perceptions of english teachers on the use of blogs as a...

Katherine Azucena Guerrero Abad

Trabajo Final para la obtención del Título de Magíster en Educación Superior:

Investigación e Innovaciones Pedagógicas

CONESUP RCP. S09.No189.09

Guayaquil, October 2014

Perceptions of English

Teachers on the Use of

Blogs as a Strategy to

Enhance Reflective

and Metacognitive

Learning

BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 1

Running Head: BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

Perceptions of English Teachers on

the Use of Blogs as a Strategy to

Enhance Reflective and

Metacognitive Learning

Katherine Azucena Guerrero Abad

Thesis Director: Nicola Wills

Trabajo Final para la obtención del Título de Magíster en Educación Superior:

Investigación e Innovaciones Pedagógicas

CONESUP RCP. S09.No189.09

Guayaquil, October 2014


Perceptions on the Use of Blogs as a Strategy to Enhance Reflective Learning

Index

Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 11

Resumen Ejecutivo .................................................................................................................. 12

Glossary ................................................................................................................................... 13

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 14

Literature Review..................................................................................................................... 19

Lifelong learning .......................................................................................................... 19

Reflection in education ................................................................................................ 20

Metacognition in education.......................................................................................... 21

Education and ICT ....................................................................................................... 23

Web 2.0 and education ................................................................................................. 25

Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Web 2.0 community of inquiry, illustrating

relationships ................................................................................................................. 27

Blogs in education........................................................................................................ 28

Perceptions and educational research .......................................................................... 33

Research Question: ...................................................................................................... 35

Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 36

Research Design........................................................................................................... 36

Methodological Design ................................................................................................ 36

Population. ................................................................................................................... 36


Sample.......................................................................................................................... 37

Study variables. ............................................................................................................ 37

Data Collection. ........................................................................................................... 41

Pilot-test. ...................................................................................................................... 44

Reliability and validity of the instruments. .................................................................. 46

Data Analysis. .............................................................................................................. 48

Results ...................................................................................................................................... 49

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 49

Response Rate .............................................................................................................. 49

Descriptive Statistics .................................................................................................... 49

Teaching Experience. ................................................................................................... 52

Teaching Area .............................................................................................................. 53

Perceptions on Reflection ............................................................................................ 54

Data Analysis and Crossed Variables .......................................................................... 89

Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 91

Main Findings .............................................................................................................. 91

Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................ 93

Limitations ................................................................................................................... 95

Recommendations for Future studies........................................................................... 96

References ................................................................................................................................ 98

Appendix A ................................................................................................................ 109


Appendix B ................................................................................................................ 110

Appendix C ................................................................................................................ 114

Appendix D ................................................................................................................ 115

Appendix E ................................................................................................................ 123

Appendix F................................................................................................................. 124

Appendix G ................................................................................................................ 132

Appendix H ................................................................................................................ 141

Appendix I ................................................................................................................. 166


List of Figures

Figure 1. Metacognitive Strategies (Gani & Abdullah, 2009) ................................................. 22

Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Web 2.0 community of inquiry, illustrating relationships

between teacher, student and the integrated use of Web 2.0 tools (den Exter, Rowe, Boyd, &

Lloyd, 2012) ............................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 3. Sample by Teaching Experience and Type of Institution. ....................................... 53

Figure 4. Impact of Reflective Practice on Student Achievement (Total and by Institution

Type) ........................................................................................................................................ 59

Figure 5. Strategies Used to Make Students Reflective (Total and by Institution Type) ....... 60

Figure I1. Sample Distribution by type of Institution ........................................................... 166

Figure I2. Sample Distribution by Sex and Type of Institution ............................................ 166

Figure I3. Sample Distribution by Age Categories (Total and by Institution Type) ............ 167

Figure I4. Sample Distribution by Education Level (Total and by Institution Type)........... 167

Figure I5. Sample by Educational Background (Total and by Institution Type).................. 168

Figure I6. Sample by Teaching Experience (Total and by Institution Type) ....................... 168

Figure I7. Sample by Type of Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution) ........................ 169

Figure I8. Frequency of Reflection by Type of Institution ................................................... 169

Figure I9. Purpose of Using Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type) ................ 170

Figure I10. Impact of Reflective Practice on Teaching (Total and by Institution Type) ...... 170

Figure I11. Skill for Life Beyond School by Institution Type .............................................. 171

Figure I12. Beliefs on metacognition .................................................................................... 171

Figure I13. Blog Use (Total and by Institution Type) .......................................................... 172

Figure I14. Means and modes for Attitudes towards Blogging for Reflection ..................... 172

Figure I15. School Support of Blog Integration ................................................................... 173

Figure I16. Training for Blog Use ........................................................................................ 173


Figure I17. School Support of other ICT Forms .................................................................... 174

Figure I18. Training for Other ICT Forms ............................................................................ 174

Figure I19. ICT Used by Teachers ........................................................................................ 175

Figure I20. Blog Use for Reflective Learning (Total and by Institution Type) .................... 175

Figure I21. Reasons to use Blogs for Reflective Learning ................................................... 176

Figure I22. Reasons not to use Blogs for Reflective Learning ............................................. 176

Figure I23. Blog Use for Metacognitive Learning (Total and by Institution Type) ............. 177

Figure I24. Ways to Use Blogs for Metacognitive Learning ................................................ 177


List of Tables

Table 1. Summary of Studies Regarding Use of Blogs ........................................................... 29

Table 2. Research Methodology .............................................................................................. 39

Table 3. Questionnaire Framework and Corresponding Questions from Tsai (2009)…...….40

Table 4. Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Metacognition ............................................ 47

Table 5. Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Blogging ..................................................... 47

Table 6. Frequency of use of Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type) .................. 55

Table 7. How Reflective Practice is Used (Total and by Institution Type) ............................. 56

Table 8. Impact of Reflection on Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution) ....................... 58

Table 9. Skills Required for Life Beyond School (Total and by Institution Type) ................. 62

Table 10. Beliefs on Metacognition by Institution Type ......................................................... 63

Table 11. Frequencies for Importance of Metacognition as a Tool to Enhance Learning ....... 64

Table 12. Importance of Metacognition by Institution Type ................................................... 65

Table 13. Descriptive Statistics for the Usefulness of the Strategies Required for

Metacognitive Learning ........................................................................................................... 66

Table 14. Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition .......... 68

Table 15. Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition by

Institution Type ........................................................................................................................ 69

Table 16. Purpose of Blog Use Frequencies ............................................................................ 71

Table 17. Purpose of Blog Use by Institution Type................................................................. 72

Table 18. Reasons not to Use Blogs Frequencies .................................................................... 73

Table 19. Reasons not to Use Blogs by Institution Type ......................................................... 74

Table 20. Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection .................... 75

Table 21. Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection by Institution

Type ......................................................................................................................................... 76


Table 22. Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies ........................ 77

Table 23. Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection by Institution

Type ......................................................................................................................................... 78

Table 24. Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Use Blogs by Institution Type ................ 79

Table 25. Reasons for Willingness or Lack of Willingness to Use Blogs, by Institution Type

.................................................................................................................................................. 80

Table 26. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex. .......................... 82

Table 27. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age .......................... 83

Table 28. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level. ...... 84

Table 29. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience.

.................................................................................................................................................. 84

Table 30. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area. ........ 85

Table 31. Independent Samples T-test for Importance of Metacognition, Willingness to Use

Blogs, and Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection .............................................................. 88

Table H1. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the

Willingness to Use Blogs – for Very Willing and Willing Categories .................................. 141


Willingness to Use Blogs – for Neutral Category ................................................................. 141


Willingness to Use Blogs – for Not Willing and Not Willing at All Categories ................... 142

Table H4. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and

Reasons for the Reaction ....................................................................................................... 143


Reasons for the Reaction – for Very Enthusiastic and Enthusiastic Categories .................... 144



Reasons for the Reaction – for Neutral to Not Enthusiastic at All Categories ...................... 145

Table H7.Crosstabulation between school support of blog integration and training for blog

use .......................................................................................................................................... 146

Table H8. Crosstabulation between School support of blog integration, willingness to use

blogs, and Training for blog use ........................................................................................... 146

Table H9. Crosstabulation between School support of other forms of ICT and Training for

other forms of ICT ................................................................................................................. 147

Table H10. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition .......................... 148

Table H11. Count Impact of Reflection on Teaching by Education Level ........................... 149

Table H12. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Education Level 150

Table H13. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching

Experience.............................................................................................................................. 151

Table H14. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching Area ... 152

Table H15. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Reflection Impact

on Learning ............................................................................................................................ 152

Table H16. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Sex .................... 153

Table H17. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Age .................... 154

Table H18. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Area of Degree.. 155

Table H19. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Sex .............. 156

Table H20. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Age ............. 156

Table H21. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Education Level

................................................................................................................................................ 157

Table H22. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Teaching

Experience.............................................................................................................................. 158


Table H23. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex ............................. 159

Table H24. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age ............................ 159

Table H25. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level ......... 160

Table H26. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience . 161

Table H27. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area ........... 162

Table H28. Descriptive Statistics for Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection by Institution

Type ....................................................................................................................................... 162

Table H29. Descriptive Statistics for Usefulness of Metacognitive Strategies by Institution

Type ....................................................................................................................................... 163

Table H30. Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies

................................................................................................................................................ 164

Table H31. Willingness to Use Blogs Frequencies ............................................................... 164

Table H32. Reasons for Willingness to Use Blogs ................................................................ 165


Abstract

This study explores and describes the perceptions of 57 English teachers working in

private secondary and higher education institutions in Guayaquil, Ecuador on the use of

blogs as a strategy for enhancing reflective and metacognitive learning in the classroom

through a research question divided in two parts: (a) What are teachers’ perceptions towards

the roles of metacognition and reflection in teaching and learning, and (b) what are their

perceptions towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and reflection? It used a quantitative

method, through a questionnaire designed for the specific purpose of this research. Data was

collected using Google Forms and analyzed for statistical frequencies. The results of the

study show that the teachers that were surveyed have very positive perceptions towards the

use of reflection and metacognition. More specifically, they reported that proper feedback

and adequate questioning are required for reflection and they considered metacognition

fundamental to shape students’ learning. Regarding the use of blogs for reflective and

metacognitive learning, most of the sample teachers reported using them but acknowledged

that time and lack of technological ability are considerable issues. Due to the way this study

was conceived, its results may not be valid for the international community but may give

insight to educational stakeholders in contexts similar to those of the research.

Keywords: Reflection, metacognition, blogs, ICT, higher education, secondary education,

English teachers


Resumen Ejecutivo

El presente estudio explora y describe las percepciones de 57 profesores de Inglés de

institutos de educación secundaria y superior privados en Guayaquil, Ecuador, con respecto al

uso de blogs como estrategia para desarrollar el aprendizaje reflexivo y metacognitivo. Se

utilizó una pregunta de investigación dividida en dos partes: (a) ¿Cuáles son las percepciones

de los profesores acerca del papel que juegan la reflexión y metacognición en la enseñanza y

el aprendizaje, y, (b) cuáles son sus percepciones con respecto al uso de blogs para

metacognición y reflexión? Se empleó un método cuantitativo, usando un cuestionario

diseñado específicamente para esta investigación. Los datos fueron recolectados utilizando

Google Forms y se analizaron las frecuencias estadísticas. Los resultados muestran que los

profesores encuestados tienen percepciones muy positivas acerca de la reflexión y la

metacognición. Así, reportaron que proporcionar retroalimentación y hacer preguntas

adecuadas son fundamentales para desarrollar el pensamiento reflexivo. Por otra parte,

mostraron considerar a la metacognición como un factor importante para moldear el

aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Con respecto al uso de blogs para estos fines, la mayoría de

los profesores de la muestra expresó utilizarlos y reconoció que la falta de tiempo y de

habilidad en el uso de herramientas tecnológicas son cuestiones que se debe considerar.

Debido al diseño de esta investigación, sus resultados podrían no ser válidos para la

comunidad internacional. Sin embargo, pueden proporcionar visión para los agentes

relacionados a la educación en contextos similares a los del estudio.

Palabras clave: Reflexión, metacognición, blogs, TICs, educación superior, educación

secundaria, profesores de Inglés


Glossary

Blog: A Web log or publicly accessible journal that is kept online

IBO: International Baccalaureate Organization

ICT: Information and Communication Technology

ISTE: International Society for Technology in Education

EBP: Evidence-Based Practice

ECP: Escuela de Capacitación Pedagógica

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

P-12: Prekindergarten through grade 12 education; primary and secondary education

SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

TESOL: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages

UIS: UNESCO Institute for Statistics

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization


Introduction

For more than a decade, the use of blogs in education has been an innovative method

used to address many educational levels, ranging from primary to graduate, and within a

whole scope of academic areas. This is because they are one of the most accessible means of

online publication and are considered a pedagogical strategy. According to Knobel and

Lankshear (2006), blogs are small learning communities. They can also be an effective aid

for teaching and learning, offering a high level of autonomy and interaction with peers

simultaneously; giving students full control and ownership over their online content, fostering

the development of unique voices, and empowering students to become more analytical and

critical (Pascarella, 2009). In fact, a study conducted to explore the use of blogs as learning

environments in higher education found that blogging has the potential to be a

transformational technology for teaching and learning by providing a space for academic

discussions beyond the scope of a classroom (Williams & Jacobs, 2004).

For the specific context of Ecuador, studies on the use and integration of information

and communication technology (ICT) are rather scarce. Information available comes from the

results of a study involving teachers from twelve different private bilingual high schools in

Guayaquil, conducted as part of a thesis, in order to identify the ways in which these schools

were using technology. The study indicated that blogs were mainly used to inform, notify or

share information, assignments or events. In fact, only one of the surveyed schools had

started to use it for pedagogical purposes. Respondents mentioned that the schools used

websites, e-mails, platforms, blogs, online quizzes, wikis, and cell phones (Velasco, 2010).

Another case study described the use of blogs and other ICT in a tenth grade history

class at a school in Quito as a positive experience and also the creation of a blog for a

university department designed to take advantage of the blog’s communication potential

(Rodriguez, 2012). Rodriguez explained that there is a trend in schools and universities to


train their teachers and students in ICT use. Finally, Sevilla (2010) described the use of ICT

in a university in Ambato and concluded by recommending the creation of virtual

environments for students of the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) degree (Sevilla,

2010).

Despite a move towards ICT integration in the local context of private schools, there

are other aspects that need to be considered; for real learning to take place, blogging or the

integration of other forms of ICT are not the only requisites. Students, as well as teachers,

must elaborate what has been taught and relate it to their previous knowledge, and to then

create their own knowledge structures as well; that is, to construct knowledge. For this to

take place, the use of metacognitive strategies or higher order executive skills that enable

students to approach learning in a systematic, efficient, and effective way by planning,

monitoring and evaluating, is necessary. Teachers must know what teaching is about and the

different strategies they can use to foster authentic learning. Finally, teachers must be able to

self-regulate by reflecting upon their own mental processes to apply the best strategies for

each learning situation (Carrasco, Javaloyes & Calderero, 2008).

This focus on self-regulation and metacognition is encouraged by the international

community and are highlighted in the curricula in both Western and Asian educational

systems, as research states (Li, 2012). In fact, organizations such as the International

Baccalaureate Organization (IBO), the International Society for Technology in Education

(ISTE), the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), UNESCO, and

the European Union, recognize and emphasize a metacognitive approach to language learning

to encourage students to monitor and take control of their own learning processes (European

Union, 2006; IBO, 2012; ITSE, 2008; TESOL, 2010, p. 65; UNESCO, 2012). Reflection, the

complex process where the person who reflects connects ideas to better understand

experiences around him, plays a central role in language learning since it makes the learner


conscious of his/her life and the reality in front of him/her and allows for connections. In

addition, reflection promotes and reinforces objectivity and critical thinking (Carrasco,

Javaloyes & Calderero, 2008).

Due to their special characteristics, blogs support the use of many of the theories

required for language learning. For example, they promote scaffolding as described by

Bruner, Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning by placing the learner at the center of the

process, Vygotsky’s social constructivism by establishing learning communities online,

among others (Yang, 2009). As a result, twenty-first century teachers face the challenge of

creating learning environments online that foster meaningful learning. One way to do it is to

create learner-centered, collaborative environments that support reflective and experiential

processes through the use of blogs. These constructivist environments engage learners in

knowledge construction through collaborative activities that embed learning in a meaningful

context and through reflection on what has been learned through conversation with other

learners (Jonassen et al, 1995; TESOL, 2010).

Even though the use of blogs has been widely disseminated, there is no extensive

research basis that helps teachers, especially language teachers, in designing learning spaces

that take advantage of the potential these tools could offer (Davison & Hall, 2007). Few

studies have examined the perceptions English teachers have on these matters. In fact,

research on the uses of blogs and other forms of digital media in teacher education remains

scarce (Pascarella, 2009). Nevertheless, there are some specific studies on the benefits of

using blogs and whether these help promote understanding and meaningful learning. For

instance, Davison & Hall (2007) found that environments that used blogs in Library and

Information Science motivated positive and productive exchanges in an educational context

(Davison & Hall, 2007). Another study conducted with students of English as a second

language in Malaysia found that the students were capable of applying their second language


skills, increasing self-confidence, developing critical thinking skills and reflection skills, and

using language in a new environment when using blogs (Abu Bakar, Latif & Ya’Acob,

2010). Blogs also constitute an essential tool for reflective learning, even when used in

environments with very little authenticity, such as when posts are graded as part of the

course. In fact, the study conducted by Davison and Hall identified that comments that

contributed in greater proportion to learning among peers were directly proportional to the

degree of reflection in such comments (Davison & Hall, 2007). In other words, the deeper

the reflection level in the comments, the more learning that was taking place. In an

autoethnographic study conducted by Pascarella in 2009 with pre-service teachers, the

benefits of using blogs far overshadowed those of keeping a traditional journal or chat rooms.

Other scholars contend whether the use of blogs produces a significant change in

students. Carnoy (2004), for example, evaluated ICT’s change potential and indicated that

although there is greater access to ICT, its integration to teaching methodology is rather

scarce due to the lack of teacher knowledge and their preference for traditional methods.

Atwell, in another study, discussed how major implementations of educational technology

have not been carried out to promote the creation of networks and creativity, but rather to

manage learning and isolate networks. As he explained, new technologies are used to

perpetuate the old education paradigm in a new format (Atwell, 2007). Another question

refers to the actual amount of learning that takes place when students are collaborating and

participating in social networks. It seems that learning may become irrelevant for the culture

of the youth and the way in which they conduct themselves.

Research appears to have focused either on how to operate blogs themselves or on

providing only qualitative accounts of weblog use and its impact (Du & Wagner, 2005).

Only a few studies have been published investigating their effectiveness in educational

settings, and even fewer in the realms of the language learning classroom (Tan, 2005). Nor


have researchers concentrated on blogs’ effectiveness when used by teachers to reflect about

professional practice. In fact, how teachers use blogs remains vague, even though the number

of users is on the rise (Ray & Hocutt, 2006).

Due to the fact that the author could find no studies that look at the perception of

English language teachers on the use of blogs as a strategy to foster reflection and

metacognition, this study intends to explore and describe the perceptions of English language

teachers on the use of blogs as a strategy for enhancing reflective learning in their classroom.

To fully understand this research question, it was necessary to determine teachers’

perceptions towards reflections and metacognition in teaching and learning first. This

responds to the needs established by the UNESCO (2010), TESOL Research Agenda (2005),

and IBO (2012), which encourage researchers to provide as much contextual information as

possible about their investigation and suggest that using technology to facilitate instruction is

one aspect to be further analyzed. More research is needed that can serve as a guide for how,

when, and to what degree technology should be incorporated into a given context (Borg,

Curtis, Davison, Hong Han, Reynolds & Scovel, 2004).

Using a quantitative method, this exploratory and descriptive study used a

questionnaire designed for the specific purpose of this research to determine the perceptions

of English language teachers on the use of blogs as a strategy for enhancing reflective

learning in their classroom. Data were collected and analyzed for statistical frequencies. The

results of the study will benefit school administrators by providing information about how

teachers are integrating technology in their schools in response to current needs. In addition,

English teachers may profit from the results by reflecting upon common teaching and

technology integration practices and the areas of their teaching practice that could be

improved. Finally, policy makers may benefit from the use of the study as a basis for further

research to inform policy.


This study does not intend to propose a new methodology or professional

development to train teachers on how to use this strategy; rather, it aims to explore and

describe the perceptions of the teachers. It does not seek to predict future action, nor to

generalize results, but rather to reveal perceptions for further research and any particular

interventions planned using the results. Its results may not be valid for the international

community but may provide insights for English teachers in a situation similar to that of the

schools where the surveyed subjects are employed in Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Literature Review

To understand how blogs, reflection and metacognition affect educational practices,

the subsequent literature review explores the following topics. First, the issue of lifelong

learning is discussed, as it serves as the goal toward which those educational objectives

aspire. Reflection and metacognition are then reviewed as means to create lifelong learners.

Finally, the role of ICT’s in education, and that of blogs more specifically, is analyzed.

Lifelong learning

Currently, there is rising interest in research concerning what makes learning

activities effective (Ingvarson, Maier, & Beavis, 2005). A necessity for teachers to improve

their professional practice has emerged, so that they can model and transfer the constant

learning skills necessary for a learner’s proper development and practice. This requires a

shift in focus to lifelong learning rather than a knowledge update (Bransford, 2000). The

European Union has determined that in order for someone to become a lifelong learner, eight

key competences must be fulfilled. These competences include aspects related to

communicative competence in different languages, digital competence, and learning to learn

(European Union, 2006). To become lifelong learners, both students and teachers must be

reflective, becoming actively involved in their own learning processes. This practice

becomes especially important in becoming an effective teacher; it is imperative to revise and


expand one’s understanding (Gaible & Burns, 2005). One way to achieve such a goal is to be

knowledgeable about oneself and to then become constantly curious, systematic when

analyzing, critical, diligent when making connections, and evaluative to determine the results

of one’s own practices (Thorpe, 2004). The aim is to acquire self learning skills permanently

throughout life (Meza, Pérez & De la Barreda, 2002).

Reflection in education

From the previous discussion, it can be inferred that reflection is of vital importance

for the development of real learning both for students and teachers. Research shows that to

make meaning, articulation and reflection on what is known are required (Jonassen, 1995).

According to Dewey, reflection is a complex, thorough, intellectual, and emotional task that

takes time to be done properly and profoundly. When analyzing Dewey’s work, Rodgers

(2002) identified four different criteria to refer to reflective thinking. First, reflection is a

meaning making process that helps to connect ideas to previous knowledge and ensures the

continuity of learning. Second, reflection is rooted in scientific inquiry; this means that it is a

systematic and rigorous activity. Third, reflection must occur in interaction with others.

Fourth, reflection requires attitudes that value personal and community growth (Rodgers,

2002). It can also be said that reflection is a high-level cognitive thinking process (Kaune,

2006). To Fendler (2003), reflection is “a demonstration of self consciousness, a scientific

approach to planning for the future, a tacit and intuitive understanding of practice, a

discipline to become more professional, a way to tap into one’s authentic inner voice, a

means to become …more effective … and a strategy to redress injustices in society” (Ross,

2011). To Richards, Sylvester, and Farrell (2005), reflection is the process of critical

examination of experiences that can lead to a better understanding of the pedagogic practices

and routines of the person who reflects. Critically reflective practice allows teachers to

become better in their profession, create more meaningful learning activities, design more


effective curriculum, and make better informed educative decisions (Pascarella, 2009). Moon

(1999), identified reflection as a simple mental process that purposefully considers complex

ideas, occurring at different reflection levels which go from the superficial to profound

(Moon, 1999). Research indicates that the deepest reflection levels are more likely to become

quality learning. (Jafari & Kaufman, 2006). For the purpose of this research, reflection is

considered a complex task that helps the individual understand the different aspects of

educational endeavors. It is a process that can be enhanced by interaction with peers or

tutors.

One means to spark reflection is through the use of feedback. Comments given by

teachers are critical to help students reach deeper reflection levels and to create metacognitive

situations (Sun, 2009). Feedback serves two roles; it facilitates students’ learning and deep

thought and it is a model for students to follow. As a consequence, teachers must go beyond

questioning, limited not only to asking and answering questions, but rather leading to greater

understandings, questions, and possibilities (Yang, 2009). As teachers scaffold students’

reflective skills and practice through the use of proper feedback, they will ideally lead the

learners to become metacognitive. Once teachers have started using reflective practice,

metacognitive processes can take place.

Metacognition in education

Even though metacognition and reflection may be synonymous for some scholars, for

the purpose of this research, reflection is considered a skill that leads to metacognition; that

is, the greater and deeper the reflective capacity of the learner, the better metacognitive skills

he may have. What exactly is metacognition, then? Metacognition in the simplest expression

can be defined as thinking about thinking. It can be considered as a form of evaluation, only

that this one looks inward, since the learner’s ideas and practice are assessed as part of the

metacognitive process (Martinez, 2006). It describes a complex process that can result in a


subtle view of oneself as a thinker and learner. To Osman and Hannafin (1992),

metacognition refers to the self-awareness about their knowledge and self-understanding,

self-control and self-manipulation of their own cognitive processes (in Tsai, 2009).

There are three components of learning processes in metacognitive strategies:

planning, monitoring, and evaluation. These concepts are graphically represented in Figure 2

(Gani & Abdullah, 2009).

Figure 1. Metacognitive Strategies (Gani & Abdullah, 2009)

Learners who are metacognitively aware know what to do when they do not know what to do;

that is, they have strategies for finding out or figuring out what they need to do (Carrasco,

2004). Metacognitive learners, thus, become aware and take control of their own learning.

It could thus be said that the metacognitive has cognitive elements, but cognition does not

necessarily include metacognition (Avila & Baetiong, 2012). For any metacognitive strategy

to be effective, students must understand the strategy, understand why they need to know it

and why it will benefit them, be able to think about the strategy process aloud, see examples

of the strategy in use, know when and where it is appropriate to use it, and be able to monitor

themselves. Metacognition helps children (and adults) make the most of their mental

capacity (Fisher, 1998). The use of metacognitive strategies ignites one’s thinking and can

lead to more profound learning and improved performance (Anderson, 2002). In addition,

Metacognitive strategies

Learning Processes

Planning for own learning

Monitoring of own learning

Evaluation of own learning


when students’ metalearning capacity is raised, their personal growth and commitment to

learning increase as well (Tsai, 2009).

Research shows that metacognition is a critical skill for learning languages and

employed by skilled readers of any language (New Teacher Center, 2005). TESOL

Standards for the Recognition of Initial TESOL Programs in P-12 ESL clearly indicate a

metacognitive approach to language learning in Domain 4, regarding assessment. Standard

4c asks teachers to “understand the interdependent relationship between teaching and

assessment, and develop instructional tasks and assessment tools that promote and measure

student learning.” The standards emphasize the importance of assessing language skills in an

integrative way. A way to do this is through performance assessments, since they promote

complex thinking. Students who know what to do, know how to do it, and are capable of

identifying when to use the different strategies and to adapt their use to different situations, as

is implied in standard 4c, are using metacognitive strategies (Carrasco, 2004).

Education and ICT

As years go by, there are greater and faster advances in technology and

communications. The world is in the midst of a digital era, in which information and

communication technologies (ICT) are constantly being developed and innovated. Their

existence implies changes and growth opportunities in different areas of human development.

The power of ICT as change agents is undeniable (Wagner, 2005).

ICT offer a huge potential to develop the lifelong learning skills that are inherent to

the current time; thus, they are especially adequate to facilitate learning in students who are

not intrinsically motivated to learn and do not know how to use information presented with

such ease (Margalef, 2007). New technologies allow for the creation of learning

environments that extend the use of old technologies such as books and blackboards. The

implementation of ICT in the educational arena has been considered to contribute to change,


better prepare students, improve learning results, and ameliorate the skills of learners (Assar,

El Amrani, & Watson, 2010). A connection between ICT and reflective practices has been

identified as well. Rowe, Frantz and Bozalek (2012) explain that there is evidence that

integrating technology can facilitate the student’s development by encouraging reflection,

and by enhancing communication and reasoning (Rowe et al., 2012). ICT enables learners to

use the computer, the Internet, and other synchronous and asynchronous applications to keep

either learning journals in a word processor, an e-portfolio, or a blog. ICT also enables the

giving of feedback by different users through chats, video conferences, and instant

messaging. Once individuals start using the feedback provided through ICT by both teachers

and peers to consider aspects related to their own learning processes and ways to improve

them, metacognitive practice will take place. Records of this practice can be kept by using

ICT as well (Rowe et al., 2012).

It must be understood that technology in itself does not guarantee effective learning,

but rather that its use could even stop effective learning from taking place (Bransford, 2000).

It must not be forgotten that no amount of ICT can compensate for high quality pedagogy and

that it must be relevant to teachers’ needs (Gaible & Burns, 2005). The real challenge is thus

to inspire and prepare teachers to implement rich curricular activities, using the pertinent

tools for the context in which they work (McKenzie, 2001).

In the context of teaching foreign languages, using ICT has many advantages. It can

increase interaction among students and create a wider audience online outside the classroom.

It can also address the different learning styles of students; make learning authentic through a

positive learning environment that is supportive and open (Moqbel & Rao, 2013).

Based on these assumptions, it is imperative that educators, researchers, and policy

makers study alternative methods and tools that will ameliorate teaching practices while

allowing for regular activities to take place. One such way to do it is to integrate ICT into


their academic program, both for teachers and students. In fact, according to Wagner (2005)

policymakers and parents in many developing countries are making increasing demands for

the use of ICT in education. ICT have had a tremendous impact on teacher professional

development in countries around the world (Gaible & Burns, 2005).

When referring specifically to the context of Ecuador, information on ICT use is

rather scarce. Nevertheless, a study conducted by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS,

2012), collected data for the Latin American and Caribbean region from administrative

sources and found that Ecuador, despite having a formal commitment to ICT initiatives and

e-readiness, has only 4% of teachers currently teaching basic computer skills or computing.

Data is missing or not available to the researchers in the study about ICT-qualified teachers

and teachers trained to teach subject(s) using ICT facilities or currently teaching them, as is

shown in Appendix A (UIS, 2012). Even though this gives a rough idea of what takes place

in primary and secondary schools in general, there are no conclusive studies that describe

Ecuador’s situation regarding the use of ICT and what teachers think about it.

Web 2.0 and education

Among the different ICT, the Internet plays a prime role. Special attention should be

given to Web 2.0 tools. When the World Wide Web was initiated, it was in the form of Web

1.0, which gave access to unimaginable quantities of one-way only information. In other

words, real time interaction with other users was not possible; one had to rely on the use of

tools such as electronic mail. Web 2.0, on the other hand, introduces substantial changes in

that it allows for social interaction in a two-way communication channel. It “refers to the

social use of the Web which allows people to collaborate, to get actively involved in creating

content, to generate knowledge, and to share information online” (Grosseck, 2009, p.1). The

interlocutor and the receptor are able to share in both an asynchronous and synchronous

manner, which makes it especially remarkable for the educational field. This is due to four


basic characteristics of online learning environments: flexible time and space, indirect social

interactions, abundant information resources, and dynamic learning interfaces (Tsai, 2009).

Some examples of Web 2.0 tools and applications include social networks such as

Facebook, Twitter, Flicker; and blogs, such as wikis and rinks, among others. Each of them

serves a specific purpose. Flicker, for example, allows for image exchange. Facebook allows

the user to create social, academic, or even business networks and groups (Guy, Zwerdling,

Ronen, Carmel, & Uziel, 2010). Given the possibilities that Web 2.0 tools confer, the web

becomes not only an informational or social resource, but a learning environment where

understanding is built and shared socially as well. It is in this medium that learning becomes

part of doing and creating knowledge (Brown, 2000). Thanks to Web 2.0, learning becomes

as social as cognitive, more concrete than abstract, and in the midst of judgments and

exploration (Lombardi, 2007).

Den Exter, Rowe, Boyd, and Lloyd, (2012), summarize the opportunities for learning

using Web 2.0, as opposed to Web 1.0, technologies into six categories. First, these

technologies enable students to engage with learning. Second, they support learning

interaction in the learning process. Third, they enable students to work at a conceptual level

of understanding. Fourth, they enable students to develop critical thinking skills. Fifth, they

allow students to collaboratively build knowledge. Sixth, they enable students to construct

their own knowledge. All these considerations come from the study of the implications

considered in figure 2.


Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Web 2.0 community of inquiry, illustrating relationships

between teacher, student and the integrated use of Web 2.0 tools (den Exter, Rowe, Boyd, &

Lloyd, 2012)

Regarding the use of Web 2.0 applications for educational purposes, studies suggest

the lines between different online environments are constantly shifting and blurring, so it is

hard to define one specific tool for each use. Nevertheless, it is common practice to use blogs

and e-portfolios for reflection, forums for discussion, and wikis for collaboration (Miyazoe &

Anderson 2012; Ross, 2011). Referring more specifically to blogs and wikis, which are the

most relevant applications for the context of this study, both can be useful depending on the

teaching contexts and the intentions of the users. It could thus be said that blogs and wikis

are structurally very similar. The key difference is that blogs organize information in a

temporal manner, whereas wikis do it spatially (Bruns, 2006). In addition, a blog has a single

author, while everyone is a writer on wiki pages. On the blog, visitors can send their

comments to the author’s message, but they cannot alter the posted content. Blogs are the

critical reflection platforms where the students can often feel relaxed and communicate with

each other (Avci & Askar, 2012).

As a result, it can be said that blogs are of use for continuous personal or group


reflection or for the incremental development of skills, gathering of information, provision of

feedback. Wikis, on the other hand, can be used for gathering information in an improvised

form as it is gathered.

Richardson (2010) explains that blogs are controlled and owned by the bloggers and

are primarily centered on and identified with their author or authors, rather than organized

around specific topics. Blogs invite users to share, create, and interact in a virtual space and

create knowledge. Such continuous collaboration fosters the interconnectivity between

bloggers and encourages reflection and meaning negotiation. Different studies in the

language learning field have made use of blogs as tools to enhance reflection and

metacognition. For instance, Sun and Chang’s study (2012) examined how blogs helped

seven graduate students undertaking the Master’s program in TESOL and Linguistics process

academic writing knowledge and make sense of their writer identity. They found that the blog

activity encouraged active and reflective engagement in knowledge sharing and generation,

and the development of strategies to deal with problems along the learning process. In

addition, blogs were found to provide a sense of authorship and knowledge of what such a

role entails (Sun & Chang, 2012).

Blogs in education

Among the different Web 2.0 applications that could be of assistance in the

educational arena, blogs are of increasing interest and use. Blogs are part of the read/write

web; they are interactive in nature. Godwin (2003) argued that a weblog (or blog) is a web-

based space for writing where all the writing and editing of information is managed through a

browser and is immediately and publicly available on the Internet. This means that there is

no need of programming knowledge in order to keep a blog; it is as simple as sending an e-

mail to an acquaintance. As Sevilla (2010) noted, it is an open source of communication and

a virtual communication channel, where exchange of ideas takes place with ease and


rapidness. Thus, blogs have a great potential in education since writing to the web is easy

and there is an audience for one’s ideas (Richardson, 2010).

In regard to pedagogy, the effective use of blogs enables knowledge sharing through

connecting learners to contexts beyond the classroom. As described by Du & Wagner (2005),

this facilitates the development of individual and critical voices and prompts individual

accountability in learning. Blogs are a teaching strategy in and of themselves (Zhang, 2009).

Because of their nature and features, blogs can be used as communication and/or cognitive

tools for disciplines, such as medicine, language learning, journalism and communication

studies, academic research, law, higher education in general, and teachers’ professional

development. Table 1 summarizes some of the studies that have been conducted regarding the

use of blogs.

Table 1

Summary of Studies Regarding Use of Blogs

Author Field Study Results

Chu, Chan, &

Tiwari, 2012

Information

management and

nursing

Analyzed the behavior,

perceptions, and processes of

blogging

Perceived as useful for knowledge

construction, problem solving,

collaborative learning, reflection,

and communication and social

support

Chu, Kwanm

& Warning,

2012

Information

management

Use of three different blogging

platforms during internships

Positive perceptions on blogging as

a tool to facilitate information

management and mutual support,

self-reflection, and communication

Wetmore et al,

2010

Dental higiene Use of blogs as a tool for

reflecting on clinical experiences

and for promoting critical

thinking.

No significant change in

performance, but statistically

significant improvements in levels

of reflection

Krogstie, 2010 Software

Engineering

Lightweight collaboration tools

used in daily project work;

reflection through retrospective

reflection workshops

Conceptualize a general model of

reflection as distributed cognition

Syvanen &

Beale, 2010

Teacher

education

Mobile blogging tool for smart

phones used by teachers of

teacher-trainees

Positive views towards using the

devices to support reflective

learning and process and portfolio

activities.


Yang, 2009 Teacher

education

Use of blogs as a reflective

platform in the training of (EFL)

student teachers

All were reflective, and some

critically reflective; considered

technology a useful platform for

reflecting and communicating

Sharma & Xie,

2008

Instructional

Design

(Doctoral Level)

Interviews of graduate students

using Weblogs

Found as helpful for learning,

reflecting, and building a sense of

community, but expressed concerns

over the lack of structure public

nature of the reflective process

Duda &

Garrett, 2008

Physics Course blog for physics students

discussing real-world applications

outside of class.

Initial positive attitudes towards

physics; response to blog

overwhelmingly positive

Du & Wagner,

2005

Information

Systems

Keeping of on-going (web based)

learning logs throughout a

semester

Weblog performance was a

significant predictor for learning

outcome, while traditional

coursework was not; a positive

learning effect for weblog authoring.

Frantz &

Rowe, 2013

Physiotherapy Use of reflective blogging to teach

the process of Evidence-Based

Practice in physiotherapy

Movement from assisted to

independent performance; blogging

found to be a valuable tool for

promoting meaningful learning

activities and in teaching the process

of EBP.

Different studies agree that among the many characteristics of blogs there are four

main features that make the role of blogs special among other Web 2.0 tools and applications.

These are the individual (or group) ownership of the blog content and comments posted,

which gives authority to one particular voice; reversed chronological order that is culturally

understood; automatic archiving to revise previous posts easily; and adaptability to the users

(Davison & Hall, 2007; Richardson, 2010; Sim & Hew, 2010; Zhang, 2009; Moqbel & Rao,

2013). These unique characteristics have made it one of the greatest tools in communication

media due to its “use strength;” in fact, two new blogs are created every second (Richardson,

2010). This rapid extension is mainly because blogs, unlike other media, are culture: they are

conversation developed in an asynchronous way through which the immediacy and style of

the bloggers are shared and extended. Blogs promote individual voice, ease of address, and a


blurred distinction between public and private spheres (Rodriguez, 2012; Ross, 2011). In

contrast to other Web 2.0 applications and tools, blogs integrate the personal and the public,

which may be thought as the basis for establishing their importance for reflective practice

(Davison & Hall, 2007). The idea that the blog as a whole is a reflection of who the blogger

actually is, is of great importance for those in the blogosphere (Ross, 2011). The blog as a

learning journal is a way of evidencing learning and collecting information for metacognition

and reflection, taking students to deeper levels of learning. Virtual environments, such as

blogs, are conducive to reflection and metacognition. To illustrate, Johnson (2004)

concluded that virtual environments are conducive to reflection in the English writing class.

Weblog environments can promote reflective activities in learners since they shorten the

distance between learners and the content to be learned (Zhang, 2009).

The utilization of blogs as learning tools that scaffold both teacher and student

reflective skills will be specifically explored in this study. Weblogs allow for the exchange

of information between people to expand their knowledge and satisfy needs and personal

interests at the same time, without considering time and place limitations. A blog is typically

built by people who share mutual interests and who set objectives, regulations, and formats

collaboratively, which essentially differentiates blogs from other types of webpages. It can

thus be stated that a blog is a small learning community (Knobel & Lankshear, 2006). A blog

environment may be used to monitor and evaluate student work, as well as to motivate

interaction among students and between teachers and students (Bransford, 2000). In a study

conducted by Rowe (2012), for example, blogs were found to be the tool that was understood

best by most of the participants (23%) compared to applications such as wikis and podcasts.

In addition, participants deemed it important to engage in common online activities such as

watching videos and creating blog posts (Rowe, Frantz, & Bolazek, 2012). This engagement

is due to the multiple functions blogs allow.


As previously stated, the use of blogs enables the application of many learning

theories. Blogs allow for implementation of Bruner’s conception of the social and

interpersonal nature of language, Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning, and Vygotsky’s

social constructivist principles, among others (Yang, 2009). There are a range of potential

applications of blogging in education and training including for student and teacher

communication, delivery of learning materials, the provision of mentoring to students,

collaboration and professional development for teachers and knowledge management (Zhang,

2009). Blogs can thus enable teachers to develop lesson plans, plan online collaborative

projects, discuss pedagogy, post experiences, lessons learned, or self-assessments, and

engage in peer mentoring, among other activities. The benefits of these endeavors increase

when teachers are also engaged in structured Teacher Professional Development programs

(Gaible & Burns, 2005).

Based on the study review by Sim & Hew (2010), some of the effects of the use of

blogs for include collaboration and interaction whether it is among peers or between teacher

and learner as in Kuzu (2007), Leslie and Murphy (2008), Loving et al. (2007), Makri and

Kinigos (2007), among others (Appendix B). In addition, there is the use and improvement of

reflective skills (Xie et al., 2008, Xie & Sharma, 2005; Zeng & Harris, 2005; Dickey, 2004).

Another aspect that is considered is the consolidation of knowledge and learning processes as

in Coutinho (2007), Davi et al (2007), Stiler and Philleo (2003). Negative aspects that were

found in these studies include time constraints, procrastination, limited technological ability,

and privacy issues (Sim & Hew, 2010). Other studies focus on the effect of blogging on

autonomous learning, increasing writing fluency, as a place for completing writing

assignments, posting class materials, and as a way to open communication in a positive

manner (Ross, 2011).

There are studies that question whether or not the use of blogs produces a significant


change in students. For instance, Carnoy (2004) evaluated ICT change potential and found

that despite ICT’s enormous capability, little actual change takes place. Atwell (2007)

explained how technology implementation has been used to isolate networks and bring about

the traditional education using different media (Atwell, 2007).

Another question of importance refers to the actual amount of learning taking place.

It seems that learning may become irrelevant for the culture of the youth and the way in

which they conduct themselves (Rodriguez, 2012). Ross (2011) argues that blogs have

become a space for personal branding that may take learners away from any academic

purpose (Ross, 2011).

Other studies have had inconsistent results in terms of the effectiveness of blog use in

education. Opposing findings were obtained regarding the adoption rate of blogs among

students. Some argued that blogs were successful motivational tools for students, while

others found that students do not maintain continuing blogging practice. More specifically,

Kim (2008) discovered that a shared blog was less appealing than keeping a personal one

(Kim, 2008). This could be explained by the loss of personal authorship that is one of the

distinguishing features of blogs. Other issues that constantly show up in research concern

privacy and technical constraints.

From a simple search of the Internet, however, it is clear that much blogging is

occurring and simply not being reported in English language learning literature. Research

focusing on blog use in English language classes is still relatively scarce in the literature

(Zhang, 2009). The increasing use of blogs in education demands a better understanding of

the phenomena. Learning more about the way teachers use blogs and their purpose in so

doing it will be beneficial to the whole learning community.

Perceptions and educational research

Perception is the process of recognizing and interpreting sensory stimuli. It not only


implies interpretation, but also the way individuals respond to the information. Perception can

be thought of as a process where sensory information from the surroundings is captured and

then used to interact with such surroundings. Through the perceptual process, individuals take

information in and give it meaning (Williams, 2013). It can thus be said that perceptions are

the way people make sense of their world (Lewis, 2001).

Perception is critical because it influences the information that enters the working

memory; however, background knowledge resulting from prior experience also affects the

perceptual process and learning (Adediwura & Tayo, 2007). Perception is influenced by a

variety of factors, including the stimulus itself, the activities of the sensory organs, the

subject's past experience; attention factors, and the motivation and emotions of the subject

(Henson, 2003). This explains why people will always have different interpretations of what

they perceive, even if the stimulus is exactly the same. Perceptions are constantly evolving.

Previous and current perceptions that seem correct, may be altered due to the appearance of

new and valid sensory information (Lewis, 2001)

When trying to understand other people and their behavior, the perceptual process

becomes known as social perception (Henson, 2003). In the educational field, social

perceptions are important since the way teachers perceive students and the learning

environment where they interact, affects student performance and actual learning. These

social perceptions are of extreme significance since they shape the way both teachers and

learners interact and construct knowledge; thus, differences in perception are key to the

education field and educational stakeholders should be understanding and sensitive to others'

perspectives, in order to ensure that learning is taking place in the best way possible.

Among the underlying implications of perceptions in education is the power that

perception has to shape the kinds of people learners will become. As noted by Henson

(2003), teachers have tremendous power to shape their students' behaviors and futures,


including the way they treat them. Interestingly, teachers usually are not very aware of such

treatment.

For the purpose of this research, the perceptions of English teachers regarding the use

of blogs as tools for reflection and metacognition will be studied. This is significant since by

understanding the way teachers make sense of the blogosphere and its implications for

metalearning and reflective practice, an actual change in the way technology is integrated into

teaching can take place (Moqbel & Rao, 2013). Considering there is little technology use in

the context of the study, if teachers’ use of technology is to change then their perceptions

about technology have to change. It is clear that the adoption of any new technology depends

on the importance teachers give to ICT for learning (Donnelly, McGarr, & O’Reilly, 2011).

Their perceptions of ICT as important for learning will allow for the constructivist use of new

tools and applications to enhance learning, proper modeling and transfer of the lifelong

learning skills learners should be acquiring. As expressed by Fullan (2007), “Change is

dependent on what teachers do and think – it’s as simple and as complex as that.”

Transformations in the student learning process in the end depend on teachers. (in Donnelly,

McGarr, & O’Reilly, 2011).

Research Question:

What are English teachers’ perceptions regarding the use of blogs as a tool for

enhancing reflective learning in the foreign language classroom?

In order to fully understand the answer of the research question, teachers’ perceptions

towards metacognition and reflection in teaching and learning must be determined first. The

research question is divided in two parts: (a) What are teachers’ perceptions towards the roles

of metacognition and reflection in teaching and learning, and (b) what are their perceptions

towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and reflection?


Methodology

Research Design

To respond to the research question, this study used a quantitative non-experimental

research design. A quantitative approach aims to explain phenomena by collecting numerical

data that are analyzed using mathematically based measures and statistical analysis in order

to establish behavioral patterns and prove theories (Hernández, Fernández, & Baptista, 2010;

Salkind, 2010). In this study, numerical data was collected using a questionnaire.

Methodological Design

To find out about the perceptions of English teachers working in secondary and higher

education regarding the use of blogs for reflection and metacognition this study used a cross-

sectional exploratory/descriptive research design. This design was chosen since the study did

not intend to manipulate any variables, but to rather describe a situation in a specific moment

of time for a specific sample of teachers in a specific location. It aims to describe how the

sample of teachers makes sense of blogging in relation to reflection and metacognition. An

exploratory research design intends to provide a better understanding of a situation. It is not

designed to result in final answers but on gaining ideas and insights. A descriptive research

design places the major emphasis on determining the frequency with which something occurs

or the extent to which two variables covary (Brown & Suter, 2011). This study thus aimed

to gather data regarding the perceptions English teachers have regarding the use of blogs for

reflective practice and metacognition.

Population.

The population for this study was comprised of English language and content area

teachers involved in higher education and secondary education levels in Guayaquil, Ecuador.


Sample.

The participants of this study were fifty-seven English teachers from various private

universities and secondary schools in Guayaquil, Ecuador, which offer EFL courses and in

which the major specific subjects are taught in English. It was a non-probabilistic sample, in

which the researcher selected the sample elements not based on a predetermined probability

but on the specific nature of the study to be undertaken (Salkind, 2010). Sample teachers

who work in universities and secondary schools offering courses in English were chosen

from the referrals made by teachers in the researcher’s sphere of contacts. This particular

subgroup was selected because it had specific characteristics that fulfilled the purpose of the

study and allowed for the collection of answers to the research question (Lund Research Ltd,

2012). Thus, a convenience sampling method, which is commonly used in social sciences,

was used, since the teachers in the sample were available to the researcher due to their

accessibility (Bryman, 2012; Mertens, 2014). In some cases, snowball sampling was also

used, since some teachers initially contacted forwarded the survey to teachers in their own

spheres of contact.

As stated by Rayford (2010), in quantitative studies, sampling should be based more

on the judgment of the researcher to select participants who provide information to better

address the purpose of the research; that is, to answer the research questions. Nevertheless, it

must be considered that the sample being studied cannot be assumed to be representative of

the population (Bryman, 2012; Lund Research Ltd, 2012; Mertens, 2014).

Study variables.

The variables to be explored are demographics, perceptions on reflection, perceptions

on metacognition, and perceptions on blogging.

Demographics are conceptually defined as particular characteristics of a population

or sample. Demographic variables are independent variables by definition because they


cannot be manipulated. (Lee & Schuele, 2010). For this study, they are operationally defined

as responses given to items one to eight in the questionnaire. Categories for this variable

include sex, age, educational level, degree, teaching experience, and type of teaching, either

English language, content area, or both.

Perceptions on reflection: Conceptually, reflection is defined as a complex task that

helps the individual understand the different aspects of educational endeavors; it is a process

that must be scaffolded by interaction with peers and tutors. It is a skill that leads to

metacognition. For this study, perceptions on reflection are operationally defined as responses

given to items nine to fifteen in the questionnaire. Categories for this variable include basic

beliefs on reflection and reflective practice, purpose of using reflective practice as a

teaching/learning tool, impact of reflection on teaching, impact of reflection on student

learning, and strategies used to make students reflective.

Perceptions on metacognition: Conceptually, metacognition refers to the self-

awareness about their knowledge and self-understanding, self-control and self-manipulation

of their own cognitive processes (in Tsai, 2009). For this study, perceptions on metacognition

are operationally defined as responses given to items sixteen to twenty in the questionnaire.

Categories for this variable include the fundamental skills/strategies required for life, beliefs

on metacognition, perception of the importance of metacognition as a tool to enhance

learning, perceptions of the usefulness of the fundamental strategies required for

metacognitive learning, and perceptions of the importance of strategies to teach

metacognition.

Perceptions on blogging: Conceptually, a blog is a web-based space for writing. It is

an open source of communication and a virtual communication channel, where exchange of

ideas takes place with ease and rapidness (Godwin, 2003; Sevilla, 2010). The blog is a way

of evidencing learning and collecting information for metacognition and reflection, taking


students to deeper levels of learning (Zhang, 2009). For this study, perceptions on blogging

are operationally defined as responses given to items twenty-one to thirty-nine in the

questionnaire. Categories for this variable include purpose of blogs, attitudes towards

blogging and reflection, student attitudes towards reflective blogs, willingness to use blogs,

and school’s support of blog and ICT integration. Table 2 summarizes the aspects to be

developed in the research methodology.

Table 2

Research Methodology

Variable Conceptual

Definition

Operational

Definition Indicators / Dimensions

Scale / Values

Demographics Particular

characteristics

of a population

or sample. (Lee

& Schuele,

2010).

Responses given to

items one to eight

Sex

Age

Educational level

Degree

Teaching experience

Type of teaching

Male, female

Open-ended

Bachelor, masters,

teacher certification,

doctorate, specialty

Open-ended

Years

English language,

content area, both

Perceptions

on reflection

Reflection is a

complex task

that helps the

individual

understand the

different

aspects of

educational

endeavors

(Kaune, 2006);

it is a skill that

leads to

metacognition.

Responses given to

items nine to

sixteen in the

questionnaire.

Basic beliefs on

reflection and reflective

practice,

Purpose of using

reflective practice,

Impact of reflection on

teaching,

Impact of reflection on

student learning,

Strategies used to make

students reflective

Yes

No

Class description, idea

generation, situation

identification,

analysis, evaluation,

planning,

improvement

Meaningful learning,

curriculum design,

decision making

Planning,

understanding, self-

assessment,

professionalism

Questions, feedback,

models


Perceptions

on

metacognition

Metacognition

refers to

student self-

awareness

about their

knowledge and

self-

understanding,

self-control and

self-

manipulation of

their own

cognitive

processes (in

Tsai, 2009).

Responses given to

items seventeen to

twenty-one in the

questionnaire.

Skills/strategies required

for life,

Beliefs on

metacognition,

Perception of the

importance of

metacognition as a tool

to enhance learning,

Perceptions of the

usefulness of the

fundamental strategies

required for

metacognitive learning,

Perceptions of the

importance of strategies

to teach metacognition.

Languages, learning,

digital competence,

planning, critical

thinking,

collaboration,

processing, problem-

solving, proactivity,

culture

Open-ended

Very important to not

important at all

Very useful to useless

Very important to

unimportant

Perceptions

on blogging

A blog is a way

of evidencing

learning and

collecting

information for

metacognition

and reflection,

taking students

to deeper levels

of learning

(Zhang, 2009)

Responses given to

items twenty-two

to forty in the

questionnaire.

Purpose of blogs,

Attitudes towards

blogging and reflection,

Student attitudes towards

reflective blogs,

Willingness to use blogs

School’s support of blog

and ICT integration,

Blogs for reflection

Blogs for metacognition

Posting, contact,

information, reflection

Scales for interesting,

pleasant,

comprehensible,

worthwhile, success

promoting, easy,

important

Very enthusiastic to

not enthusiastic at all

Very willing to not

willing at all

Yes, no, which ones,

training

Yes, no, why

Yes, no, usage


Data Collection.

To respond to the research question, data collection was conducted using quantitative

methods. A questionnaire was administered using Google Forms to the sample of English

teachers. Internet-based surveys are easy to build and easy to analyze, and in theory, easy to

administer (Bernard, 2013). Given the nature of the study and the research question, the use

of such design allowed the researcher to present data and then analyze descriptive statistics,

such as frequencies, percentages, and measures of central tendency (Toprac, 2006). The

following instruments were used during the study:

Questionnaire (See Appendix D) was used to explore perceptions teachers have on

reflection, metacognition, and the use of blogs for such a purpose. Questionnaires were

distributed through e-mails using Google Docs. The participants were assured on the cover

page of the instrument of the confidentiality of the information they would be providing

(Appendix C).

Tsai’s study (2009) was organized using a framework where potential elements and

domains were established prior to thinking of questions. Following this example, a

framework for the quantitative questionnaire in this study follows. It has been organized by

variables. Some potential elements have been identified and explained. Then questions have

been thought of as a means to organize information in a better way. Such a framework of the

questionnaire follows:

Table 3

Questionnaire Framework and Corresponding Questions Adapted from Tsai (2009)

Variable Potential Element Explanation Questions Question #

Reflection Reflective Practice

Basic beliefs on

reflection and

reflective practice

How do you define

reflection? What is

reflective practice? Do

you engage in using it?

9

Usage Purpose to use Why do you use reflective 10


reflective practice as

a teaching/learning

tool

practice? 11

12

Teaching

Perception of the

impact of reflection

on teaching

How has reflection

improved your teaching

performance?

13

14

Student

achievement

Perception of the

impact of reflection

on student learning

How has reflection

improved student

achievement?

15

Planning

Strategies used by

teacher to make

students reflective

How can you help your

students to become more

reflective?

16

Metacognition

Lifelong learning

Fundamental

skills/strategies

required for life

What are the skills that

will help prepare students

for life beyond school?

17

Metacognition Beliefs on

metacognition What is metacognition?

18

Attitude

Perceptions of

metacognition as a

tool to enhance

learning

How important is it for

the development of your

classes?

19

Metacognitive

strategies

Fundamental

strategies required for

adequate performance

in their own classes

Which metacognitive

strategies will be more

useful for your class?

20

Planning

Strategies used be

teacher to help

students

How can you help your

students acquire

metacognitive strategies?

21

Blogging

Usage Purpose of blogs

Have you ever used

blogs? What have you

used them for? Why not?

22

23

24

Attitudes

Attitudes towards

blogging and

reflection

How do you feel about

using blogs for reflection?

25

Transference into

classroom

How do you think your

students would react if

you asked them to use

blogs for reflection?

Why?

26

27

Integration In school and

personal practice

How willing are you to

use blogs in class? Why?

Does your school support

the integration of blogs?

Have you received any

28

29

30

31


training regarding blogs

in in-service professional

development programs?

Does your school support

the integration of other

forms of ICTs? Which

ones? Have you received

any training regarding

other forms of ICTs in in-

service professional


What kind?

32

33

34

35

Blogging and

reflection

Do you use blogs for

reflective learning?

Why? Why not?

36

37

38

Blogging and

metacognition

Do you use blogs for

metacognitive learning?

How do you use them?

39

40

The questionnaire is comprised of four sections:

Section one compiles demographic data from the sample, including gender, age,

teaching experience, educational background, subjects and levels taught.

Section two refers to perceptions on reflective practice. It is made up of seven closed

items. Item # 11 was adapted from a questionnaire that was used in a study on reflective

practice conducted under the sponsorship of the University of Nevada (Rayford, 2010, p. 96).

Section three refers to perceptions on metacognition. It is composed of two closed

items and three scale items. Item # 18 measures the importance of metacognition as deemed

by the participant. Item # 19 measures the perceived importance of certain metacognitive

strategies. The strategies were adapted from “Indicators of students who know how to

learn1” (ECP, 2011). Finally, item # 20 measures the perceived usefulness of using certain

instruction methods. The methods that were considered for such item were taken from

1 Translation for “Indicadores del alumno que sabe aprender”


different publications on teaching metacognitive strategies (Fisher, 1998; Anderson, 2002;

Peirce, 2004; Lam, 2010).

Section four refers to perceptions on blogging. Eighteen items are included in this

section: thirteen close-ended items and five open-ended items. Items # 21 – 23 focus on

teacher usage of blogs. Items # 24 – 25 are scale questions that aim to explore perceptions

towards such use. Item #26 explores the reasons behind such perceptions. Item # 27 is a

scale question that measures the respondents’ willingness to integrate blogs. Item #28

explores the reasons behind such willingness. Items # 29 – 34 measure school involvement

in ICT integration. Items # 35 – 38 aim to relate the variables to answer the research question

more adequately.

In order to check for the clarity of the items in the questionnaire and to obtain

pertinent feedback and make corresponding changes, a pilot test of the questionnaire was

conducted prior to its application. English teachers in the secondary level were selected to

pilot the instrument, since they may use the same strategies to teach as English teachers in

other levels do. Individuals in the pilot test were similar in background and preparation to the

participants of the study following the guidelines for pilot testing surveys (Fink, 2006, p. 40).

Pilot-test.

Prior to testing the questionnaire, the items were revised along with an English

teacher close to the researcher for clarity and consistency. Changes to the original version

(Appendix D) were made as follows: First, item # 2 was assigned categories of ages at

intervals of five years each to simplify responses. In items # 10 and 32 the option “other”

was included to allow for respondents to propose other categories. In item #16, instructions

were changed from “choose at least 3” to “choose the most important 3” to simplify

responses. Due to the electronic version of the questionnaire, the wording of items # 18, 25,

and 27 was changed from “circle the number in the scale…” to “choose the number in the


scale…” A wording change was also done for items # 19 and 20 to “choose the position in

the scale…” In item # 23, an instruction was included to “check the ones that apply.”

Finally, in item #24, “circle the number closer to the way you feel” was changed for “choose

the number closer to the way you feel…”

After having applied the changes in the form, an introductory e-mail (See Appendix

E) which included the link to the questionnaire was sent to 23 English teachers employed in

high school and university settings, which are similar to the actual participants of the study.

The purpose was to ratify the clarity of instructions and questions and ease of

implementation. Sixteen responses were collected throughout a period of ten days. During

the first three days, only eight responses had been collected. A follow-up text message was

sent to remind participants to fill out the questionnaire. During the next four days, six more

responses were obtained. The last two responses were scattered during the last days. Only

one e-mail was received with a comment about one of the questions. Other than that,

questions seem to have been clear to respondents.

After the questionnaire was pilot-tested, revisions on individual items were made as

delineated below.

First, based on the responses obtained, item # 5 will have categories in intervals of 5

years each as follows: 5 years or less, 6 – 10 years, 11 – 15 years, 16 – 20 years, 21 – 25

years, 26 – 30 years, and 31 or more years. Second, item # 7 will have the following options:

beginner, lower intermediate, upper intermediate, and advanced. These were the responses

most English teachers in the pilot-test seem to be familiar with. Third, in items # 25 and 27,

scales will be changed from 1 being very enthusiastic/willing to 5 being not

enthusiastic/willing at all to maintain the consistency with previous scales used in other

sections of the questionnaire. Fourth, from the responses obtained in the pilot-test, the

following options will be included in item # 26: they enjoy using technology, they are


reluctant to use ICT for academic purposes, they are not enthusiastic about their learning

process, they appreciate the space to express themselves, they consider it time consuming,

other. Fifth, item # 28 will include the following options, which have been categorized from

the responses obtained in the pilot-test: they facilitate learning processes, they are a valuable

tool, they take too much time, other tools provide similar benefits, students will not like it,

reluctance to rely on online interactions. Sixth, item # 36 will be divided into two questions,

why? and why not? For the former, the following options will be given: they are user-

friendly, students prefer typing, they allow students to see their learning, other. For the latter,

the following options will be given: lack of training, lack of time, never thought of it, they

are not as useful, I do not need to, other. Finally, item # 38will include the following

options: to post questions, to add material, to send, share, and receive information, to allow

for self-assessment activities, other.

Reliability and validity of the instruments.

Particular attention was paid to documenting the decisions and actions of the

researcher to meet the criteria of validity and reliability (Campbell, 2008). To reduce bias,

which is inherently present in any project, especially when a convenience sample is used

(Mertens, 2014), the questionnaire was pilot-tested with the responses of sixteen teachers of

similar backgrounds to resemble the sample as much as possible. For the sections using

scales, Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated for internal consistency or reliability. In general

terms, there is no rule which specifies a number at which an instrument becomes reliable; it is

the researcher’s responsibility to calculate the coefficient, report it, and allow readers or other

researchers to judge it (Hernández, Fernández, & Baptista, 2010). Nevertheless, it is

generally accepted that an α of at least 0.70 is necessary for an instrument to have internal

consistency. This coefficient depends on the number of items and the size of the sample that

was used to test the instrument’s reliability. In other words, the greater the number of items,


and the larger the size of the sample, the more internally consistent or reliable the instrument

will be.

In terms of reliability the pilot-test gave the following results. On the Perceptions on

Metacognition section, 25 items were used to calculate an α of 0.875. This means that the

instrument’s reliability in this section is acceptable. Since this section was composed of two

individual scale questions, Cronbach’s α was calculated separately for each question. For

question 19, an α of 0.788 was obtained using the 17 items that make up this question. This

is an acceptable result. For question 20, 8 items resulted in an α of 0.542. This coefficient

indicates a regular or medium reliability, which is explained by the very small number of

items included in the question.

Table 4

Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Metacognition

Section Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on

Standardized Items N of Items

Perceptions on

Metacognition .782 .780 25

Question 19 .788 .793 17

Question 20 .542 .547 8

On the Perceptions on blogging section, 9 items were considered to calculate an α of

0.788. Following the generally accepted criteria, this is an acceptable reliability.

Table 5

Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Blogging

Section Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on

Standardized Items N of Items

Perceptions on

Blogging .875 .862 9


When analyzing responses to open-ended items, sample responses were presented as

evidence of what was actually said to try to remain as objective as possible (Hernández,

Fernández, & Baptista, 2010). Nevertheless, a subjectivity component will always be present

in the analysis.

Data Analysis.

Once data were collected, they were tabulated. The survey data were exported into the

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17.0, and the software used to analyze

the survey close-ended questions. Descriptive statistics and data correlations between

demographics and the other three variables were calculated. Results are presented in

frequencies and percentages.

Descriptive statistics are given for each of the variables in the study. This is because

descriptive statistics is the most commonly used technique to report survey results (Rayford,

2010). For each item, frequencies, means, and standard deviations are presented along with

central tendency measures. Where possible, cross tabulations have been made between

demographic data such as age, educational background, and teacher experience and the

different variables that aim to answer the research question.

After having analyzed results using statistical tests and crossing variables, a clearer

idea as to what teachers’ perceptions are regarding reflection, metacognition, and blogging

and how the teachers’ backgrounds affect them were obtained to support deeper analysis and

thought regarding professional development programs to be conducted by the schools that

were surveyed. These data help answer the two parts of the research question: (a) What are

teachers’ perceptions towards the roles of metacognition and reflection in teaching and

learning, and (b) what are their perceptions towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and

reflection?


Results

Introduction

The findings of this study are organized to answer the research question presented

earlier for both parts a and b. Descriptive statistics are presented first. The organization

established in Table 2 is followed to maintain coherence between the methodology and the

presentation of results. Four main variables are described: Demographics, Perceptions on

Reflection, Perceptions on metacognition, and Perceptions on blogging, respectively.

Following this, inferential statistics are presented to test and analyze the hypotheses

that came out as descriptive statistics and central tendency measures were explored. Results

for tests and correlations are given.

Response Rate

The survey was distributed via electronic mail, which presented certain difficulties

regarding response rate. Initially, 110 teachers were sent the electronic mail inviting them to

complete the survey. Only 35 of those teachers responded, which accounts for a 31.82%

response rate. Teachers were sent two reminder electronic mails to increase response rate

and several phone calls and text messages were made to teachers in the closer sphere of

contact of the researcher to remind them of the survey and to ask them, when possible, to

forward the survey to their own networks of teachers (snowball sampling). Because of the

low response rate, some teachers were contacted personally. By the end of the data collection

stage, 57 teachers had completed the survey, which is equivalent to a 45.6% response rate.

Descriptive Statistics

Demographics.

The sample included 59 teachers belonging to two specific types of institutions,

universities and secondary schools. University teachers comprise the largest portion of the

sample with 59.32% and secondary teachers comprise the remaining 40.68% (Appendix I,


figure 1). Two of the teachers surveyed responded only to demographic questions since they

considered the survey specific for language teachers. For all the other variables and

dimensions, these two teachers were excluded from the sample.

Gender.

Regarding gender, the entire sample is comprised of 67.80% females and 32.20%

males. When separated by type of institution, among the university teachers females

accounted for 57.58% and males for 42.42%; for secondary teachers, females accounted for

87.50% and males for 12.50%. As can be observed, females were more willing to participate

in the study (Appendix I, Figure 2).

Age.

The ages of the teachers who responded to the survey were classified in six different

categories. The largest group of teachers was between the ages of 36 to 40 with 26.32%,

followed by those between 31 and 35 with 19.30%. The group 51 and above was ranked in

third place, with 17.54%. Those in the groups of teachers who were 30 or less, 41-45, and

46-50 accounted for 12.28% each.

A difference was observed when dividing the sample by type of institution. For

university teachers, the 36 to 40 category had the greatest concentration with 30.30%,

followed by those teachers who were 51 and above with 27.27%, between 31 and 35 and

between 41and 45 with15.15% each, and between 46 and 50 with 12.12%. Secondary

teachers had a greatest concentration of teachers who were 30 years old or less (29.17%),

closely followed by those ranging between 31 and 35 (25%), 36 to 40 (20.83%), 46 to 50

(12.50%), 41 to 45 (8.33%), and 51 and above (4.17%). From the data obtained, it can be

stated that secondary teachers are younger than university teachers. Appendix I, Figure 3

provides summaries of the percentages for each of the categories.

Education Level.


The majority of the teachers in the sample (56.14%) possess a master’s degree,

followed by those with a bachelor’s degree (24.56%). Those with a teacher certification

accounted for 14.04% of the sample. The group with a diplomado or specialty made up

3.51% of the sample. Those with a teacher certification represented 1.75% of the sample.

When looking at the sample by type of institution, the majority of the university

teachers hold a master’s degree (75.76%), followed by a bachelor’s degree (18.18%). Those

with a teacher certification and a doctorate degree accounted for only 3.03%. Secondary

teachers, conversely, showed a rather small difference among the bachelor’s degree

(33.33%), master’s degree (29.17%), and teacher certification (29.17%). From the secondary

teachers, only 8.33% reported possessing a diplomado or specialty degree (Appendix I,

Figure 4).

Educational Background.

Regarding educational background, most of the teachers possess a degree in education

(54.39%), followed by business studies (31.58%). Other areas represent a minority of the

sample: teachers with a Liberal Arts degree accounted for 7.02% of the sample, those with a

linguistics degree accounted for 5.26%, and those with a law degree made up 1.75% of the

sample.

By type of institution, university teachers are equally divided between education and

business studies with 45.45% each. The remaining part of the university teachers is equally

divided among those with a linguistics, liberal arts, and law degrees with 3.03% each. As for

the secondary teachers, the majority (66.67%) majored in education. Secondary teachers

with business studies and liberal arts degrees accounted for 12.50% of the secondary teachers

group, respectively. Those with a linguistics degree made up 8.33% of the secondary teachers

(Refer to Appendix I, Figure 5).


Teaching Experience.

Regarding their experience as teachers, the sample is spread in different categorical

groups. Most teachers (26.32%) have been teaching between 11 and 15 years. The second

group is formed by teachers with 6 to 10 years of experience with 21.05% of the sample.

Those with 5 or less years of experience and those with 16 to 20 years of experience

represented 15.79% of the sample each. The next group is composed of teachers with 16 to

20 years of experience with 8.77% of the sample. Teachers with 21 to 25 years of experience

accounted for 7.02% of the sample. Finally, teachers with 31 or more years of experience

accounted for 5.26% of the sample.

When dividing the sample by type of institution, it can be observed that results are

mostly consistent with those of the sample as a whole. For university teachers, 11 to 15 years

of experience is the category with the greatest percentage of teachers (24.24%). This is

followed by those with 6 to 10 years of experience (18.18%) and those with 5 or less years of

experience (15.15%) and 16 to 20 years of experience (15.15%). Teachers with 26 to 30

years of experience were next with 12.12% , those with 21 to 25 years of experience

comprised 9.09% of the sample, and those with 31 or more years of experience accounted for

6.06% of the university teachers.

Secondary teachers followed a very similar composition. Teachers with 11 to 15

years of experience formed 29.17% of the group. Those with 6 to 10 years of experience

comprised 25% of the group. Those with 5 years of experience or less and those with 16 to

20 years of experience accounted for 16.67% of the group each. The last three groups, 21 to

25, 26 to 30, and 31 or more years of experience, represented 4.17% of the group of

secondary teachers each. Figure 3 shows results for teaching experience by type of

institution.


Figure 3. Sample by Teaching Experience and Type of Institution.

Teaching Area

Regarding Q6, which asked teachers for the area which they taught, 38.60% of the

sample responded they taught content area subjects, 36.84% reported that they taught both

English language and content area subjects; and, 24.56% said they taught English as a

language. University teachers reported teaching content area subjects with a 42.42%, both

English as a language and content area subjects with 36.36%, and English as a language with

21.21%. As for secondary level, most teachers (37.50%) reported teaching both English as a

language and content area subjects, followed by content area subjects (33.33%) and English

as a language (29.17%). Refer to Appendix I, Figure 6 for the summaries.

Part (a): What are teachers’ perceptions towards the roles of metacognition and

reflection in teaching and learning?

In order to better understand the perceptions of teachers towards the use of blogs for

reflection and metacognition, it was necessary to understand teachers’ perceptions towards

reflections and metacognition. The results for part (a) of the research question relate to the

variables Perceptions on Reflection and Perceptions on Metacognition and are presented

below.


Perceptions on Reflection

The second variable to be explored was Perceptions on Reflection. Questions nine to

15 considered five different dimensions: basic beliefs on reflection and reflective practices;

purpose of using reflective practice; impact of reflection on teaching; impact of reflection on

student learning; and, strategies used to make students reflective. The findings for each of

these dimensions are presented below, following the organization described in Table 2, which

summarizes the research methodology of the study. For each of the dimensions, results are

presented in the form of counts and percentages for the sample as a whole, and disaggregated

for the two types of institutions.

Basic beliefs on reflection and reflective practice

This dimension includes items nine to eleven, which are presented next.

Engagement in Reflective Practices

Q9 asked teachers whether they engaged in reflective practices or not. 85.96% of the

teachers who responded to the survey engage in reflective practices. When observing the

sample by type of institution, 87.88% of the university teachers reported to engage in

reflective practices, whereas 83.33% of the secondary teachers reported to engage in

reflective practices.

Regarding the frequency of engagement in reflective practices, most teachers(37.5%)

reported doing it when they are planning a class, 22.9% reported doing it after every class,

18.8% said they did it once a week, 16.7% stated they did it twice a week, 2.1% claimed they

did it occasionally, and 2.1% did it all the time. When dividing the sample by type of

institution, the results are mostly consistent for both groups. For the university teachers,

41.4% reported doing it when planning a class, 24.1% stated doing it after every class, 17.2%

said they did it once a week, 10.3% stated they did it twice a week, 3.4% claimed they did it

occasionally, and 3.4% did it all the time. For secondary teachers, 31.6% reported doing it


when planning a class, 26.3% stated doing it twice a week, 21.1% said they did it once a

week, and 21.1% stated they did it after every class. It can be observed that all groups of

teachers reported engaging in reflective practice mostly when planning a class. Table 6

summarizes responses regarding the use of reflective practice.

Table 6

Frequency of use of Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type)

Type of Institution

University Secondary Total

% % %

Fre

quen

cy o

f re

flec

tion

Once a week 17.2% 21.1% 18.8%

Twice a week 10.3% 26.3% 16.7%

After every class 24.1% 21.1% 22.9%

When planning a class 41.4% 31.6% 37.5%

Occasionally 3.4% 2.1%

All the time 3.4% 2.1%

Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

When asked how they used reflective practices (Q11), most teachers (71.74%)

reported doing it to think about something that happened in class, 19.57% claimed doing it to

describe what happened in class, 4.35% used to analyze a specific event, 2.17% used it to

think about and describe what happened in class, and 2.17% reported doing it to train

teachers.

The same tendency is true for both university and secondary teachers. For university

teachers, most (70.37%) reported using reflective practices to think about something that

happened in class, followed by 22.22% to describe what happened in class, 3.70% to think

about and describe what happened in class, and 3.70% to train teachers. For secondary

teachers, most (73.68%) used reflective practices to think about something that happened in


class, followed by 15.79% to describe what happened in class, and 10.53% to analyze a

specific event. Table 7 summarizes the responses given to this question by percentages.

Table 7

How Reflective Practice is Used (Total and by Institution Type)

Type of Institution


% % %

Use

of

refl

ecti

ve

pra

ctic

e To think about something that

happened in class 70.37% 73.68% 71.74%

To describe what happened in class 22.22% 15.79% 19.57%

Both 3.70% .00% 2.17%

To analyze a specific event .00% 10.53% 4.35%

To train teachers 3.70% .00% 2.17%

Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

Purpose of using reflective practice

When asked why they used reflective practices (Q12), the teachers in the general

sample reported the main purpose of using reflective practice was to improve their teaching

(23.36%). This is followed by the category to discover strengths and weaknesses with

19.71%. To gain new ideas, to evaluate teaching, and to better plan their teaching were

reported as the next purposes of using reflective practices with 13.87% each. To describe

what happened during a teaching experience followed, with 10.22%. The least mentioned

purpose was to label and categorize events (5.11%).

When analyzed by type of institution, results regarding Q12 were consistent for the

sample as a whole and university teachers, but not for secondary teachers. For university

teachers, the main purpose of using reflective practice was to improve their teaching (25.7%),

followed by discovering strengths and weaknesses (16.2%). To gain new ideas and to better

plan their teaching were reported as the next categories with 13.5% each. To describe what


happened during a teaching experience and to evaluate their teaching were the next purposes

with 12.2% each. The category they mentioned the least was to label and categorize events

(6.8%).

Secondary teachers, on the other hand, reported using reflective practices mostly to

discover strengths and weaknesses (23.8%). This was followed by to improve their teaching

(20.6%), to evaluate their teaching (15.9%), to gain new ideas (14.3%), to better plan their

teaching (14.3%), and to describe happened during a teaching experience (7.9%). To label

and categorize events was also the least mentioned category (3.2%).

Impact of Reflective Practice on Teaching and Learning

When asked whether reflective practices improve teaching and learning (Q13),

96.49% of the teachers considered that reflective practices improve teaching and learning.

The remaining 3.51% thought reflective practices do not improve teaching and learning.

When separating the sample by type of institution, 96.97% of the university teacher said

reflective practices improve teaching and learning, whereas 95.83% of the secondary teachers

had the same opinion. As can be observed, a very large percentage of teachers who were

surveyed considered reflective practices to have a positive impact on teaching and learning.

When analyzing the responses to this question by demographic variables, it can be

observed that those who considered reflection does improve teaching and learning were

females (72.7%), ages 36-40, with a 27.3% of the sample, with a master’s degree (56.4%),

and with 11-15 years of teaching experience.

When asked about the specific impact reflection has on teaching (Q14), the teachers

in the sample indicated the creation of meaningful activities as the greatest impact (46.07%).

Other impacts which were reported, in order, were better decision making (26.97%), better

curriculum design (25.84%), and that it has a positive effect on the whole process (1.12%).

The general sample findings were consistent with those reported by type of institution. For


university teachers, the creation of meaningful activities was reported as having the greatest

impact with a 46.94%. Other impacts were better decision making (26.53%), better

curriculum design (24.49%), and an effect on the whole process (2.04%). For secondary

teachers, the creation of meaningful activities accounted for 45% of the responses, followed

by better decision making (27.50%) and better curriculum design (27.50%). Table 8

summarizes teacher responses regarding this aspect.

Table 8

Impact of Reflection on Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution)


Count % Count % Count %

Impac

t of

Ref

lect

ion

on T

each

ing

Creation of meaningful

activities 23 46.94% 18 45.00% 41 46.07%

Better curriculum design 12 24.49% 11 27.50% 23 25.84%

Better decision making 13 26.53% 11 27.50% 24 26.97%

Affects the whole process 1 2.04% 0 .00% 1 1.12%

Total 49 100.00% 40 100.00% 89 100.00%

When asked about the impact reflection has on student learning (Q15), 43.64% of the

teachers in the sample reported that it allows students to self-assess and correct mistakes,

23.64% reported it allows students to become more professional, 16.36% said it allows

students to plan for the future, 10.91% mentioned it allows for the understanding of tasks and

practice. The lowest percentages (1.82% each) were assigned to the following impacts: it

allows students to identify their own learning strategies, it allows for the tailoring of

situations to student learning needs, and it allows students to share with teachers comments

they cannot share with their peers.

As for university teachers, they regarded allowing students to self-assess and correct

mistakes as the major impact reflection has on student learning with a 51.7% of the


responses. This was followed by allowing students to plan for the future with 17.2%,

allowing students to become more professional with 13.8%, allowing for the understanding of

tasks and practice with 10.3%, and allowing students to identify their own learning strategies

and allowing students to share with teachers comments they cannot share with their peers

with a 3.4% each. Secondary teachers thought that the greatest impact of reflection was

allowing for the understanding of tasks and practice with a 45% of the responses. Other

impacts they identified were allowing students to self-assess and correct mistakes with a

35%, allowing students to plan for the future with a 10%, and allowing students to become

more professional and to share with teachers comments they cannot share with their peers

with 5% each. Figure 4 summarizes these responses.

Figure 4. Impact of Reflective Practice on Student Achievement (Total and by Institution

Type)

Strategies Used to Make Students Reflective

When asked about the strategies teachers can use to make students more reflective

learners (Q16), providing better feedback was the one with the greatest percentage (45.45%),

followed by asking questions (29.09%), providing models to follow (23.64%), and involving

students in the reflective process (1.82%). The results are mostly consistent for the general


sample and when data were disaggregated for university and secondary teachers. For

university teachers, 48.3% reported providing better feedback as the strategy they used to

help students become more reflective, 24.1% used asking questions, 24.1% used providing

models to follow, and 3.4% used involving students in the reflective process. As for

secondary teachers, 45% reported providing better feedback as the strategy they used to help

students become more reflective, 35% used asking questions, and 20% used providing

models to follow. Figure 5 summarizes the findings by percentages of the strategies teachers

deem important to enhance reflection in students.

Figure 5. Strategies Used to Make Students Reflective (Total and by Institution Type)

Perceptions on Metacognition

The third variable to be explored was Perceptions on Metacognition. Responses given

to questions seventeen to twenty-one in the questionnaire were analyzed. Based on the

framework described in Table 2 for the methodological design of the study, the responses

were organized in five dimensions: Skills/strategies required for life, Beliefs on

metacognition, Perception of the importance of metacognition as a tool to enhance learning,

Perceptions of the usefulness of the fundamental strategies required for metacognitive


learning, Perceptions of the importance of strategies to teach metacognition. Each of these

dimensions was analyzed independently. Findings are presented in the form of counts and

percentages and measures of central tendency where applicable.

Skills Required for Life

This dimension asked “What are the skills that will help prepare students for life

beyond school?” and required surveyed teachers to choose the most important three (Q17).

Concerning this dimension, thinking critically was regarded as the skill which will help

prepare students for life beyond school the most (20.39%), followed by solving problems

(15.53%), and working collaboratively (15.05%) for the general sample. Learning to learn,

the skill which relates to metacognition the most, ranked in fourth place with a 12.62%. The

other skills were ranked in the following order, based on the percentages assigned to each:

being proactive with an 11.17%, processing information with a 6.31%, cultural awareness

with a 5.34%, digital competence with a 4.85%, and communicative competence in different

languages with a 4.85%. The skill teachers considered least helpful was planning for the

future, with a 3.88% of the responses.

University teachers believed that thinking critically (19.71%), solving problems

(17.50%), and working collaboratively (14.17%) were the most important skills, which is

consistent with the skills chosen by the general sample. Learning to learn also ranked fourth

in this group, with a 12.50% of the responses of the university teachers. Being proactive was

the fifth skill with a 10.83%; processing information was sixth, with a 7.50%; cultural

awareness was seventh, with a 5.83%; planning for the future was eighth, with a 5%; and,

digital competence was ninth, with a 4.17%. The least helpful skill, as reported by the group

of university teachers, was communicative competence in different languages, with a 3.33%.

Secondary teachers thought that thinking critically (22.09%), working collaboratively

(16.28%), and learning to learn and solving problems (12.79% each), were the most


important skills. Being proactive was the fourth skill, with an 11.63%, communicative

competence in different languages was fifth, with a 6.98%; digital competence was sixth,

with a 5.81%; processing information and cultural awareness were seventh, with a 4.65%

each. The least helpful skill was planning for the future. Table 9 summarizes the responses.

Table 9

Skills Required for Life Beyond School (Total and by Institution Type)

Type of Institution



Skil

ls

Thinking critically 23 19.17% 19 22.09% 42 20.39%

Working collaboratively 17 14.17% 14 16.28% 31 15.05%

Processing information 9 7.50% 4 4.65% 13 6.31%

Solving problems 21 17.50% 11 12.79% 32 15.53%

Being

proactive/Entrepreneurship 13 10.83% 10 11.63% 23 11.17%

Cultural awareness 7 5.83% 4 4.65% 11 5.34%

Planning for the future 6 5.00% 2 2.33% 8 3.88%

Digital competence 5 4.17% 5 5.81% 10 4.85%

Learning to learn 15 12.50% 11 12.79% 26 12.62%

Communicative competence

in different languages 4 3.33% 6 6.98% 10 4.85%

Total 120 100.00% 86 100.00% 206 100.00%

Beliefs on metacognition

Regarding this dimension, teachers were specifically asked to define metacognition

(Q18). Results show that most teachers (71.93%) believe that metacognition is having

awareness and control of one’s learning. Others defined metacognition as thinking about


thinking (21.05%). A third group stated metacognition is a form of evaluation that looks

inward (5.26%). The last group (1.75%) claimed they did not know what metacognition is.

When analyzing the results by type of institutions, it can be observed that awareness

and control of one’s learning is the definition given by most of the university teachers

(60.6%). Other definitions given were “thinking about thinking” with a 30.3% and

“evaluation that looks inward” with a 6.1%. Only one teacher claimed to not know the

definition, which is equivalent to 3% of the university teachers.

The secondary teachers had similar results. Awareness and control of one’s learning

was the definition given by most (87.5%). This was followed by thinking about thinking

(8.3%) and evaluation that looks inward (4.2%). Table 10 summarizes the responses of the

teachers by type of institution.

Table 10

Beliefs on Metacognition by Institution Type

Type of Institution



Def

init

ion o

f

met

acog

nit

ion

Awareness and control of

one's learning 20 60.6% 21 87.5% 41 71.9%

Thinking about thinking 10 30.3% 2 8.3% 12 21.1%

Evaluation that looks

inwards 2 6.1% 1 4.2% 3 5.3%

I do not know 1 3.0% 0 .0% 1 1.8%

Total 33 100.0% 24 100.0% 57 100.0%

Perception of the Importance of Metacognition as a Tool to Enhance Learning

Q19 asked teachers how they would rate the importance of metacognition for the

development of their classes. This was a scale item that ranged from very important (1) to

not important at all (5). The mean for the item was 1.64 with a standard deviation of 0.9014.


In general terms, it could be stated that the teachers’ perceived metacognition as an important

tool to enhance learning; 84.21% of the subjects rated it as either very important or important.

The remaining teachers regarded it as moderately important (12.28%) or thought of it as of

little importance (1.75%) or not important at all (1.75%) Table 11 summarizes the

frequencies and measures of central tendency for this item.

Table 11

Frequencies for Importance of Metacognition as a Tool to Enhance Learning

Frequency % Cumulative %

Very Important 34 59.65 59.65

Important 14 24.56 84.21

Moderately important 7 12.28 96.49

Of little importance 1 1.75 98.25

Unimportant 1 1.75 100.00

Total 57 100.00

When analyzed by type of institution, it can be observed that the mean for the

university teachers in 1.61 with a standard deviation of 0.83; the mean for the secondary

teachers is 1.62 with a standard deviation of 1.01. The frequencies for the sample by type of

institution are summarized in Table 12. University teachers rated metacognition as very

important or important (84.9%), moderately important (12.1%), and of little importance (3%).

Secondary teachers rated metacognition as very important or important (83.3%), moderately

important (12.5%), and not important at all (4.2%).


Table 12

Importance of Metacognition by Institution Type

Type of Institution

Total University Secondary

Import

ance

of

met

acognit

ion

Very

Important

Count 19 15 34

% within Type of Institution 57.6% 62.5% 59.6%

Important Count 9 5 14


Moderately

Important

Count 4 3 7


Of little

importance

Count 1 0 1

% within Type of Institution 3.0% .0% 1.8%

Unimportant Count 0 1 1

% within Type of Institution .0% 4.2% 1.8%

Total Count 33 24 57


Perceptions of the Usefulness of the Fundamental Strategies Required for

Metacognitive Learning

For this dimension, teachers were asked how useful for their class they perceived a set

of metacognitive strategies to be (Q20). This was a scale item that ranged from very useful

(1) to not useful at all (5). The means and standard deviations for each of the items are

summarized in Table 13. It can be observed that, in general terms, the items with the smallest

means (highlighted in turquoise) were considered the most useful by the teachers. The items

with the highest means were thus considered the least useful (highlighted in yellow). For the

teachers in the sample, the most useful strategies were being able to change strategies when

they do not work, with a mean of 1.32 and being aware of one’s strengths and weaknesses

with a mean of 1.35. The least useful strategies were using memorizing techniques with a

mean of 2.60 and taking notes with a mean of 2.11.


Table 13

Descriptive Statistics for the Usefulness of the Strategies Required for Metacognitive

Learning

N Minimum Maximum Mean

Std.

Deviation

Understanding importance of

learning 57 1 4 1.49 .658

Setting objectives 57 1 3 1.47 .658

Selecting information sources 57 1 3 1.81 .718

Taking notes 57 1 5 2.11 .817

Identifying main ideas 57 1 4 1.51 .782

Using textbooks adequately 57 1 4 1.98 .855

Organizing knowledge

graphically 57 1 4 1.89 .838

Using memorizing techniques 57 1 5 2.60 1.132

Knowing own mental

processes 57 1 4 1.44 .655

Using strategies to improve 57 1 4 1.53 .734

Self-regulation 57 1 3 1.49 .685

Controlling distractions 57 1 4 1.70 .823

Being aware of strengths and

weaknesses 57 1 3 1.35 .582

Changing strategies 57 1 3 1.32 .540

Transferring knowledge and

strategies 57 1 5 1.70 .865

Self-assessing 57 1 3 1.37 .522

Valid N 57

Note. The means of the strategies that were considered useful by the surveyed teachers are

highlighted in turquoise; the means of the strategies that were considered the least useful are

highlighted in yellow.

When analyzing the sample by type of institution, a different tendency can be

observed. For university teachers, being willing to learn, with a mean of 1.21; being able to


change strategies when they do not work, with a mean of 1.24; and, being aware of one’s

strengths and weaknesses, with a mean of 1.24, were the most useful strategies, respectively.

The least useful strategies for this group of teachers were using memorizing techniques, with

a mean of 2.39, and taking notes, with a mean of 2.15. For secondary teachers, being willing

to learn, with a mean of 1.25, and self-assessing, with a mean of 1.33, were the most useful

strategies. The least useful strategies for this group were using memorizing techniques, with

a mean of 2.87, and taking notes, with a mean of 2.04. These results are summarized in

Appendix H.

Perceptions of the Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition

For this dimension, teachers were asked how important they considered a set of

strategies in order to help their students acquire metacognitive strategies (Q21). This was a

scale item that ranged from very important (1) to unimportant (5). Based on the responses to

this item, the means and standard deviations are summarized in Table 14. It can be observed

that, in general terms, the items with the smallest means (highlighted in turquoise) were

considered the most important by the teachers; and, the items with the highest means

highlighted in yellow) were considered the least important. For the teachers in the sample,

the most important strategies to teach metacognition were asking reflective questions, with a

mean of 1.26, and providing feedback, with a mean of 1.28. The least useful strategies were

showing how to choose the best strategy, with a mean of 1.60, and modeling, with a mean of

1.51.


Table 14

Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition

N Minimum Maximum Mean

Std.

Deviation

Direct instruction of strategies 57 1 3 1.46 .537

Creating self-awareness of

strategy use 57 1 3 1.40 .593

Showing how to choose the best

strategy 57 1 4 1.60 .776

Modeling 57 1 3 1.51 .658

Giving ample application

practice 57 1 3 1.35 .551

Asking reflective questions 57 1 2 1.26 .444

Providing opportinties for self-

assessment 57 1 3 1.42 .653

Providing feedback 57 1 5 1.28 .675

Valid N (listwise) 57

Note. The means of the strategies that were considered most important by the surveyed

teachers are highlighted in turquoise; the means of the strategies that were considered the

least important are highlighted in yellow.

When analyzing the sample by type of institution, a different tendency can be

observed. For university teachers, providing feedback, with a mean of 1.21, and asking

reflective questions, with a mean of 1.27, were the most important strategies, respectively.

The least useful strategy for this group was showing how to choose the best strategy, with a

mean of 1.61. For secondary teachers, asking reflective questions, with a mean of 1.25, and

creating self-awareness of strategy use, with a mean of 1.29, are the most useful strategies.

The least useful strategy was showing how to choose the best strategy, with a mean of 1.58.

As can be noted, there is not a big dispersion between the highest and lowest means. These

results are summarized in Table 16.


Table 15

Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition by Institution Type

Type of Institution

University Secondary

Min Max Mean

Standard

Deviation Min Max Mean

Standard

Deviation

Direct instruction of

strategies 1 2 1.45 .51 1 3 1.46 .59

Creating self-awareness

of strategy use 1 3 1.48 .62 1 3 1.29 .55

Showing how to choose

the best strategy 1 4 1.61 .83 1 3 1.58 .72

Modeling 1 3 1.48 .62 1 3 1.54 .72

Giving ample application

practice 1 3 1.33 .60 1 2 1.38 .49

Asking reflective

questions 1 2 1.27 .45 1 2 1.25 .44

Providing opportinties for

self-assessment 1 3 1.48 .76 1 2 1.33 .48

Providing feedback 1 3 1.21 .48 1 5 1.38 .88

Note. The means of the strategies that were considered most important by the surveyed

teachers are highlighted in turquoise; the means of the strategies that were considered the

least important are highlighted in yellow.

Summary of Perceptions on Metacognition by Demographic Variables

Regarding the gender of the teachers, women reported metacognition as more

important than men. This was consistent when analyzing the sample as a whole and when

dividing it by type of teaching institution. The means were 1.47 for the university group,

1.57 for secondary teachers, and 1.53 for the sample as a whole.

The age group that considered metacognition important was composed of teachers

ranging between 51+ for university teachers, with a mean of 1.44 and median and mode equal

to one. For secondary teachers, those ages 46-50 regarded metacognition as important, with a


mean, median, and mode equal to 1.00. Finally, for the sample as a whole, age group 36-40

had a mean of 1.47 and median and mode of 1.00.

Regarding educational level, the different categories regarded metacognition as

important with means ranging between 1.00 and 1.53. The only category with a higher

degree is that of teacher certification.

As for teaching experience, those who had been working between 11-15 years were

the group to consider metacognition the most, with a mean of 1.33, and a median and mode

equal to 1.00. The same was true for university teachers, but for secondary teachers, there is

no prevailing group.

Concerning teaching area, there is no significant difference between those who teach

English as a language and those who teach content area subjects. In general terms it could be

said that teachers regard metacognition as an important factor for the development of their

classes.

Part (b): What are their perceptions towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and

reflection?

Once teachers’ perceptions towards reflections and metacognition have been

explored, results for part (b) of the research question can be presented. These relate to the

variable Perceptions on Blogging.

Perceptions on Blogging

The fourth variable to be explored was Perceptions on Blogging. Responses given to

questions twenty-two to forty in the questionnaire were analyzed. Based on the scheme

established in Table 2, which described the methodological design of the study, the responses

were organized in seven dimensions: Purpose of blogs, Attitudes towards blogging and

reflection, Student attitudes towards reflective blogs, Willingness to use blogs, School’s

support of blog and ICT integration, Blogs for Reflection, and Blogs for Metacognition.


Each of these dimensions was analyzed independently. Findings will be presented in the

form of descriptive statistics.

Purpose of Blogs

The first question in this group (Q22) asked teachers if they had ever used blogs.

Teachers who had used blogs accounted for 52.63% of the sample. The remaining 47.37%

stated they had not used them. When dividing the sample by type of institution, 51.52% of

the university teachers had used blogs before and 48.48% had not. Secondary teachers who

had used blogs accounted for 54.17%; 45.83% of those teachers had not used blogs.

For Q23, which asked teachers what they had used blogs for, only the 52.63% of the

teachers who had used blogs were considered (responses n=46). The teachers in this group

reported reflecting about class activities and student performance (34.8%) was the main

purpose for using blogs, followed by providing course information (26.1%), posting personal

information (17.4%), maintaining contact with students (15.2%), professional growth (4.3%),

and reflecting about technology (2.2%). The frequencies for this item can be observed in

Table 16.

Table 16

Purpose of Blog Use Frequencies

Responses Percent of

Cases N Percent

Purpose of Blog Usea Personal information 8 17.4% 27.6%

Contact with students 7 15.2% 24.1%

Course information 12 26.1% 41.4%

Reflection 16 34.8% 55.2%

Reflect technology 1 2.2% 3.4%

Professional growth 2 4.3% 6.9%

Total 46 100.0% 158.6%

a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.


When dividing the sample by type of institution, the following differences can be

noted. For university teachers, providing course information (30.8%) was the main purpose.

This was followed by reflecting about class activities and student performance (26.9%),

posting personal information (19.2%), maintaining contact with students (15.4%), reflecting

about technology (3.8%), and professional growth (3.8%). For secondary teachers, reflecting

about class activities and student performance (45%) was the main purpose. Other purposes,

in order, were providing course information (20%), posting personal information (15%),

maintaining contact with students (15%), and professional growth (5%). Percentages for

each of the categories are shown in table 17.

Table 17

Purpose of Blog Use by Institution Type

Type of Institution


Responses % Responses %

Purpose of Blog Use Personal information 5 19.2% 3 15.0%

Contact with students 4 15.4% 3 15.0%

Course information 8 30.8% 4 20.0%

Reflection 7 26.9% 9 45.0%

Reflect technology 1 3.8% 0 .0%

Professional growth 1 3.8% 1 5.0%

For Q24, teachers were asked why they had not used blogs. Only the 47.37% who

responded that they had not used blogs were considered for this item (responses n=44). The

teachers in the group claimed that time constraints was the main difficulty, which accounted

for 50% of the responses. Other reasons were limited technological ability (15.9%),

procrastination (13.6%), privacy issues (11.4%), lack of school support (6.8%), and no need


to use them (2.3%). Table 19 summarizes the frequencies presented for the categories in this

question.

Table 18

Reasons not to Use Blogs Frequencies


Cases N Percent

Reasons not to Use

Blogsa

Limited technological

ability 7 15.9% 21.9%

Time constraints 22 50.0% 68.8%

Privacy issues 5 11.4% 15.6%

Lack of school support 3 6.8% 9.4%

Procrastination 6 13.6% 18.8%

No need 1 2.3% 3.1%

Total 44 100.0% 137.5%


By type of institution, it can be observed that the results are consistent with the

general sample. University teachers reported that the main reason that keeps them from using

blogs is lack of time with 52%. Other reasons reported were limited technological ability

(16%), procrastination (16%), privacy issues (8%), lack of school support (4%), and no need

to use them (4%). As for secondary teachers, the main reason reported for their not using

blogs was lack of time (47.37%), followed by limited technological ability (15.79%), privacy

issues (15.79%), lack of school support (10.53%), and procrastination (10.53%). Table 19

presents the percentages for the categories in this question by type of institution.


Table 19

Reasons not to Use Blogs by Institution Type

Type of Institution



Reasons not to Use

Blogs

Limited technological

ability 4 16.00% 3 15.79%

Time constraints 13 52.00% 9 47.37%

Privacy issues 2 8.00% 3 15.79%

Lack of school support 1 4.00% 2 10.53%

Procrastination 4 16.00% 2 10.53%

No need 1 4.00% 0 .00%

Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection

For this dimension, teachers were asked how they felt about using blogs for reflection

(Q25). The item comprised seven perception dichotomies: boring – interesting, unpleasant –

pleasant, confusing – comprehensible, waste of time – worthwhile, frustrating – success

promoting, difficult – easy, and trivial – important. Participants were asked to choose the

number closer to the way they felt about using blogs for reflection from one to five. One was

to the negative side and five to the positive side. Descriptive statistics were produced for

each of the dichotomies. From the data, it can be concluded that the means closer to five

imply a very positive feeling towards using blogs for reflection. In general terms, teachers

reported positive feelings towards using blogs for reflection, 66.4% of the responses for the

scale were given to 4 and 5, 26.8% to 3, 6% to 2, and .8% to 1. It is important to highlight

that the modes for all the dichotomies were equal or greater than three.

More specifically, the teachers who were surveyed reported considering the use of

blogs for reflection as an easy (mean= 4.21, mode= 5), comprehensible (mean = 3.98, mode =

5), interesting (mean = 3.96, mode = 5), pleasant (mean = 3.86, mode = 4), success promoting


(mean = 3.86, mode = 3), worthwhile (mean = 3.84, mode = 3), and important (mean = 3.82,

mode = 4) task. Descriptive statistics for the seven dichotomies can be observed in table 20.

The highest means and the respective modes are highlighted in turquoise.

Table 20

Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection

Valid Minimum Maximum Mean Mode

Std.

Deviation

Interesting 57 1 5 3.96 5 1.034

Pleasant 57 1 5 3.86 4 .934

Comprehensible 57 2 5 3.98 5 .916

Worthwhile 57 2 5 3.84 3 .960

Success promoting 57 2 5 3.86 3 .934

Easy 57 2 5 4.21 5 .881

Important 57 1 5 3.82 4a 1.037

a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown

Note. The means and modes of the dichotomies that were considered most important by

the surveyed teachers are highlighted in turquoise.

When analyzing the sample by type of institution, the tendency of the results is

consistent with those of the general sample. University teachers considered the use of blogs

for reflection as an easy (mean= 4.30, mode= 5), comprehensible (mean= 4.00, mode= 4),

and interesting (mean= 3.97, mode= 5) task, in that order. Secondary teachers, on their side,

considered the use of blogs for reflection as an easy (mean= 4.08, mode= 5), comprehensible

(mean= 3.96, mode= 5), and interesting (mean= 3.97, mode= 5) task, in that order. Table 21

summarizes the findings by type of institution.


Table 21

Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection by Institution Type

Type of Institution


Valid Min Max Mean Mode

Std.

Dev Valid Min Max Mean Mode

Std.

Dev

Interesting 33 2 5 3.97 5 1.015 24 1 5 3.96 5 1.083

Pleasant 33 2 5 3.94 4 .899 24 1 5 3.75 4 .989

Comprehensible 33 2 5 4.00 4 .866 24 2 5 3.96 5 .999

Worthwhile 33 2 5 3.88 4 .927 24 2 5 3.79 3 1.021

Success promoting 33 2 5 3.85 3 .939 24 2 5 3.88 3 .947

Easy 33 2 5 4.30 5 .847 24 2 5 4.08 5 .929

Important 33 1 5 3.82 5 1.103 24 2 5 3.83 4 .963

Note. The means and modes of the dichotomies that were considered most important by the

surveyed teachers are highlighted in turquoise.

Student Attitudes towards Reflective Blogs

Q26 asked teachers about the reaction students would have if asked to use blogs for

reflection. This was a scale item, which required subjects to choose a number in a scale from

one to five, where one was very enthusiastic and five not enthusiastic at all. Teachers

reported perceiving their students would be very enthusiastic and enthusiastic about using

blogs for reflection, with a 54.4 cumulative percent of the two categories of responses. As for

the other categories, 29.8% of the teachers considered their students would be moderately

enthusiastic, 12.3% a little enthusiastic, and 3.5% not enthusiastic at all. Table 22

summarizes the responses given by the teachers. In addition, when looking at descriptive

statistics for the item, the mean of the scale was 2.44 with a mode = 2 and values ranging

from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 5. This represents an enthusiastic approach.


Table 22

Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid 1 12 21.1 21.1 21.1

2 19 33.3 33.3 54.4

3 17 29.8 29.8 84.2

4 7 12.3 12.3 96.5

5 2 3.5 3.5 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

Regarding the reasons that might lead to such student reaction (Q27), teachers

mentioned the fact that they enjoy using technology as the number one motivator with 37.4%

of the responses. Other reasons related to student enthusiasm were that students appreciate

the space for expression (18.2%), enjoy reflecting (10.1%), and prefer blogging over other

assignments (1%). As for the reasons related to the students’ lack of enthusiasm, the

following were mentioned: they consider it time consuming (18.2%), they are reluctant to use

ICT for academic purposes (8.1%), and they are not enthusiastic about their learning process

(8.1%).

The results of the general sample are consistent with those presented by type of

institution, presented in table 23. For university teachers, the main reason they reported relies

on students enjoying the use of technology (32.8%), followed by an appreciation of the space

for expression (19.7%), enjoyment of reflecting (11.5%), and preference of blogging over

other assignments (1.6%). Among the reasons leading to a lack of enthusiasm, university

teachers reported that blogging for reflection is considered a time consuming activity

(19.7%), students are reluctant to use ICT for academic purposes (8.2%), and students are not

enthusiastic about their learning processes (6.6%). For secondary teachers, the main reason


reported for students enjoying the use of technology as well (44.7%), followed by an

appreciation of the space for expression (15.8%), and enjoyment of reflective activities

(7.9%). Among the reasons leading to a lack of enthusiasm, secondary teachers reported that

blogging for reflection is considered a time consuming activity (13.2%), students are not

enthusiastic about their learning processes (10.5%), and students are reluctant to use ICT for

academic purposes (7.9%).

Table 23

Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection by Institution Type

Type of Institution



Rea

sons

for

Stu

den

t R

eact

ion

Enjoy using technology 20 32.8% 17 44.7%

Enjoy reflecting 7 11.5% 3 7.9%

Appreciate space for expression 12 19.7% 6 15.8%

Prefer blogging over other

assignments 1 1.6% 0 .0%

Reluctance to use ICT for academic

purposes 5 8.2% 3 7.9%

Not enthusiastic about their

learning process 4 6.6% 4 10.5%

Time consuming 12 19.7% 5 13.2%

Willingness to Use Blogs

Q28 asked teachers how willing they were to use blogs in class. This was a scale

item, which requested subjects to choose a number in a scale from one to five, where one was

very willing and five not willing at all. Teachers reported being very willing (1) and willing

(2) about using blogs for reflection, with a cumulative 57.9% of the responses. 24.6% of the

teachers were moderately willing, 12.3% were a little willing, and 5.3% not willing at all.


In addition, when looking at descriptive statistics for the item, the mean of the scale

was 2.33 with a mode = 1. This represents quite a willing approach. When analyzing the

descriptive statistics of the item by type of institution, university teachers presented a mean of

2.39 with a mode = 1. Secondary teachers showed similar numbers; a mean of 2.23 and a

mode = 1. Table 24 summarizes the descriptive statistics for this item.

Table 24

Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Use Blogs by Institution Type


Valid N Minimum Maximum Mean Mode

Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University 33 1 5 2.39 1 1.223

Secondary 24 1 5 2.25 1 1.189

Total 57 1 5 2.33 1 1.200

Regarding the reasons that teachers reported for their willingness to use blogs (Q29),

the main ones were that they considered blogs a valuable tool (34.8%) and facilitators of

learning processes (30.4%). Other reasons, which relate to their little or lack of willingness,

were that they considered blogs as time consuming (17.4%), similar to other tools (9.8%), not

liked by students (4.3%), and that teachers were reluctant to rely on online interactions

(2.2%) or focused mostly on content (1.1%).

Referring to the reasons reported by teachers by type of institution, the findings are

consistent with those reported by the sample as a whole. Table 25 summarizes the

frequencies of the responses by type of institution.


Table 25

Reasons for Willingness or Lack of Willingness to Use Blogs, by Institution Type

Type of Institution


Responses % Responses % Responses %

Rea

sons

Wil

lingnes

s

Facilitators of learning

processes 15 27.8% 13 34.2% 28 30.4%

Valuable tool 18 33.3% 14 36.8% 32 34.8%

Time consuming 11 20.4% 5 13.2% 16 17.4%

Similar to other tools 6 11.1% 3 7.9% 9 9.8%

Not liked by students 2 3.7% 2 5.3% 4 4.3%

Reluctance to rely on

online interactions 1 1.9% 1 2.6% 2 2.2%

Focus on content 1 1.9% 0 .0% 1 1.1%

School’s Support of Blog and ICT Integration

This dimension was measured with responses to questions thirty to thirty-five of the

instrument. Findings will be presented by item.

Regarding school support of blog integration (Q30), 73.68% of the teachers reported

their schools support the use of blogs and 26.32% that their school does not support it. When

asked if they had received any training regarding blogs in in-service professional

development programs (Q31), only 36.84% reported having received it and 63.16% stated

they had not received any in-service training.

Regarding school support of the integration of other form of ICT (Q32), 82.46% of

the teachers reported their schools were supportive and 17.54% that their schools were not.

The main form of ICT used by the schools where the teachers in the sample work (Q33) was

platform (53.4%), followed by discussion forum (21.9%), wiki (19.2%), and podcast (5.5%).

Although many reported a school supportive of the integration of other forms of ICT,

when asked if they had received any training regarding other forms of ICT in in-service


professional development programs (Q34), only 36.84% stated they had received it and

63.16% claimed they had not. As for the kind of training they received (Q35), it consisted

mostly of courses/conferences with 38.89% of the responses. Other types of training

mentioned included online courses (27.78%), platform (27.78%), and professional

development programs (5.56%).

Blogs for Reflective Learning

When asked about their usage of blogs for reflection (Q36), only 19.30% of the

teachers reported they did employ blogs for such purpose and 80.70% stated they did not. By

type of institution, 21.21% of the university teachers claimed they used blogs for reflective

learning and 78.79% stated they did not. Secondary teachers showed similar results; 16.67%

reported using blogs for reflective learning and 83.33% stated they do not.

As for the reasons why they use it for such purpose (Q37), teachers stated that blogs

are user-friendly (50%) and allow students to see their learning (35.71%), and that students

prefer typing than writing by hand (14.29%).

Regarding the reasons they do not use blogs for reflective learning (Q38), they

reported that a lack of time was the main cause, with a 45.65%. Other aspects that were

mentioned were that they had never thought of it (21.74%), lack of training (17.39%),

perception of blogs as not useful (6.52%), no need to do it (6.52%), and focus on content and

results (2.17%)

Blogs for Metacognitive Learning

When asked about their usage of blogs for metacognitive learning (Q39), 21.05% of

the teachers reported they did employ blogs for such purpose and 78.95% stated they did not.

By type of institution, 18.18% of the university teachers and 25% of the secondary teachers

claimed using blogs for metacognitive learning.


As for the way in which they use blogs for metacognitive learning (Q40), teachers

stated blogs were used to allow for self-assessment activities and to add material in equal

proportion (33.33% each), as the main ways. Other ways were to send, share, and receive

information (20%), to post questions (6.67%), and a final group stated they had not used it

yet (6.67%).

Cross tabulations

In order to better understand the sample, cross tabulations were performed between

the demographic variables and perceptions on reflection, metacognition and blogging. Then,

to identify if there is any meaningful difference between the university and secondary groups,

an independent student t-test was conducted. The results are presented below.

Perceptions on Blogging and Demographics

The way teachers perceive reflection affects the way they use blogs. Because of this,

“Reflection improves teaching and learning” (Q13) was chosen and cross tabulated with

demographic aspects as well. Since this was a categorical question, results are presented in

the form of percentages; the higher the percentage the higher the perception that reflection

does improve teaching and learning. When analyzed by sex, females were the ones to report

that reflection does improve teaching with a 72.7% of the responses, while men had only

27.3%. This can be observed in table 26.

Table 26.

Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex

Reflection Improves Teaching and Learning

Yes No

Count % Count N %

Sex Male 15 27.3% 2 100.0%

Female 40 72.7% 0 .0%


Regarding age groups, those 36-40 were ranked first when asked if they believed

reflection improves teaching and learning with a 27.3%. They were followed by those 31-35

(20%), 51 and above (18.2%), 41-45 (12.7%), and 46-50 and 30 or less (10.9% each). Table

27 summarizes the counts and percentages for these values.

Table 27.

Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age


Yes No

Count % Count %

Age 30 or less 6 10.9% 1 50.0%

31 – 35 11 20.0% 0 .0%

36 – 40 15 27.3% 0 .0%

41 – 45 7 12.7% 0 .0%

46 – 50 6 10.9% 1 50.0%

51 and above 10 18.2% 0 .0%

Note. The highest percentage is highlighted in yellow to show the group that considers

reflection to improve teaching and learning.

As for education level, The group with the highest perception that reflection improves

teaching and learning was composed those with a master’s degree. Those with a bachelor’s

degree followed (23.6%), teacher certification (14.5%), diplomado/specialty (3.6%) and

doctorate (1.8%). Table 28 summarizes the counts and percentages for these two variables.


Table 28.

Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level


Yes No

Count % Count %

Education

Level

Bachelor's 13 23.6% 1 50.0%

Master's 31 56.4% 1 50.0%

Teacher Certification 8 14.5% 0 .0%

Doctorate 1 1.8% 0 .0%

Diplomado/Specialty 2 3.6% 0 .0%



Regarding teaching experience, those with 11-15 years reported reflection does

improve teaching and learning. Those with 6-10 years were second with 20%, followed by

those with 5 years or less and 16-20 years, with 16.4% each. The other categories obtained

less than 10%. Table 29 summarizes counts and percentages for these variables.

Table 29.

Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience


Yes No

Count % Count %

Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 9 16.4% 0 .0%

6 - 10 years 11 20.0% 1 50.0%

11 - 15 years 15 27.3% 0 .0%

16 - 20 years 9 16.4% 0 .0%

21 - 25 years 3 5.5% 1 50.0%

26 - 30 years 5 9.1% 0 .0%

31 years or more 3 5.5% 0 .0%




Finally, regarding teaching area, most (40%) of the teachers who reported that

reflection does improve teaching and learning teach content area subjects. These were

followed by teachers of both English as a language and content area subjects (34.5%) and

English language teachers (25.5%). Table 30 summarizes the counts and percentages for

these variables.

Table 30.

Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area


Yes No

Count % Count %

Teaching Area English Language 14 25.5% 0 .0%

Content Area 22 40.0% 0 .0%

Both 19 34.5% 2 100.0%



Perceptions on Metacognition and Demographics

Given that the way teachers perceive metacognition affects the way teachers use

blogs, “Importance of Metacognition” (Q19) was chosen and crosstabulated with

demographic aspects as well. Since this was a scale item where one was very willing and

five not willing at all, the means closer to one indicate metacognition’s importance to the

teachers.

Regarding the sex of the teachers, women reported metacognition as more important

than men, with a mean of 1.53. This was consistent when analyzing the sample as a whole

and when dividing it by type of teaching institution. The means were 1.47 for the university

group, 1.57 for secondary teachers.


The age group that considered metacognition important was composed of teachers

ranging between 51+ for university teachers, with a mean of 1.44 and median and mode equal

to one. For secondary teachers, those ages 46-50 regarded metacognition as important, with a

mean, median, and mode equal to 1.00. Finally, for the sample as a whole, age group 36-40

had a mean of 1.47 and median and mode of 1.00.

Regarding educational level, the different categories regarded metacognition as

important with means ranging between 1.00 and 1.53. The only category with a higher

degree is that of teacher certification.


the group to consider metacognition the most, with a mean of 1.33, and a median and mode

equal to 1.00. The same was true for university teachers, but for secondary teachers, there is

no prevailing group.


English as a language and those who teach content area subjects. In general terms it could be

said that teachers regard metacognition as an important factor for the development of their

classes.

Perceptions on Blogging and Demographics

Given that the study intended to explore and describe the perceptions of teachers

regarding the use of blogs as a strategy to enhance reflective learning, the item “Willingness

to Use Blogs” (Q28) was chosen and crosstabulated with demographic aspects. Since this

was a scale item where one was very willing and five not willing at all, the means closer to

one indicate teacher willingness.

Regarding sex of the teachers, women reported to be more willing than men to use

blogs with a mean of 2.13, a median of 2, and a mode of1. This was consistent when

analyzing the sample as a whole and when dividing it by type of teaching institution.


The age group that was more willing to use blogs in class was composed of teachers

ranging between 41-45 years old, with means equal to 1.80 for the university group, 1.50 for

the secondary one, and 1.71 for the sample as a whole; medians of 2.00, 1.50, and 2.00,

respectively; and, modes of one in the three cases.

Regarding educational level, the higher the degree attained by the teachers, the more

willing they were to use blogs in class. In the university setting, teachers holding a doctorate

or master’s degree had means equal to 1 and 2.24 respectively. In both cases, the mode was

equal to one (very willing).


more willing to use blogs in class, followed by those with 16-20 years. This is because they

considered blogs are facilitators of learning processes and a valuable tool. Those with either

more or less experience were not as willing to use them. Their main demotivator was that

they considered blogs to be time consuming.


English as a language and those who teach content area subjects.

Inferential Statistics

Type of Teaching Institution – Independent Samples t-test

The researcher felt the need to test whether there is a significant difference between

university and secondary teachers. When testing two variables, an independent t-test must be

conducted to compare the means of two different groups. To perform such test, only the

items referring to importance of metacognition, teacher willingness to use blogs, and

students’ reactions to the use of blogs for reflection were considered. The following

hypothesis was set for analysis:

H1: University and secondary teachers are significantly different from each other

H0: University and secondary teachers are not significantly different from each other.


After comparing means with a t-test for independent samples, it can be concluded that

there is no significant difference between the two groups of teachers. The significance levels

for the three categories chosen is much greater than 0.05; as a result, the null hypothesis is

accepted. Results for the t-test can be found in table 31.

Table 31

Independent Samples T-test for Importance of Metacognition, Willingness to Use Blogs, and

Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection

Group Statistics

Type of

Institution N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

Importance of

metacognition

University 33 1.6061 .82687 .14394

Secondary 24 1.6250 1.01350 .20688

Willingness to use blogs University 33 2.39 1.223 .213

Secondary 24 2.25 1.189 .243

Student reaction to blogs

for reflection

University 33 2.42 1.173 .204

Secondary 24 2.46 .932 .190

t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

T df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference Lower Upper

Willingness to

use blogs

Equal variances

assumed .444 55 .659 .144 .324 -.506 .794

Equal variances

not assumed .446 50.527 .658 .144 .323 -.504 .792

Importance of

metacognition

Equal variances

assumed -.078 55 .938 -.01894 .24402 -.50796 .47008

Equal variances

not assumed -.075 43.356 .940 -.01894 .25203 -.52708 .48920

Student reaction

to blogs for

reflection

Equal variances

assumed -.118 55 .907 -.034 .289 -.614 .546

Equal variances

not assumed -.122 54.524 .903 -.034 .279 -.593 .525

Summary


Regarding gender of the teachers, women reported to be more willing than men to

use blogs. This was consistent when analyzing the sample as a whole and when dividing it by

type of teaching institution.

The age group that was more willing to use blogs in class was composed of teachers

ranging between 41-45 years old, with means equal to 1.80 for the university group, 1.50 for

the secondary one, and 1.71 for the sample as a whole; medians of 2.00, 1.50, and 2.00,

respectively; and, modes of one in the three cases.

Regarding educational level, the higher the degree attained by the teachers, the more

willing they were to use blogs in class. In the university setting, teachers holding a doctorate

or master’s degree had means equal to 1 and 2.24 respectively. In both cases, the mode was

equal to one (very willing).


more willing to use blogs in class, followed by those with 16-20 years. This is because they

considered blogs are facilitators of learning processes and a valuable tool. Those with either

more or less experience were not as willing to use them. Their main demotivator was that

they considered blogs to be time consuming.

Concerning teaching area, there is little variation between those who teach English as

a language and those who teach content area subjects.

Data Analysis and Crossed Variables

To try to find explanations as to why the teachers had such perceptions, cross

tabulations between the items referring to the main variable dimensions and demographic

aspects were performed. Where applicable, statistical tests were conducted in order to prove

the existence of a relationship between the variables and the significance of such relationship.



“Reflection improves teaching and learning” (Q13) was crosstabulated with

demographic variables. The group with the highest perception that reflection improves

teaching and learning was composed of females ages 36 to 40, with a master’s degree and 11

to 15 years of teaching experience. This group mostly teaches content area subjects.


“Importance of Metacognition” (Q19) was crosstabulated with demographic

variables. The group which considered metacognition important was comprised by females

(mean = 1.53), ages 36 to 40 (mean = 1.47, median = 1, mode = 1), with 11 to 15 years of

teaching experience (mean = 1.33, median = 1, mode = 1). As for educational level and

teaching area, the categories considered metacognition important with little variation among

them.


“Willingness to Use Blogs” (Q28) was crosstabulated with demographic variables.

The group which was more willing to use blogs as a strategy to enhance reflective learning

was comprised by females (mean = 2.13, median = 2, mode = 1), ages 41 to 45 (mean = 1.71,

median = 2, mode = 1), with 11 to 15 years of teaching experience (mean = 1.93, median = 2,

mode = 1). As for educational level and teaching area, little variation was found among the

different categories, but it can be concluded that the higher the educational level, the more

willing the teachers were to use blogs.

School Support of Blog and Other Forms of ICT Integration and Training

Correlations

Even though some teachers did perceive that their schools support the integration of

blogs or other ICT forms, only 35.71% of those teachers reported having received training for

blogs and 38.30% having received training for other ICT forms. In addition, 80% of those

who reported working in a supportive school and receiving training for integration are willing


or very willing to use blogs in class. This is only 28.57% of those whose school is

supportive. This indicates training might play a key role.

Effect of the Type of Teaching Institution

Results from the independent samples t-test indicate that the perceptions of teachers

working in secondary and higher education towards the use of blogs for reflection and

metacognition are not significantly different. The type of institution where teachers work

does not affect the perceptions they have regarding reflection, metacognition, and the use of

blogs.

Discussion

Main Findings

The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the perceptions regarding the

use of blogs as a tool for enhancing reflective learning in the foreign language classroom in a

sample of English teachers. Fifty seven teachers responded to the survey. In general terms,

the main findings are presented below, organized by the variable that was studied.


Most of the teachers (85.96%) who responded engage in reflective practices to think

about something that happened in class. They reported doing it when planning a class. As

for other reasons, 23.36% claimed that it improves their teaching and 19.71% that it helps

them discover their strengths and weaknesses. The teachers (96.49%) considered that

reflective practice improves teaching and learning. They reported that main impact for

teachers is that it allows for the creation of meaningful activities; 43.64% indicated that the

main impact for students is that it allows them to self-assess and correct mistakes. As for the

strategies to help students become more reflective, the items with the greatest percentages

were providing better feedback and asking questions were.



Regarding this variable, it was found that thinking critically, solving problems, and

working collaboratively were considered the skills which will help prepare students for life

beyond school the most, in that order. In addition, the teachers who were surveyed defined

metacognition as having awareness and control of one’s learning, and 84.21% regard it as an

important tool to enhance learning. The metacognitive strategies they reported as the most

useful in class were being able to change strategies when they do not work and being aware

of one’s strengths and weaknesses. As for the most important strategies to teach

metacognition, asking reflective questions and providing feedback were ranked in the first

two positions.


Teachers who had used blogs accounted for 52.63% of the sample. They reported

using them for reflection (34.8%) and to post course information (26.1%). Those who

responded that they had not used blogs reported time constraints as the main reason. In

general terms, teachers have a positive feeling towards using blogs for reflection. More

specifically, they consider it an easy, comprehensible, and interesting task. Regarding

student reaction to the use of blogs for reflection, teachers reported perceiving their students

would be very enthusiastic and enthusiastic with a 54.4% of the responses. Among the

reasons for that perception, teachers mentioned that students enjoy using technology as

number one reason.

As for their own willingness, teachers reported being very willing and willing about

using blogs for reflection, with a cumulative 57.9% of the responses, since blogs are

considered a valuable tool. Concerning the use of blogs for reflection, only 19.30% of the

teachers reported they did employ them. The main reasons they gave for using blogs were

that blogs are user-friendly and allow students to see their learning. Those who did not use


them mentioned lack of time as a cause. When asked about blogs for metacognitive learning,

21.05% of the teachers reported using them; the manners in which they used them refer to

allowing for self-assessment material and adding material.

When performing a bivariate analysis, between the demographic aspects and teacher

willingness to use blogs, it was found that the higher the educational level the more willing

the teachers were to use blogs in class. Teachers with experience between 11 and 15 years

were more willing to use them, followed by those with 16-20 years of experience, which

consider blogs as facilitators of learning processes and a valuable tool. Regarding teaching

area, there is no significant difference between those who teach English as a language and

those who teach content area subjects.

Regarding school support and training for integration of blogs and other ICT forms,

even though some teachers did perceive their schools support the integration of blogs or other

ICT forms, only 35.71% of those teachers reported having received training for blogs and

38.30% having received training for other ICT forms. Eighty percent of those who reported

working in a supportive school and receiving training for integration are willing or very

willing to use blogs in class. This is only 28.57% of those whose school is supportive.

Training might play a key role.

Finally, no significant difference was found in different aspects between university

and secondary teachers. It can be concluded, thus, that the teacher perceptions of English

teachers are consistent regardless of the type of institution in which they work.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The perceptions collected from the responses given to the instrument are consistent

with some of the literature presented.

First, regarding reflection, teachers reported perceiving that proper feedback and

adequate questions spark reflective thought. This is consistent with the works of Sun (2009)


and Yang (2009). As they explain, teacher feedback is critical for reflection and is a model

for students to follow. Nevertheless, teachers need to go further in order to help their

students reach greater understandings (Yang, 2009).

Second, as was previously discussed, teachers consider metacognition as an important

aspect shaping students’ learning. This is consistent with the ideas of Gaible & Burns (2005),

the teachers from the sample are aware that metacognition is important in order to become an

effective teacher and to help students become effective learners as well. The teachers’

educational background probably accounts for this aspect, given that over 60% of the

teachers have a postgraduate degree and more than 50% are related to the educational field.

Regarding the main aspects that prevent teachers from using blogs for reflective

practice and metacognitive learning, time was the main issue, which is consistent with the

study by Sim & Hew (2010). Lack of ability with technology use was also mentioned as a

problem area, which is consistent with previous studies such as the one performed by Kim

(2008). This leads the author to reflect about the importance of professional development

programs and training when ICT forms are to be introduced. It must be remembered that in

order to make the most of technology integration, teacher engagement in Professional

Development programs is crucial (Gaible & Burns, 2005).

Finally, regarding the use of blogs, it was found that more than half of the sample

teachers did use blogs, whether they received training or not. This could be attributed to the

fact that, as explained by Rodriguez (2012), there is a trend in schools and universities to

train their teachers and students in ICT use. It was also found that most of those who did

employ blogs did it for reflective purposes. This is consistent with the idea that integrating

technology encourages reflection and enhances communication and reasoning, which

facilitates student learning (Rowe et al., 2012). Furthermore, students are quite enthusiastic,

as perceived by their teachers, to use blogs for reflection, given that blogs are the critical


reflection platforms where the students can often feel relaxed and communicate with each

other (Avci & Askar, 2012).

From the information obtained through this study, it can be concluded that the

teachers that were surveyed have very positive perceptions regarding the use of blogs as a

strategy for reflective learning. It cannot be assumed that because teachers report such

positive perceptions and the use of blogs for reflection and metacognition, their actual

performance is coherent with their perceptions. In fact, as mentioned by Atwell (2007), great

care must be placed on not continuing with the traditional education model, in a different

channel. In other words, the use of different forms of ICT does not necessarily change by

itself the traditional teacher-centered class, which focuses on memorizing concepts and does

not take into account student protagonism and reflection and metacognition of their own

learning processes.

Limitations

The study was conceived to collect data using an electronic instrument. The initial

idea of the researcher was that this would be a faster method to gather information. However,

at the very first stages of the data collection process, response rate was rather low and some

teachers had to be contacted personally in different settings.

As for the number of teachers included in the sample, it must be considered that since

the population had homogeneous characteristics, that is, English teachers working in private

secondary schools or universities in Guayaquil, Ecuador, the sampling error is reduced. As

explained by Bryman (2012), variation in homogeneous samples is less; therefore, the sample

can be smaller.

The results of this study may not be valid for the international community due to the

special characteristics of the sample and the way in which they were chosen. Nonetheless, it


may provide insights for English teachers in a situation similar to that of the schools where

the surveyed subjects are employed in Guayaquil, Ecuador.

The results of the study were analyzed by the researcher on her own, making

correlations that seemed appropriate when answering the research question. In order to

improve the reliability of the study, a second rater for the final analysis of results could have

been used.

Recommendations for Future studies

The purpose of the study and therefore its design, attempted to explore and describe

the perceptions of English teachers regarding the use of blogs as a strategy for reflective and

metacognitive learning. The findings of this study may serve as a basis for further qualitative

analysis as for the reasons why and the way in which blogs and other ICT forms are used in

the context of Ecuadorian higher and secondary education.

In addition, using this study as a basis, the main aspects for professional development

programs may be designed either through quantitative or qualitative studies and/or including

some form of action research.

Since the teachers who were surveyed work in private schools settings in the city of

Guayaquil, it would be interesting to replicate the study but with a sample of teachers

working in public institutions. Also, expanding the sample to other cities in Ecuador is a

research niche that needs to be explored. This would allow for greater information of the

situation of Ecuadorian education and more valid and reliable results. In the end, such results

could help come up with educational policies.

The findings of the study are significant for the community of educators in Ecuador.

First, having knowledge on the perceptions of English teachers regarding the importance of

metacognition and reflection for teaching and learning and the use of blogs for reflective and


metacognitive teaching contributes to fill the information gap of UNESCO, TESOL Research

Agenda, and IBO. Second, it serves as a basis to come up with important policies or conduct

further studies in countries such as Ecuador. Third, and on a more local level, it provides

valuable information about how English teachers perceive education and the integration of

technology. This may help heads of department and other administrators at school device

professional development goals in order to improve educational practices.


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Appendix A

Results of study ICT IN EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE

CARIBBEAN, A regional analysis of ICT integration and e-readiness, Domain 5,

Teachers and ICT in Education


Appendix B

Summary of Reviewed Studies

taken from The Use of Weblogs in Higher Education Settings: A review of Empirical

Research (Hew & Sim, 2010)


Appendix C

Cover Sheet for Preliminary Questionnaire

Guayaquil, XX, 2013

Dear English Teacher:

Given current education and cultural trends it is imperative to study the perceptions

English teachers have on reflective practices, metacognitive strategies, and the use of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications such as blogs.

The purpose of this survey is to explore and describe the perceptions of English

teachers about reflection and metacognition in blogging as means to integrate ICT’s to the

educational field. . The survey will gather demographic data to assist in further analysis, but

will not identify study participants. Please answer the questions that follow in full honesty.

Participation in this survey is voluntary and responses will remain confidential. There

are no underlying costs or benefits of participating in the survey. The survey data will be

used as part of the thesis project for the master’s degree program at Universidad Casa

Grande. Results of this study may be made available in journal publications.

If you have questions, concerns, or comments about the questionnaire, please feel free to

contact me at [email protected]. You may also call me at 0997196138 (cell).

Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is greatly appreciated.

Sincerely,

Katherine Guerrero


Appendix D

Preliminary Questionnaire

Instructions

Remember there are no correct or incorrect answers. The contents of this questionnaire are

completely confidential. Thank you for your cooperation!

I. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

1. What is your sex?

Male

Female

2. How old are you?

_________ years old

3. Which of the following categories describes your educational level?

Bachelor (major:_____________________)

Masters (major:_____________________)

Teacher Certification (major:_____________________)

Doctorate (major:_____________________)

Diplomado/Specialty (major:_____________________)

4. In what area do you have your degree?

5. How long have you been teaching English?

________________ years

6. Do you teach

English language? (If yes, go to item #7)

Content area? (If yes, go to item #7)

Both? (If yes, answer #7 and #8)


7. What level of English do you teach?

8. What content area (subjects) do you teach?

II. PERCEPTIONS ON REFLECTION

In this section perceptions on reflection will be explored. Remember there are no correct or

incorrect answers.

9. Do you engage in reflective practices?

Yes

No

10. How often do you use reflective practice?

once a week

twice a week

after every class

when planning a new class

11. How do you use reflective practices?

To think about something that happened in class

to describe what happened in class

Other (Please specify) _____________________________________________________

12. Why do you use reflective practice?

To help you describe what happened during a teaching experience

To gain new ideas about teaching

To help label and categorize what happened during a teaching experience

To discover strengths and weaknesses as a teacher

To evaluate my teaching

To better plan my teaching


To improve my teaching

13. How does reflection improve teaching?

It enables the creation of more meaningful learning activities.

It allows for better curriculum design (the arrangement of a planned sequence of learning

experiences.)

It permits a better decision making process in relation to planning

Other (Please specify) ____________________

14. How does reflection improve student achievement?

It allows them to plan for the future

It allows for the understanding of tasks and practice

It allows them to self-assess and correct mistakes

It allows them to become more professional


15. How can teachers help students to become more reflective learners?

Asking questions

Providing better feedback

Providing models to follow


PERCEPTIONS ON METACOGNITION

In this section perceptions on metacognition will be explored. Remember there are no correct

or incorrect answers.

16. What are the skills that will help prepare students for life beyond school? Choose at

least 3.

Communicative competence in different languages

Learning to learn

Digital competence

Planning for the future

Thinking critically


Working collaboratively

Processing information

Solving problems

Being proactive/Entrepreneurship

Cultural awareness

Other (Please specify) ________________________________

17. What is metacognition?

Thinking about thinking.

A form of evaluation that looks inward

A complex process that can result in a subtle view of oneself as a thinker and learner.

Becoming aware and taking control of one’s own learning

Other (Please specify) _______________________________

18. How would you rate the importance of metacognition for the development of your

classes? Circle the number in the scale that best matches what you think.

Very important 5 4 3 2 1 not important at all

19. How useful is each of the following metacognitive strategies for your class? Circle

the number in the scale that best matches what you think.

Ver

y u

sefu

l

Use

ful

Mo

der

atel

y

use

ful

Of

littl

e u

se

Use

less

Being willing to learn 5 4 3 2 1

Understanding the importance of learning 5 4 3 2 1

Setting objectives 5 4 3 2 1

Selecting sources of information to be learned 5 4 3 2 1

Taking notes 5 4 3 2 1

Identifying main ideas 5 4 3 2 1

Adequately using textbooks 5 4 3 2 1


Organizing knowledge using tables, charts, schemes,

and classifications. 5 4 3 2 1

Using memorizing techniques 5 4 3 2 1

Knowing my own mental processes 5 4 3 2 1

Using strategies to improve those processes 5 4 3 2 1

Self-monitoring and self-regulating 5 4 3 2 1

Controlling distractions 5 4 3 2 1

Being aware of my strengths and weaknesses 5 4 3 2 1

Changing strategies when they don’t work 5 4 3 2 1

Transferring knowledge and strategies to and from

different fields, tending to generalize 5 4 3 2 1

Self-assessing 5 4 3 2 1

20. How important is each of the following when helping your students acquire

metacognitive strategies? Circle the number in the scale that best matches what you

think.

Ver

y

Imp

ort

ant

Imp

ort

ant

Mo

der

atel

y

imp

ort

ant

Of

littl

e

imp

ort

ance

Un

imp

ort

ant

Direct instruction of strategies and when to use them 5 4 3 2 1

Creating self-awareness of strategy use 5 4 3 2 1

showing them how to choose the best strategy 5 4 3 2 1

Modeling 5 4 3 2 1

Giving students ample practice at applying them 5 4 3 2 1

Asking reflective questions 5 4 3 2 1

Providing opportunities for self-assessment 5 4 3 2 1

Providing feedback 5 4 3 2 1

PERCEPTIONS ON BLOGGING


In this section perceptions on blogging will be explored. Remember there are no correct or

incorrect answers.

21. Have you ever used blogs?

Yes

No (Skip to #23)

22. What have you used them for? Check the ones that apply

To post personal information

To maintain contact with students

To provide course information

To reflect about class activities and student performance

23. Why not?

Limited technological ability

Time constraints

Privacy issues

Lack of school support

Procrastination

24. How do you feel about using blogs for reflection? For each item, circle the number

closer to the way you feel about blogs for reflection.

a. Interesting 5 4 3 2 1 Boring

b. Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant

c. Comprensible 5 4 3 2 1 Confusing

d. Worthwhile 5 4 3 2 1 Waste of time

e. Success promoting 5 4 3 2 1 Frustrating

f. Easy 5 4 3 2 1 Difficult

g. Important 5 4 3 2 1 Trivial


25. How do you think your students would react if you asked them to use blogs for

reflection? Circle the number in the scale that best matches what you think.

Very enthusiastic 5 4 3 2 1 Not enthusiastic at all

26. Why?

27. How willing are you to use blogs in class? Circle the number in the scale that best

matches what you think.

Very willing 5 4 3 2 1 Not willing at all

28. Why??

29. Does your school support the integration of blogs?

Yes

No

30. Have you received any training regarding blogs in in-service professional


Yes

No

31. Does your school support the integration of other forms of ICTs?

Yes

No

32. Which ones?


wikis

podcasts

discussion forum

platforms

33. Have you received any training regarding other forms of ICTs in in-service

professional development programs?

Yes

No

34. What kind?

35. Do you use blogs for reflective learning?

Yes

No

36. Why or why not?

37. Do you use blogs for metacognitive learning?

Yes (go to #38)

No

38. How do you use them?

Thank you for taking time to complete this questionnaire!


Appendix E

Introductory E-mail

Guayaquil, November 8, 2013

Dear English Teacher:

Given current education and cultural trends it is imperative to study the perceptions

English teachers have on reflective practices, metacognitive strategies, and the use of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications such as blogs.

The purpose of this survey is to explore and describe the perceptions of English

teachers about reflection and metacognition in blogging as means to integrate ICT to the

educational field. The survey will gather demographic data to assist in further analysis, but

will not identify study participants. Please answer the questions in full honesty. You may

access the questionnaire at:

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1nskY5I96hDE92JkhZeKxnLx4Yfw0hNr2QiZRKmlQ7Mg/

viewform

Participation in this survey is voluntary and responses will remain confidential. There

are no underlying costs or benefits of participating in the survey. The survey data will be

used as part of the thesis project for the master’s degree program at Universidad Casa

Grande. Results of this study may be made available in journal publications.

If you have questions, concerns, or comments about the questionnaire, please feel free to

contact me at [email protected]. You may also call me at 0997196138 (cell).

Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is greatly appreciated.

Sincerely,

Katherine Guerrero

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1nskY5I96hDE92JkhZeKxnLx4Yfw0hNr2QiZRKmlQ7Mg/viewform

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1nskY5I96hDE92JkhZeKxnLx4Yfw0hNr2QiZRKmlQ7Mg/viewform

mailto:[email protected]

tel:0997196138


Appendix F

Electronic Questionnaire used in Pilot-Test


Appendix G

Final Electronic Questionnaire


Appendix H

Statistical Analysis Tables


Willingness to Use Blogs – for Very Willing and Willing Categories

Case Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs 32 56.1% 25 43.9% 57 100.0%

$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs Crosstabulation


Total 1 2

Reasons Willingness

Blogsa

Facilitators of learning processes Count 16 7 23

Valuable tool Count 13 13 26

Time consuming Count 0 3 3

Similar to other tools Count 0 1 1


Percentages and totals are based on respondents.


Willingness to Use Blogs – for Neutral Category



Total 3

Reasons Willingness

Blogsa

Facilitators of learning processes Count 4 5

Valuable tool Count 3 6

Time consuming Count 8 11

Similar to other tools Count 5 7

Not liked by students Count 2 3

Reluctance to rely on online

interactions

Count 0 1

Focus on content Count 1 1

Total Count 14 21





Total 3

Reasons Willingness

Blogsa

Facilitators of learning processes Count 4 5

Valuable tool Count 3 6

Time consuming Count 8 11

Similar to other tools Count 5 7

Not liked by students Count 2 3


interactions

Count 0 1

Focus on content Count 1 1

Total Count 14 21




Willingness to Use Blogs – for Not Willing and Not Willing at All Categories

Case Summary

Valid Missing Total


$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs 10 17.5% 47 82.5% 57 100.0%



Total 4 5

Rea

son

s W

illi

ngnes

s

Blo

gsa

Facilitators of learning processes Count 1 0 1

Valuable tool Count 3 0 3


Similar to other tools Count 2 1 3

Not liked by students Count 1 1 2


interactions

Count 1 1 2

Total Count 7 3 10





Reasons for the Reaction

Case Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total


$ReasonSSReact*SsReact

Blog 56 98.2% 1 1.8% 57 100.0%

$ReasonSSReact*SsReactBlog Crosstabulationb

Student reaction to blogs for reflection

Total 1 2 3 4 5

Reasons

for SS

Reactiona

Enjoy using technology 11 18 6 0 1 36

Enjoy reflecting 2 5 1 1 1 10

Appreciate space for

expression 6 8 3 0 0 17

Reluctance to use ICT

for academic purposes 0 1 4 3 0 8

Not enthusiastic about

their learning process 0 0 3 4 0 7

Time consuming 0 2 10 5 0 17

prefer blogging over

other assignments 0 1 0 0 0 1

Total 19 35 27 13 2 96

Percentages and totals are based on responses.




Reasons for the Reaction – for Very Enthusiastic and Enthusiastic Categories


Student reaction to blogs for

reflection

Total 1 2

Reasons for SS Reactiona Enjoy using technology Count 11 18 29

Enjoy reflecting Count 2 5 7


expression

Count 6 8 14

Reluctance to use ICT for

academic purposes

Count 0 1 1


prefer blogging over other

assignments

Count 0 1 1






Reasons for the Reaction – for Neutral to Not Enthusiastic at All Categories

Case Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total


$ReasonSSReact*SsRea

ctBlog 25 43.9% 32 56.1% 57 100.0%


Student reaction to blogs for

reflection

Total 3 4 5

Reasons for SS

Reactiona

Enjoy using technology Count 6 0 1 7

Enjoy reflecting Count 1 1 1 3


expression

Count 3 0 0 3


for academic purposes

Count 4 3 0 7


their learning process

Count 3 4 0 7

Time consuming Count 10 5 0 15

Total Count 27 13 2 42



b. There are not enough (less than 2) multiple response groups for pairing. Percentages are based on

responses, but no pairing is performed.


Table H7.Crosstabulation between school support of blog integration and training for blog

use

School support of blog integration * Training for blog use

Crosstabulation

Count

Training for blog use

Total Yes No

School support of blog

integration

Yes 15 27 42

No 6 9 15

Total 21 36 57

Chi-Square Tests

Value df

Asymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

Exact Sig. (2-

sided)

Exact Sig. (1-

sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .087a 1 .768

Continuity

Correctionb

.000 1 1.000

Likelihood Ratio .087 1 .768

Fisher's Exact Test .766 .501

N of Valid Cases 57

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.53.

b. Computed only for a 2x2 table

Table H8. Crosstabulation between School support of blog integration, willingness to use blogs, and


School support of blog integration * Willingness to use blogs * Training for blog use

Crosstabulation

Count



Total 1 2 3 4 5

Yes School support of blog

integration

Yes 8 4 1 1 1 15

No 1 1 3 1 0 6

Total 9 5 4 2 1 21

No School support of blog

integration

Yes 8 7 8 3 1 27

No 1 3 2 2 1 9

Total 9 10 10 5 2 36


Chi-Square Tests

Training for blog use Value Df

Asymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

Yes Pearson Chi-Square 6.599a 4 .159

Likelihood Ratio 6.573 4 .160

N of Valid Cases 21

No Pearson Chi-Square 2.459b 4 .652

Likelihood Ratio 2.481 4 .648

N of Valid Cases 36

a. 9 cells (90.0%) have expected count less than 5. The

minimum expected count is .29.

b. 7 cells (70.0%) have expected count less than 5. The

minimum expected count is .50.

Table H9. Crosstabulation between School support of other forms of ICT and Training for

other forms of ICT

School support of other forms of ICT * Training for other forms of ICT

Crosstabulation

Count

Training for other forms of

ICT

Total Yes No

School support of other

forms of ICT

Yes 18 29 47

No 3 7 10

Total 21 36 57

Chi-Square Tests

Value df

Asymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

Exact Sig. (2-

sided)

Exact Sig. (1-

sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .244a 1 .621

Continuity Correctionb .018 1 .894

Likelihood Ratio .250 1 .617

Fisher's Exact Test .730 .456

N of Valid Cases 57

a. 1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.68.

b. Computed only for a 2x2 table


Table H10. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition

Importance of metacognition

Type of

Institution

Teaching

Experience Mean N Std. Deviation Kurtosis Variance Skewness

University 5 years or less 1.6000 5 .89443 .313 .800 1.258

6 - 10 years 1.6667 6 .81650 -.300 .667 .857

11 - 15 years 1.3750 8 .51755 -2.240 .268 .644

16 - 20 years 2.0000 5 1.41421 -1.750 2.000 .884

21 - 25 years 2.0000 3 1.00000 . 1.000 .000

26 - 30 years 1.5000 4 .57735 -6.000 .333 .000

31 years or more 1.0000 2 .00000 . .000 .

Total 1.6061 33 .82687 .788 .684 1.228

Secondary 5 years or less 2.2500 4 1.89297 2.615 3.583 1.659

6 - 10 years 1.8333 6 .98319 -2.390 .967 .456

11 - 15 years 1.2857 7 .48795 -.840 .238 1.230

16 - 20 years 1.2500 4 .50000 4.000 .250 2.000

21 - 25 years 1.0000 1 . . . .

26 - 30 years 1.0000 1 . . . .

31 years or more 3.0000 1 . . . .

Total 1.6250 24 1.01350 4.210 1.027 1.952

Total 5 years or less 1.8889 9 1.36423 3.033 1.861 1.771

6 - 10 years 1.7500 12 .86603 -1.446 .750 .567

11 - 15 years 1.3333 15 .48795 -1.615 .238 .788

16 - 20 years 1.6667 9 1.11803 1.257 1.250 1.533

21 - 25 years 1.7500 4 .95743 -1.289 .917 .855

26 - 30 years 1.4000 5 .54772 -3.333 .300 .609

31 years or more 1.6667 3 1.15470 . 1.333 1.732

Total 1.6140 57 .90147 2.696 .813 1.616


Table H11. Count Impact of Reflection on Teaching by Education Level

Impact of Reflection on Teaching

Creation of

meaningful

activities

Better

curriculum

design

Better

decision

making

Affects

the whole

process Total

Count Count Count Count Count

Type

of

Inst

ituti

on U

niv

ersi

ty

Ed

uca

tio

n L

evel

Bachelor's 3 2 3 0 6

Master's 18 9 9 1 24

Teacher Certification 1 0 1 0 1

Doctorate 1 1 0 0 1

Diplomado/Specialty 0 0 0 0 0

Total 23 12 13 1 32

Sec

ondar

y

Educa

tion L

evel

Bachelor's 6 3 3 0 7

Master's 5 3 3 0 7

Teacher Certification 6 3 4 0 7

Doctorate 0 0 0 0 0

Diplomado/Specialty 1 2 1 0 2

Total 18 11 11 0 23


Table H12. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Education Level


Mean Median Mode

Minimu

m

Maximu

m Range

Standard

Deviation

Type

of

Inst

ituti

on

Un

iver

sity

Ed

uca

tio

n L

evel

Bachelor's 3.00 3.00 3 1 5 4 1.26

Master's 2.24 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.16

Teacher

Certification 4.00 4.00 4 4 4 0 .

Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 0 .

Total 2.39 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.22

Sec

ondar

y

Educa

tion L

evel

Bachelor's 1.63 1.50 1 1 3 2 0.74

Master's 2.43 2.00 1 1 4 3 1.27

Teacher

Certification 2.86 3.00 2 1 5 4 1.35

Diplomado/Specialt

y 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 2 1.41

Total 2.25 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.19

Tota

l

Educa

tion L

evel

Bachelor's 2.21 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.19

Master's 2.28 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.17

Teacher

Certification 3.00 3.00 2 1 5 4 1.31

Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 0 .

Diplomado/Specialt

y 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 2 1.41

Total 2.33 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.20


Table H13. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching

Experience


Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum

Standard

Deviation

Type

of

Inst

ituti

on

Univ

ersi

ty

Tea

chin

g E

xp

erie

nce

5 years or less 2.80 3.00 1 1 5 2

6 - 10 years 2.50 3.00 3 1 3 1

11 - 15 years 1.75 1.50 1 1 3 1

16 - 20 years 2.60 2.00 2 1 4 1

21 - 25 years 3.33 3.00 2 2 5 2

26 - 30 years 2.25 2.00 2 1 4 1

31 years or more 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 1

Total 2.39 2.00 1 1 5 1

Sec

ondar

y

Tea

chin

g E

xp

erie

nce

5 years or less 2.00 1.50 1 1 4 1

6 - 10 years 2.50 2.50 2 1 4 1

11 - 15 years 2.14 2.00 2 1 4 1

16 - 20 years 1.50 1.00 1 1 3 1

21 - 25 years 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .

26 - 30 years 3.00 3.00 3 3 3 .

31 years or more 5.00 5.00 5 5 5 .

Total 2.25 2.00 1 1 5 1

Tota

l

Tea

chin

g E

xp

erie

nce

5 years or less 2.44 2.00 1 1 5 2

6 - 10 years 2.50 3.00 3 1 4 1

11 - 15 years 1.93 2.00 1 1 4 1

16 - 20 years 2.11 2.00 1 1 4 1

21 - 25 years 3.00 2.50 2 2 5 1

26 - 30 years 2.40 2.00 2 1 4 1

31 years or more 3.00 3.00 1 1 5 2

Total 2.33 2.00 1 1 5 1


Table H14. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching Area


Mean Median Mode Min Max

Standard

Deviation

Type

of

Inst

ituti

on

University Teaching

Area

English Language 2.14 2.00 2 1 4 1

Content Area 2.29 3.00 1 1 4 1

Both 2.67 2.00 2 1 5 1

Secondary Teaching

Area


Content Area 2.13 2.00 1 1 4 1

Both 2.22 2.00 2 1 4 1

Total Teaching

Area


Content Area 2.23 2.50 1 1 4 1

Both 2.48 2.00 2 1 5 1

Table H15. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Reflection Impact

on Learning



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University RefImpLearn Yes 2.37 2.00 1 1 5 1

No 3.00 3.00 3 3 3 .

Secondary RefImpLearn Yes 2.26 2.00 1 1 5 1

No 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .

Total RefImpLearn Yes 2.33 2.00 1 1 5 1

No 2.50 2.50 2 2 3 1


Table H16. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Sex



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Sex Male 2.93 3.00 3 1 5 1

Female 2.00 2.00 1 1 4 1

Secondary Sex Male 2.33 2.00 2 2 3 1

Female 2.24 2.00 1 1 5 1

Total Sex Male 2.82 3.00 3 1 5 1

Female 2.13 2.00 1 1 5 1


Table H17. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Age



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Age 30 or less . . . . . .

31 - 35 2.40 3.00 1 1 4 1

36 - 40 2.40 2.00 1 1 5 1

41 - 45 1.80 2.00 1 1 3 1

46 - 50 2.50 3.00 3 1 3 1

51 and above 2.67 2.00 2 1 5 1

Secondary Age 30 or less 2.14 2.00 1 1 4 1

31 - 35 2.33 2.00 2 1 4 1

36 - 40 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 1

41 - 45 1.50 1.50 1 1 2 1

46 - 50 2.33 3.00 3 1 3 1

51 and above 5.00 5.00 5 5 5 .

Total Age 30 or less 2.14 2.00 1 1 4 1

31 - 35 2.36 2.00 1 1 4 1

36 - 40 2.27 2.00 1 1 5 1

41 - 45 1.71 2.00 1 1 3 1

46 - 50 2.43 3.00 3 1 3 1

51 and above 2.90 2.50 2 1 5 2


Table H18. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Area of Degree



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Area of

Degree

Education 1.80 2.00 2 1 4 1

Business 3.00 3.00 3 1 5 1

Law 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .

Languages and

Linguistics 5.00 5.00 5 5 5 .

Social labor 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .

Secondary Area of

Degree

Education 2.00 2.00 2 1 4 1

Business 2.67 3.00 1 1 4 2

Languages and

Linguistics 2.25 2.00 1 1 4 2

Graphic Design 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .

Environmental

Engineering 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .

Liberal Arts 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .

English 4.00 4.00 3 3 5 1

Total Area of

Degree

Education 1.89 2.00 2 1 4 1

Business 2.94 3.00 3 1 5 1

Law 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .

Languages and

Linguistics 2.80 3.00 1 1 5 2

Graphic Design 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .

Environmental

Engineering 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .

Liberal Arts 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .

English 4.00 4.00 3 3 5 1

Social labor 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .


Table H19. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Sex



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Sex Male 1.79 2.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 .70

Female 1.47 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .90

Secondary Sex Male 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.00

Female 1.57 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.03

Total Sex Male 1.82 2.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 .73

Female 1.53 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 .96

Table H20. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Age



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Age 30 or less . . . . . .

31 - 35 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 1.34

36 - 40 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .84

41 - 45 1.60 2.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 .55

46 - 50 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.15

51 and above 1.44 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .53

Secondary Age 30 or less 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.53

31 - 35 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .55

36 - 40 1.20 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .45

41 - 45 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.41

46 - 50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .00

51 and above 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .

Total Age 30 or less 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.53

31 - 35 1.55 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .93

36 - 40 1.47 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .74

41 - 45 1.71 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76

46 - 50 1.57 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .98

51 and above 1.60 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .70


Table H21. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Education Level



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Education

Level

Bachelor's 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .84

Master's 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .82

Teacher

Certification 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .

Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .

Diplomado/S

pecialty . . . . . .

Secondary Education

Level

Bachelor's 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76

Master's 1.29 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76

Teacher

Certification 2.14 2.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.46

Doctorate . . . . . .

Diplomado/S

pecialty 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .71

Total Education

Level

Bachelor's 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76

Master's 1.53 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .80

Teacher

Certification 2.25 2.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.39

Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .

Diplomado/S

pecialty 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .71


Table H22. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Teaching

Experience



Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .89

6 - 10 years 1.67 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .82

11 - 15 years 1.38 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .52

16 - 20 years 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 1.41

21 - 25 years 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.00

26 - 30 years 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .58

31 years or more 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .00

Secondary Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 2.25 1.50 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.89

6 - 10 years 1.83 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .98

11 - 15 years 1.29 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .49

16 - 20 years 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .50

21 - 25 years 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .

26 - 30 years 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .

31 years or more 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .

Total Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 1.89 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.36

6 - 10 years 1.75 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .87

11 - 15 years 1.33 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .49

16 - 20 years 1.67 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 1.12

21 - 25 years 1.75 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .96

26 - 30 years 1.40 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .55

31 years or more 1.67 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.15


Table H23. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex

RefImpLearn

Yes No

Count Column N % Count Column N %

Type of

Institution

University Sex Male 13 40.6% 1 100.0%

Female 19 59.4% 0 .0%

Secondary Sex Male 2 8.7% 1 100.0%

Female 21 91.3% 0 .0%

Total Sex Male 15 27.3% 2 100.0%

Female 40 72.7% 0 .0%

Table H24. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age

RefImpLearn

Yes No


Type of

Institution

University Age 30 or less 0 .0% 0 .0%

31 - 35 5 15.6% 0 .0%

36 - 40 10 31.3% 0 .0%

41 - 45 5 15.6% 0 .0%

46 - 50 3 9.4% 1 100.0%

51 and above 9 28.1% 0 .0%

Secondary Age 30 or less 6 26.1% 1 100.0%

31 - 35 6 26.1% 0 .0%

36 - 40 5 21.7% 0 .0%

41 - 45 2 8.7% 0 .0%

46 - 50 3 13.0% 0 .0%

51 and above 1 4.3% 0 .0%

Total Age 30 or less 6 10.9% 1 50.0%

31 - 35 11 20.0% 0 .0%

36 - 40 15 27.3% 0 .0%

41 - 45 7 12.7% 0 .0%

46 - 50 6 10.9% 1 50.0%

51 and above 10 18.2% 0 .0%


Table H25. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level

RefImpLearn

Yes No


Type of

Institution

University Education

Level

Bachelor's 6 18.8% 0 .0%

Master's 24 75.0% 1 100.0%



Diplomado/Specialty 0 .0% 0 .0%

Secondary Education

Level

Bachelor's 7 30.4% 1 100.0%

Master's 7 30.4% 0 .0%


Doctorate 0 .0% 0 .0%


Total Education

Level

Bachelor's 13 23.6% 1 50.0%

Master's 31 56.4% 1 50.0%





Table H26. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience

RefImpLearn

Yes No

Count

Column N

% Count Column N %

Type of

Institution

University Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 5 15.6% 0 .0%

6 - 10 years 6 18.8% 0 .0%

11 - 15 years 8 25.0% 0 .0%

16 - 20 years 5 15.6% 0 .0%

21 - 25 years 2 6.3% 1 100.0%

26 - 30 years 4 12.5% 0 .0%

31 years or more 2 6.3% 0 .0%

Secondary Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 4 17.4% 0 .0%

6 - 10 years 5 21.7% 1 100.0%

11 - 15 years 7 30.4% 0 .0%

16 - 20 years 4 17.4% 0 .0%

21 - 25 years 1 4.3% 0 .0%

26 - 30 years 1 4.3% 0 .0%

31 years or more 1 4.3% 0 .0%

Total Teaching

Experience

5 years or less 9 16.4% 0 .0%

6 - 10 years 11 20.0% 1 50.0%

11 - 15 years 15 27.3% 0 .0%

16 - 20 years 9 16.4% 0 .0%

21 - 25 years 3 5.5% 1 50.0%

26 - 30 years 5 9.1% 0 .0%

31 years or more 3 5.5% 0 .0%


Table H27. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area

RefImpLearn

Yes No

Count

Column N

% Count

Column N

%

Type of

Institution

University Teaching

Area

English Language 7 21.9% 0 .0%


Both 11 34.4% 1 100.0%

Secondary Teaching

Area



Both 8 34.8% 1 100.0%

Total Teaching

Area



Both 19 34.5% 2 100.0%

Table H28. Descriptive Statistics for Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection by Institution

Type

Student reaction to blogs for reflection

Valid N Minimum Maximum Mean Mode

Standard

Deviation

Type of

Institution

University 33 1 5 2.42 2 1.173

Secondary 24 1 4 2.46 3 .932


Table H29. Descriptive Statistics for Usefulness of Metacognitive Strategies by Institution

Type

Type of Institution


Min Max Mean

Standard

Deviation Min Max Mean

Standard

Deviation

Willingness to learn 1 2 1.21 .42 1 2 1.25 .44

Understanding importance

of learning 1 4 1.55 .71 1 3 1.42 .58

Setting objectives 1 3 1.45 .62 1 3 1.50 .72

Selecting information

sources 1 3 1.85 .76 1 3 1.75 .68

Taking notes 1 5 2.15 .91 1 4 2.04 .69

Identifying main ideas 1 3 1.42 .75 1 4 1.62 .82

Using textbooks

adequately 1 4 1.97 .85 1 4 2.00 .88

Organizing knowledge

graphically 1 4 1.85 .91 1 3 1.96 .75

Using memorizing

techniques 1 5 2.39 1.09 1 5 2.87 1.15

Knowing own mental

processes 1 4 1.45 .71 1 3 1.42 .58

Using strategies to

improve 1 4 1.55 .79 1 3 1.50 .66

Self-regulation 1 3 1.48 .71 1 3 1.50 .66

Controlling distractions 1 4 1.67 .96 1 3 1.75 .61

Being aware of strengths

and weaknesses 1 2 1.24 .44 1 3 1.50 .72

Changing strategies 1 3 1.24 .50 1 3 1.42 .58

Transferring knowledge

and strategies 1 5 1.67 .92 1 4 1.75 .79

Self-assessing 1 2 1.39 .50 1 3 1.33 .56


Table H30. Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies


Cases N Percent

Reasons for Student

Reactiona

Enjoy using technology 37 37.4% 64.9%

Enjoy reflecting 10 10.1% 17.5%


expression 18 18.2% 31.6%


for academic purposes 8 8.1% 14.0%


their learning process 8 8.1% 14.0%

Time consuming 17 17.2% 29.8%

Prefer blogging over

other assignments 1 1.0% 1.8%

Total 99 100.0% 173.7%


Table H31. Willingness to Use Blogs Frequencies


Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid 1 18 31.6 31.6 31.6

2 15 26.3 26.3 57.9

3 14 24.6 24.6 82.5

4 7 12.3 12.3 94.7

5 3 5.3 5.3 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0


Table H32. Reasons for Willingness to Use Blogs

Frequencies


Cases N Percent

Rea

sons

Wil

lingnes

s

Blo

gsa

Facilitators of learning processes 28 30.4% 50.0%

Valuable tool 32 34.8% 57.1%

Time consuming 16 17.4% 28.6%

Similar to other tools 9 9.8% 16.1%

Not liked by students 4 4.3% 7.1%

Reluctance to rely on online interactions 2 2.2% 3.6%

Focus on content 1 1.1% 1.8%

Total 92 100.0% 164.3%



Appendix I

SUMMARY FIGURES

Figure I1. Sample Distribution by type of Institution

Figure I2. Sample Distribution by Sex and Type of Institution


Figure I3. Sample Distribution by Age Categories (Total and by Institution Type)

Figure I4. Sample Distribution by Education Level (Total and by Institution Type)


Figure I5. Sample by Educational Background (Total and by Institution Type)

Figure I6. Sample by Teaching Experience (Total and by Institution Type)


Figure I7. Sample by Type of Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution)

Figure I8. Frequency of Reflection by Type of Institution


Figure I9. Purpose of Using Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type)

Figure I10. Impact of Reflective Practice on Teaching (Total and by Institution Type)


Figure I11. Skill for Life Beyond School by Institution Type

Figure I12. Beliefs on metacognition


Figure I13. Blog Use (Total and by Institution Type)

Figure I14. Means and modes for Attitudes towards Blogging for Reflection


Figure I15. School Support of Blog Integration

Figure I16. Training for Blog Use

Have you received any training regarding blogs in in-service professional development programs?

Does your school support the integration of blogs?


Figure I17. School Support of other ICT Forms

Figure I18. Training for Other ICT Forms

Have you received any training regarding other forms of ICT in in-service professional development programs?

Does your school support the integration of other forms of ICT?


Figure I19. ICT Used by Teachers

Figure I20. Blog Use for Reflective Learning (Total and by Institution Type)

Which forms of ICT?


Figure I21. Reasons to use Blogs for Reflective Learning

Figure I22. Reasons not to use Blogs for Reflective Learning


Figure I23. Blog Use for Metacognitive Learning (Total and by Institution Type)

Figure 24. Ways to Use Blogs for Metacognitive Learning