814 TURKS

ex-Soviet Muslim states. Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan, London 2001;D. Shapira, Miscellanea judaeo-turkica. Four Judaeo-Turkic notes. IV, in JSAI, xxvii (2002), 475-96.

(G. HAZAI)III. LITERATURE.6. (m) Turkish l i t e r a tu r e in Muslim India.The constant stream of Turkish migrants started

pouring on to Indian soil from the 5th/l l th centuryonwards, but hardly anything is known of the roleTurkish language played in the Ghaznawid, Ghuridand Sultanate periods. Turkish seems to have beenused mainly as a medium of communication in thearmy, but also in court circles (see Amir KhusrawDihlawl, Nuh sipihr, ed. Muhammad Wahid Mirza,Oxford 1950, 173). The hitherto unearthed sole rem-nants of Turkish from this period are the Turkish wordscontained in a Persian dictionary, the Farhang-izufdn-guyd wa dj_ahdn puyd (see R. Dankoff, The Turkishvocabulary of the Farhang-i zqfdn-guya, Bloomington 1987).

The Tlmurid conquest and then the establishmentof the Mughal dynasty altogether changed this situa-tion. The Tlmurids and their Turkish military elitearrived in India with a cultural legacy that includedsupport for and cultivation of a Turko-Persian liter-ary tradition which was in a sense founded and elab-orated by the activities of CA1I Shir Nawa3! [<7-^.].Tlmurids in India remained true to their CentralAsian Turkish legacy till the 19th century, and it wasa custom for Mughal princes to be trained in Turkishas well as in the other great Islamic languages. Thelast member of the family whose skills in Turkishgrammar, lexicography and poetry were well knownin Hindustan was Mirza 'Alf-bakht GurganI "Azfarl"[}.».].

Timurid and thus also Mughal rulers and princeswere not only passive patrons of culture but alsoplayed an active role in literary life (see MuhammadKhalidl, Gulistdn-i Timun, Lakhnaw 1973). Quite afew of them displayed outstanding literary skills butonly some of them are known to have contributed toTurkish literary output in India. Except for the firstgeneration of Indian Tlmurids, the sources do notyield much information on possible Turkish works bymembers of the royal family. The Turkish oeuvre ofBabur [q.v.] is, of course, well known, and someTurkish lines by Humayun [q.v.] and a full diwdn byKamran [q.v.] have been preserved. Due to the ruler'spolitical aims and policies, Turkish seems to havebeen pushed into the background in court circles dur-ing the reign of Akbar [q.v]. Nevertheless, later rulersseem to have been able at least to appreciate Turkishpoetry, as was the case with Shah cAlam II (1760-88, 1788-1806; see Azfan, Wakfat-i Azfan, ed. T.Chandrashekharan, Madras 1957, 17). Turkish manu-scripts copied in India indicate that Nawa'i was themost often read author, but contemporary sourcesremain silent on these rulers' literary activities inTurkish.

The benefits which the Mughal empire could offerin its heyday attracted many immigrants from theneighbouring lands. Soldiers, poets and scholars flockedto Hindustan to try their luck by entering imperialservice or by being employed at one of the numer-ous noble courts. Many of these came from regionsinhabited by Turkish peoples. Though contemporarysources do not devote much space to achievementsin Turkish, their references being random, it is stillpossible to draw a fairly detailed picture of those per-sons who cultivated Turkish.

The brother of the historian Bayazfd Bayat, Shah-

berdi, writing under the pseudonym Sakka Caghatay(d. ca. 1558) composed poetry in Turkish. MirMuhammad, the brother-in-law of Akbar's wet-nurse,Djidji-anaga, was a renowned art lover who not onlysupported poets but also composed verses both inPersian and Turkish under the takhallus "Ghaznawl".He is supposed to have written a great number ofpoems, but nothing has so far been found from hisoeuvre. Well known is the poetic achievement of theTurkmen statesman Bayram Khan [q.v.], whose Persianand Turkish diwdn has been published. His son, cAbdal-Rahlm Khan, Khan-i Khanan [q.v.], following hisfather's footsteps, acted as both a generous patron ofoutstanding literary talents and a dedicated poet whowas able to compose poetry in several languages includ-ing various dialects of Turkish. The mushd'iras [q.v],meetings of poets organised at his court, were attendedby poets who excelled in Turkish poetry as well.Reference should be made here to Kalb-i CA1I, aTurkmen from the Baharlu tribe, Siyanl Hamadanl,or the Aleppo-born Turkish poet Darwlsh Mithll.Though their complete poetical works do not seemto have survived, a few of their couplets in Turkishare preserved in our sources.

One of the most honoured poets of the 17th cen-tury, Mlrza Sa'ib Tabriz! [q.v] who received the titleof malik al-shu'ara' or laureate from Shah c Abbas II,was also attracted to the Mughal court. He is famousfor his Persian poetry that set a trend which was fol-lowed even in Ottoman Turkey, but one should notforget that he was an equally gifted poet in Turkish.This side of his poetic talent almost faded into obliv-ion because only a handful of the manuscripts of hisPersian diwdn contain Turkish pieces. At some pointduring the reign of Awrangzlb, there migrated toHindustan Husayn Farldun Isfahan!, whose Persiandiwdn has preserved a couple of Turkish lines as well.Dlwall Singh (d. 1896) a well-known poet and a greatstylist in Persian, became famous under his takhallus"Katll". Following the practice of members of theMughal elite in the 17th-18th centuries, he also learntTurkish and wrote two short stories in this tongue.His famous work on Persian style titled Car sharbatcontains a sketchy Turkish grammar explained inPersian.

In a multi-ethnic society like India, it is not con-sidered an extraordinary feat if someone learns sev-eral languages, but even in such an environment theachievements of Insha-allah Khan "Insha" [q.v] earnedhim fame. Born to a family of Turkish immigrantsfrom Nadjaf, he not only spoke Arabic, Persian, Urdu,Kashmiri, Purbi, Pashto and Turkish but was alsoable to compose poetry in these tongues. His Turkishoutput consists of a couple of kasidas, mukhammas, afew bayts in his Shikdr-ndma and a prose diary enti-tled Turki ruzndmca. One of his most intimate friendsand fellow poet was Sacadat-yar Khan "Rangm" [<7-y.],whose father Tahmasp Beg Khan Ttikad-Djang arrivedin India with the army of Nadir Shah and later wrotehis memoirs, the Ahmad-ndma. Rangln spent most ofhis life in Lucknow in the service of Mirza Sulayman-Shukuh. His works in Turkish includes a Turkish-Urdu vocabulary titled Msdb-i turki and a few Turkishlines in his Ma^mu'a-yi Rangm.

It should be noted, however, that contemporarychronicles and tadhkiras are full of references to poetsof Turkish origin whose literary achievements in theirmother-tongue have not yet come to light. There isfurther the fact that libraries, mainly throughout theformer British Indian Empire, preserve manuscriptswritten in or on Turkish whose authors are either

TURKS — AL-TUSI 815

not mentioned in historical sources or literary antholo-gies, or even when contemporary records provide someinformation on them, their knowledge of Turkish isnot mentioned. One should mention here Kaplan Beg,Yolkuli Beg "Anlsl" Shamlu, Mulla Shayda'I Tekkelii,Ustad Mfrza CA1I Kipcakl and also Plr Muhammad"Aghar Khan" an Uzbek from the Aghar tribe whodistinguished himself in the wars of Awrangzlb's reign.He composed verses filling a full diwan that is pre-served in an Indian institution, but contemporarysources remain silent on his contribution to Indo-Turkish literature.

Beside being a medium for artistic expressionTurkish was also used for more mundane purposesin Mughal India up to the 19th century, as a lan-guage quite common in court circles, in the armyand in diplomatic correspondence, mainly with Russiaand the Ottoman Empire.

Bibliography: H.K. Hofman, Turkish literature. Abio-bibliographical survey, Utrecht 1969; S.A. Garriev(ed.), Turkmen edebiyatinlng tarikhl, i, Ashgabat 1975,351-93; M. Fuat Koprulii, art. Qagatay edebiyati, inL4, iii, 270-323; A. Schimmel, Tiirkisches in Indien,in Scholia. Beitrdge zur Turkologie und ^entralasienkunde.Annemarie von Gabain ^um 80. Geburtstag am 4. Juli1981 dargebracht von Kollegen, Freunden und Schiilern,Wiesbaden 1981, 156-62; A.F. Bilkan, Hindistankutiiphanelennde bulunan turkfe el yazmalan, in Turk Dili(Nisan 1996), 1096-1105; B. Peri, A tordk irds- esszobeliseg nyomai a mogul-kori Indidban: Mirzd cAll-baxtGurgdm Azfari Mi^dn at-turki cimu grammatikai ertekezesees ami korulotte van ("Traces of Turkish language usein Mughal India. The Mlzan at-turkl by MlrzacAll-bakht Gurganf Azfarl and its background"),Ph.D. diss., Budapest 2000, unpubl. (B. PERI)AL-TUSI, CALA3 AL-DlN CALI b. Muhammad,

important religious scholar of the 9th/15th cen-tury. He grew up in Iran (in Samarkand, accordingto al-Suyutf [</.&.]), where he also finished his studies.During the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II[q.v.] (probably in the second phase of his rule, i.e.between 850/1446 and 855/1451), he came toAnatolia and was appointed as a teacher at the madrasaal-sultdniyya in Bursa [q.v.]. After the conquest ofConstantinople in 1453, Mehemmed II [q.v.] assignedhim to a professorship, first in Istanbul, afterwards inEdirne [q.v.]. It was around this time that the con-test between al-Tusf and Khodja-zade [q.v.] took place.Both had been summoned by the sultan to composea work of advice on the famous discussion betweenal-Ghazall [q.v] and the philosophers. A jury classi-fied al-Tusf's treatise as the one of lesser interest. Asa consequence, he renounced his academic post inEdirne and returned, via Tabriz [q.v], to Samarkand.He is said to have returned there to live as a Sun",allegedly under the guidance of cUbayd Allah Ahrar[see AHRAR, KHWADJA CUBAYD ALLAH, in Suppl.]. He is

reported to have died in Samarkand in 877/1472(according to al-Suyuti) or in 887/1482 (according to

Tashkopriizade and Hadjdji Khalifa [q.vv.]).Notwithstanding the above-mentioned failure, re-

corded in several sources, al-TusI was able to composea considerable number of scientific works. As wasthe case with many scholars of the 9th/15th century,al-Tusi's writings deal with the various disciplinesthat were taught at the madrasa [q.v.]. His works canbe divided into the following categories:

Kur'dn exegesis: superglosses on the glosses of al-Djurdjanf [q.v] on the al-Kashshdf of al-Zamakhsharl

[?•»•];Fikh: glosses on the commentary of al-Taftazam

[q.v] on al-Mahbubl's Tawdih, and also glosses on thecommentary of al-Idjf [q.v] on the Alukhtasar muntahdal-su'dl of Ibn al-Hadjib [q.v.]',

Kaldm: glosses on al-Djurdjanf's commentary on al-Idji's al-Mawdkif as well as on al-Djurdjanl's com-mentary on al-Idji's al-Akd'id]

Logic and philosophy, superglosses on al-Djurdjanl'sglosses on Kutb al-Dfn al-Tahtanl's commentary onSiradj al-Dln al-Urmawf's Matdlf al-anwdr ji 'l-mantik,as well as the above-mentioned treatise on the dis-cussion between al-Ghazali and the philosophers, whichhas become known under the title al-Dhakhira (Ji 'l-muhdkama bayna al-Gha^dli wa 'l-hukamd3).

Several of these texts have survived in manuscript(see Brockelmann, IP, 261-2, S II 279, 292a). So far,however, only the Dhakhira has appeared in print(Haydarabad 1899; recently also under the title Tahdfutalfaldsifa, ed. R. Sacada, Beirut 1990; cf. the Turkishtranslation by R. Duran, Ankara 1990). The workshows that al-TusI, following al-Ghazall, tried to com-bine classical doctrines of Sunn! theology with philo-sophical concepts. Among other things, he underlinesthat the rules of logic and the results of mathemat-ics and astronomy are incontestable; should the state-ments of revelation be in contradiction with them,they must be interpreted allegorically. In the doctrineon the soul, too, al-TusI is a representative of philo-sophical notions (the soul lives on after death; spiri-tual enjoyments have precedence over physicalpleasures, in both this world and the hereafter). Inthe question of causality, on the contrary, he insiststhat the occasionalistic theory of the early Ashcan theo-logians is correct.

Bibliography. Laknawl, al-Fawd^id al-bahiyya,Cairo 1906, 145-6; Suyutl, Na&n al-cikdn, ed. P. Hitti,New York 1927, 132; Tashkopruzade, al-Shakd'ikal-nucmaniyya, Ger. tr. O. Rescher, Constantinople-Stuttgart 1927-34, repr. Osnabruck 1978, 58-60;Brockelmann, II2, 261-2, S II, 279; Hacjjdjf Khalifa,Kaskf al-g.unun, ed. §. Yaltkaya and R. Bilge, Istanbul1941-3, 497, 513, 825, 1144, 1479, 1856, 1892;Miibahat Tiirker, Uf tahafut bahmmdan felsefe ve dinmiinasebetleri, Ankara 1956; Mustafa S. Yazicioglu,Le, kaldm et son role dans la societe turco-ottomane auxXVe et XVIe siecles, Ankara 1990; T. Nagel, Geschichteder islamischen Theologie, Munich 1994, 203-4.

(U. RUDOLPH)