peoples of the deseert
DESCRIPTION
Describes the !Kung with brief comparative material with the ShoshoneTRANSCRIPT
Peoples of the DesertsPeoples of the Deserts
Populations of Namibia and NevadaPopulations of Namibia and Nevada
Introduction to Desert Bands: The !Introduction to Desert Bands: The !KungKung
The !Kung are simple foragers in the Kalahari The !Kung are simple foragers in the Kalahari desertdesert
They range from Namibia to Botswana and They range from Namibia to Botswana and parts of South Africa (see map, next panel)parts of South Africa (see map, next panel)
Because of the seasonality of both game and Because of the seasonality of both game and plant food sources, they are nomadicplant food sources, they are nomadic
For a similar reason, they comprise small For a similar reason, they comprise small bands of related families between 40 and 100 bands of related families between 40 and 100 peoplepeople
Location of the !Kung SanLocation of the !Kung San
Shaded area: major !Kung and related peoples. Shaded area: major !Kung and related peoples. Most of the !Kung live in Namibia and BotswanaMost of the !Kung live in Namibia and Botswana
Introduction to the Desert Bands: Introduction to the Desert Bands: The ShoshoneThe Shoshone
In many respects, the Shoshone lived in an In many respects, the Shoshone lived in an environment similarly harsh to the Kalaharienvironment similarly harsh to the Kalahari
However, unlike the !Kung, they did exploit a However, unlike the !Kung, they did exploit a variety of zones, from forested mountains to variety of zones, from forested mountains to desertsdeserts
They were also seasonally nomadicThey were also seasonally nomadic Like the !Kung, they were organized into Like the !Kung, they were organized into
family-based bandsfamily-based bands
Location of the ShoshoneLocation of the Shoshone The Western Shoshone extended The Western Shoshone extended
from S. Idaho and W/ Utah from S. Idaho and W/ Utah through the Nevada basin to S.E. through the Nevada basin to S.E. California California
Their ecological zones included Their ecological zones included dry desert of the Nevada basindry desert of the Nevada basin
To the Eastern SierraTo the Eastern Sierra Eastern Shoshone extended well Eastern Shoshone extended well
into Utah and northern parts of into Utah and northern parts of Arizona. Arizona.
Foraging among the !KungForaging among the !Kung
Hunters use spears and bows and arrows Hunters use spears and bows and arrows with tips of weak poison (upper left)with tips of weak poison (upper left)
Main animals: kudu, eland (antelope), Main animals: kudu, eland (antelope), wildebeest, giraffeswildebeest, giraffes
They also rely on small game like They also rely on small game like porcupinesporcupines
Gatherers (always women) dig up roots, Gatherers (always women) dig up roots, gather berries and leaves, and pick nutsgather berries and leaves, and pick nuts
Here, two women are digging out an Here, two women are digging out an edible root (lower left)edible root (lower left)
Property—Or Lack ThereofProperty—Or Lack Thereof Hunting territory is open to anyone within the band—Hunting territory is open to anyone within the band—
but other bands often cross itbut other bands often cross it Water holes are owned by each band—but Water holes are owned by each band—but
neighboring band may use them with the headman’s neighboring band may use them with the headman’s permission—which is always grantedpermission—which is always granted
Arrows may be owned by anyone, and part of the Arrows may be owned by anyone, and part of the game is owned by the persons whose arrow first game is owned by the persons whose arrow first entered the animalentered the animal
Foraging families own the food they have gatherersForaging families own the food they have gatherers
Sharing GameSharing Game
After a successful hunt, bushmen share their After a successful hunt, bushmen share their game—in this instance an oryxgame—in this instance an oryx
The meat is “owned” only to be given awayThe meat is “owned” only to be given away Rules of sharing involve distribution within Rules of sharing involve distribution within
the family and individuals outside the familythe family and individuals outside the family Here a hunter carries a portion of an oryx to Here a hunter carries a portion of an oryx to
his familyhis family Owners of an arrow that first penetrates an Owners of an arrow that first penetrates an
animal also gets a portionanimal also gets a portion This is a typical example of generalized This is a typical example of generalized
reciprocity (see reciprocity (see Band Level of Integration)Band Level of Integration)
Gift Giving as ObligatoryGift Giving as Obligatory
As described in As described in Band Level of Integration, Band Level of Integration, this series, this series, sharing game is an example of Mauss’s obligation to sharing game is an example of Mauss’s obligation to givegive
Meat cannot be preserved, so hoarding makes no Meat cannot be preserved, so hoarding makes no sensesense
It must be consumed quicklyIt must be consumed quickly Sharing is social insurance; the unsuccessful hunter Sharing is social insurance; the unsuccessful hunter
still has meatstill has meat Eventually, he will bag an animal and share it, Eventually, he will bag an animal and share it,
according to Mauss’s third obligation to repayaccording to Mauss’s third obligation to repay
!Kung Social Organization!Kung Social Organization
!Kung typically form bands !Kung typically form bands comprising familiescomprising families
Links between family may Links between family may be parent-child, sibling, or be parent-child, sibling, or even unrelated personseven unrelated persons
Families like this one live in Families like this one live in small, temporary huts called small, temporary huts called shermssherms
Camps may comprise five or Camps may comprise five or six families and their hutssix families and their huts
Upper Limits To Social Upper Limits To Social OrganizationOrganization
The carrying capacity of an environment is the The carrying capacity of an environment is the general cause of population limit.general cause of population limit.
Efficient cause of out-migration is quarrels Efficient cause of out-migration is quarrels between or within familiesbetween or within families
When families leave, they typically stay within When families leave, they typically stay within easy access to water holes and food sourceseasy access to water holes and food sources
Egalitarianism Among the !KungEgalitarianism Among the !Kung
Egalitarianism marks !Kung relations.Egalitarianism marks !Kung relations. Often, if a man bags large game, he often faces Often, if a man bags large game, he often faces
ridicule in a process called “insulting the ridicule in a process called “insulting the meat”meat”
Richard Lee was greeted with ridicule when he Richard Lee was greeted with ridicule when he gave “his” band a large oxgave “his” band a large ox
He later acknowledge that he was behaving He later acknowledge that he was behaving like a white intruderlike a white intruder
An Incident with an Ethnographer An Incident with an Ethnographer among the Dobe !Kungamong the Dobe !Kung
This incidents described in “Eating This incidents described in “Eating Christmas in the Kalahari” by Christmas in the Kalahari” by Richard LeeRichard Lee
Lee conducted an ethnographic study Lee conducted an ethnographic study of the Dobe !Kung or Ju/’hoansi of the Dobe !Kung or Ju/’hoansi (left)(left)
He gave the band a fattened ox to He gave the band a fattened ox to thank themthank them
Reaction: Dobe ridiculed this giftReaction: Dobe ridiculed this gift Lesson: the !Kung Lesson: the !Kung typically typically ridicule ridicule
valuable game.valuable game. This is “insulting the meat” This is “insulting the meat”
Why This Bizarre Behavior?Why This Bizarre Behavior?
Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.”Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.” ““When a young man kills much meat,When a young man kills much meat, He thinks himself as a chief or big manHe thinks himself as a chief or big man And the rest of us as his servants.And the rest of us as his servants. We cannot accept this. We cannot accept this. Someday his pride will make him kill somebody.Someday his pride will make him kill somebody. So we always speak of his meat as worthless.So we always speak of his meat as worthless. That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”
Lessons from This TaleLessons from This Tale
Even bandsmen know about inequalityEven bandsmen know about inequality They fear domination by one manThey fear domination by one man Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior
motivemotive So they denigrate this giftsSo they denigrate this gifts The reaction conforms to a model of The reaction conforms to a model of reverse reverse
dominance hierarchydominance hierarchy This is an active suppression of any social This is an active suppression of any social
inequality that may ariseinequality that may arise
Conflict Resolution among the !Conflict Resolution among the !KungKung
Dobe !Kung have been known to enter into disputes.Dobe !Kung have been known to enter into disputes. Issues: usually over womenIssues: usually over women Homicide is not unknown, and poison arrows can and Homicide is not unknown, and poison arrows can and
do flydo fly However, the rest of the band recognizes the potential However, the rest of the band recognizes the potential
of disruptionof disruption For that reason, most individuals do not support For that reason, most individuals do not support
either disputant, and the argument cools downeither disputant, and the argument cools down For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp. For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp.
65-8165-81
Recent Developments: Game Recent Developments: Game ReservesReserves
In recent years, governments of both In recent years, governments of both Namibia and Botswana have forced !Namibia and Botswana have forced !Kung bands to vacate their landsKung bands to vacate their lands
This group was expelled from their land This group was expelled from their land in 2002 (upper left) to make way for a in 2002 (upper left) to make way for a game reservegame reserve
This man, among five others, was This man, among five others, was arrested for hunting in the reserve (lower arrested for hunting in the reserve (lower left)left)
They were sentenced to two years They were sentenced to two years imprisonment for the “crime”imprisonment for the “crime”
Comparison: The Shoshone of the Comparison: The Shoshone of the Nevada BasinNevada Basin
The Shoshone relied on a dry environment with hot The Shoshone relied on a dry environment with hot summers and cold winterssummers and cold winters
Meat was scarce, and comprised less than 20% of the Meat was scarce, and comprised less than 20% of the diet; diet included pine nuts and other plant foodsdiet; diet included pine nuts and other plant foods
Social organization was of nuclear families with Social organization was of nuclear families with occasional larger groups for communal rabbit hunts occasional larger groups for communal rabbit hunts coordinated by “rabbit bosses”coordinated by “rabbit bosses”
Owens Valley Paiute lived in a well-watered area Owens Valley Paiute lived in a well-watered area with richer yields of game and plant food, including with richer yields of game and plant food, including pine nuts, whose trees were privately ownedpine nuts, whose trees were privately owned
For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp. For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp. 58-6558-65
ConclusionConclusion
The !Kung are one of the most studied The !Kung are one of the most studied foraging societiesforaging societies
They form the end of a continuum from simple They form the end of a continuum from simple to complex societyto complex society
They have neither government nor codified They have neither government nor codified lawslaws
Yet they manage their affairs without themYet they manage their affairs without them Reciprocity appears to be the force that holds Reciprocity appears to be the force that holds
the band together—as it does elsewhere.the band together—as it does elsewhere.