Underwood's (1982) assertion that "attention can only be diverted to higher-level activities, such as comprehension, when lower-level activities have become skilled through practice".

Setujukah Kamu?

Membaca memiliki pelbagai pengertian seperti Mengintepretasi, Menganalisis, atau membuat ramalan.

The ability to decode words, recognize word meanings, the meaning of sentences, and the meaning of the text (LaBerg & Samuels 1974)

Reading is not decoding written language to spoken language. Reading does not involve the processing of each letter and each word. Reading is a matter of bringing meaning to print, not extracting meaning from print. (McCormick, T. 1988)

Faktor-faktor Mempengaruhi Kebolehan Membaca

Pengekodan

1. Mengenali Huruf & Bunyi (Fonem)

2. Kelancaran membaca

3. Membaca dengan ekspresi/perasaan

4. Memahami kegunaan tanda baca

Faktor-faktor Mempengaruhi Kebolehan Membaca

Pemahaman

1. Memahami pengertian perkataan di dalam ayat

2. Keupayaan menggabungkan idea

3. Keupayaan membezakan Idea utama dan idea sampingan

4. Konsentrasi yang penuh

Faktor-faktor Mempengaruhi Kebolehan Membaca

Menyimpan Maklumat

1. Keupayaan mengingati atau meringkaskan petikan

2. Keupayaan menggabungkan teks dengan pengalaman peribadi

Faktor-faktor Mempengaruhi Kebolehan Membaca

Persediaan Diri 1. Kestabilan Emosi 2. Kecerdasan 3. Pengetahuan Sedia ada 4. Efikasi Kendiri

Persekitaran 1. Pengaruh ibu bapa 2. Sokongan pihak sekolah & guru

Faktor-faktor Mempengaruhi Kebolehan Membaca

Menyimpan Maklumat

1. Keupayaan mengingati atau meringkaskan petikan

2. Keupayaan menggabungkan teks dengan pengalaman peribadi

Menurut Dole et al. (1991), in the traditional view of reading, novice readers acquire a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension ability. Having mastered these skills, readers are viewed as experts who comprehend what they read.

Menurut Nunan (1991) pula, reading in this view is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbols into their aural equivalents in the quest for making sense of the text. Beliau merujuk proses in sebagai

Model Bawah-Ke-Atas (bottom-up)

Menurut Nunan (1991) and Dubin and Bycina (1991), Psikolinguistik dan Model Atas-Ke-Bawah are serupa. Goodman (1967; cited in Paran, 1996) pula menyatakan bahawa ‘reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth. Here, the reader rather than the text is at the heart of the reading process.’

Model Atas-Ke-Bawah 'top-down'

Model Membaca ini menjelaskan bahawa pembaca membaca dengan membawa pengalaman untuk memberi makna pada teks inside-out model concept-driven model whole to part model

Schemata help students to relate new information to prior knowledge; to determine the importance of information in the reading; to make inferences, and to remember information (Anderson & Pearson 1984).

Students build schemata based upon psychological and social experiences known as constructivism. Students relate to the same text in different ways. Discussions in groups; literature circles; and writings allow adolescents to share their unique perspectives of the text (Calfee & Patrick, 1995).

sociocultural theory explains that students extract meaning from text based on their cultural and social backgrounds (Vygotsky 1978)

Top-down reading models suggest that processing of a text begins in the mind of the readers with

•meaning-driven processes, or •an assumption about the meaning of a text.

From this perspective, readers identify letters and words only to confirm their assumptions about the meaning of the text. (Dechant 1991)

The interactive model of reading explains that the reader files or adds new information to existing schemata including the knowledge of words, existing knowledge, and syntactic knowledge (Rumelhart, 1976).

Good readers make connections to their reading by keying into associations, feelings, attitudes, and ideas providing the deepest interaction between reader and text. This—I learned—is Reader Response Theory (Rosenblatt, L. M., 1978).

Model Membaca Interaktif

An interactive reading model attempts to combine the valid insights of bottom-up and top-down models. It attempts to take into account the strong points of the bottom-up and top-down models, and tries to avoid the criticisms leveled against each, making it one of the most promising approaches to the theory of reading today. (McCormick, T. 1988)

Model Membaca Interaktif

Pandangan Metakognitif

Menurut Block (1992), there is now no more debate on "whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process." It is also no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on both L1 and L2 readers. Research has gone even further to define the control readers execute on their ability to understand a text.

Metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. Klein et al. (1991) stated that strategic readers attempt the following while reading: • Identifying the purpose of the reading before reading • Identifying the form or type of the text before reading • Thinking about the general character and features of the form

or type of the text. For instance, they try to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting details toward a conclusion

• Projecting the author's purpose for writing the text (while reading it),

• Choosing, scanning, or reading in detail • Making continuous predictions about what will occur next,

based on information obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages.

Barnett, M. A. (1988). Teaching reading in a foreign language. ERIC Digest Block, E. L. (1992). See how they read: comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly 26(2) Dole, J. A. Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., and Pearson, D. D. (1991). Moving from the old to the new: research on reading comprehension instruction. Review of Educational Research 61 Dubin, F., and Bycina, D. (1991). Models of the process of reading. In Celce-Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston, Mass.: Heinle and Heinle. Duke, N. K., and Pearson, D. P. (n.d.). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. Available at //effective reading.com/ (Oct. 15, 2001). Estes T. H. (1999). Strategies for reading to learn. Available at www.reading strategies. Fitzgerald, J. (1995). English-as-a-second-language learners' cognitive reading processes: a review of research in the United States. Review of Educational Research 65 Klein, M. L., Peterson, S., and Simington, L. (1991). Teaching Reading in the Elementary Grades. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon. Lebauer, R. (1998). Lessons from the rock on the role of reading. Available at // langue.Hyper.Chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/t/t/98/lebauer.html McCarthy, C. P. (n. d.) Reading theory as a microcosm of the four skills. Applied Linguistics Series. Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International. Paran, A. (1996). Reading in EFL: facts and fiction. ELT Journal 50 Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (ed.), Attention and Performance IV. New York, NY: AcademicPress. Steinhofer, H. (1996). How to read nonfictional English texts faster and more effectively. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II, No. 6, June 1996 Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Vaezi, S. (2001). Metacognitive reading strategies across language and techniques. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Allameh Tabataba'iUniversity, Tehran, Iran. Van Duzer, C. (1999). Reading and the Adult English Language Learner. Washington, D.C.: Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education