produced

• scrotum– holds and protects the testes

• vas deferens– sperm duct

PARTS

• accessory glands–provide fluids that lubricate the duct system

and nourish the sperm cells– seminal vesicles• produces fructose– provides sperm cells energy and aids in their motility

–prostate gland• responsible for the proof of semen

–bulbourethral glands• also called Cowper glands

PARTS