l'UR II' HH> R\' THf. PH; ; H"'f>I(;ATf OF T HF U"'IVFR;IH O F (; A" RRII>'.' F

Th e Pi' , Buildlnjl" Tmmpln~t"n S'r,,,,t, Cam hridge, lJni'<:J K In~dom

LAMRRm,a' l; NIV' ,R'I r , PR ' ,"

The Edinhurgh lIuild in14 C.m bridge CII2 2RU, UK40 We" 20th S,rect, I"ew Yor k, I"Y 10011- 4211, USA477 William" "wn [{".d, I'm, Melbo urne, VIC n07, Au,,,. lia[{ u"' de Alar...>n LJ, 2 ~014 Mad rid , SpaInIl<",k lIo use, The Wa' erfron' , Cape Tnwn ~OOl , S,.u,h M ri..

hn p:/1www,, 'ambridl'e,()rg

C Ca ml;ridl'e Umvc" i,y 1'"", 200.'

This hook i, in ,-opyrighr, Subj"' t to >!3 !Ul<".,., except ionand '0 the provisio n, "f rekvan ' {()I1",'..e Iicemin!: al\'ccme n",no F< prod"",i"n of any par ' may 'ale place w"hout' he wrinen perm,,,,,,n of Camhnd~< Umvc"i,y Pr""

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IS II ~ 0 52 1 B291 4I SB~ 0 .H l ,l n92 2

ISII!\: 0 521 6141H IISIIK 0 521 61402 3ISB!\: O.H I 61404 X

Advanced Gra mmar In t:,e wi,h . n,we"Advan"ed Grammar in t:seAdva'Kcd Gr3mmar in L'.., with Cll RomAdvan,'ed Grammar in t:se Cll [{" mAdvanced Grammar in t:'C CD Rom Inetwo rk ,""mn )

AdvancedGrammar

in Use

SECONDEDITI ON

Martin Hewings

A self-studyreferenceand practicebook foradvancedlearners ofEnglish

with answers

U CAM BR I D G E'iliP U~ IVER SITY PIl ESS

ContentsThanh " ,1" 'he "ude'" ,on,T" 'he ,."",h., IX

T ".~.I Prnm' <o,";n"o". . ...1 p......n' ..mrl< I II2 I'rcwn' m Ill;"""'" and prnonl ..mplr III3 P... " ",pi.: and p....w", ptrl....1

" P." """""",- """ p..., "mpkS Pa.. pnk..1 ...d 1'<''' ..mplr6 ~l pnf"", "Oflltn llO", and ptn<'n l prrlfi1

7 P. .. pt<in1 , onion P' " ","",-1 aDd P'" ,'0<\1;0010'"

8 PTnrn, a nd ~. h IM': _

1k p.,.,., lIill . nd be ..... 1<>

10 I'tncn' ..mpl.. and I'f'C"""IC «_on"",,' f.... 1M fut .

I I Futu.... """"""""" and N._ p.d....' 4"".." )12 Ik In • mfim..""1J 00:"" ,"'an of ,.Ik,,,,,.t.- II>< I.-_I ' n.. future _ 0 f...., . ... p_

..... .I.d> -.I _,--.wi.Ii e-. wuId. I>< <lIhk In a nd b< a/k>..n11Olh \\',ll ..ould anJ UW<! ,..I"' \I.,and _hoc poouhr.hr,

11 '10 and loa. , IllOC l lO

1" S ' l. ..... ~ n«d '0 and ' h,o.< '0211~ -.r:ht 10 an.l " ad hm...

1.PI~"'ll 'vrl>o. ""_'ft. IlWOl. ',"21 Link,"fI ,nt>.: p poa<................".,.. II'" ..".21 fof ...n,. p.a",,'< " ,""'-... t IIli Fonn"'lt J"" "" """nll.'ft ll t: , ....b • ""II ow ....infi ,,"i.'2" u.i"", 1-';''''li R'l"'mn,. wIlh 1"' '''''' ..-b., Ie; id .h••.••16 "'h -<l"""O'" wi'h ..bo h..m hid., aDd who.cP S."." "" q......t1"...; nc"" 'I ....,,""'; 'I , »·lth thal-daon.n

\nt- compkm~~lJh()": ..-1>"1 (u/l"".. ,....1>.18 Verb>, oI>,c.:t> .nd CiOffi!'k..... n!>

1'J V..-h + ' ....0 ohin~•.JO Verb . '; n~ form' and ,nhn",,,,, ( II

31 V..-b. 'In~ for m, ond ",hn1l''''' (21

IF YOU ARE NOT SURE WHICH UNITS YOU NUll TO STU llY, USE THE STUDY GUIllE ON PAGE 240 '"

"

Reporting.\2 Report ing people', wor d, an d 'hought<.n Report iog , talement" tha, -da,,''''.\4 Ve,h + wh-d ano<35 Tense ~ hoi~e '" repon ,ng,16 [{epor'ing o(fe", 'UI\I;eSl'On" orders, ,ntent'o"" ef<,37 I\-!<"bl verb- in 'epon ;nl;3g [{epo,t;ng what people sa}' U>Lng noum and adie .., ive,.1 9 Should ,ntha, ·d au,.., , he p'e",nl m hiunn ive

Noun,40 Agreemenl between ' Uhl"'" . nd ve, h (1 )

41 !\j;ree",enl be,ween ' uhl«-l .nd ve,h (2)42 !\j;ree",enr be,w..,n ' uhj"" , .nd ve,b (3)43 Co mpound no un, . nd nOun ph,..e,

Article•. deferm,,,,,,, ""d qua"t,lie"44 M a n an d one4-' Alan . lhe and 'w, ' rf,d e (1 )

46 AI. n. lhe an d >e m . ,,'d. (2)47 AI. n, lhe a" d >e m " Iid e 0 148 Some and a ny49 No , none (of) and not . nySO MlICb (o fl, ma ny 1of) . 101 0f, 101' lof l, el<..1'1 All {ofI, ..bole, ",.ry, each.1' 2 h ... lin le. I""" fewer

RelJ'i~e d"use, and ,,,her type. of dau,"$.I Itela' ;ve pronou n'.14 O'her ,dal,ve words: .. 10""" when. wherm }" e".5.1' P,ep",i, io", 11l rel."ve dau..,% O,he, way' of . ddinl; ",fo,,,,a,io n to no un ph , (1) : add "i ,m,,1noun pb..,." erc-'7 0,10.. way' of adding ",formalio " to no un pb ra (2): prepo"""" .1 ph.."" , <I•.

.\ 8 Part i"ple dause' wi' h . dver bi.1 ",e.n"'g 0 1.W Parti ..,p~ dau.., ".-'tb ad verbi.1 me.n 'nl; 121

Pro"",."S, ,,,h>ri,u,i,,,, and lea~",g o"t word,60 Rellexi.. prono un" he" elf. hi", ,,,lf, ,he",..I,·"" et~ .

6 1 O ne an d one.62 So a nd no, .. ' ub-mute' lor da u"" , <1:<.(,.1 0<, ' 0 ; ,u< b64 More on leaVIng " ut wo,d, after a uxiliary 'e, b­6.1 l ",..ing ou' "'_in fini'ive<

If VOU ARE NOT SURE WHIOI UNITS YOU NEW TO STUOY, USE THE STU DY GUIDE ON PAGE 240

Adre<l"~' and ad.wb.66 Po, j,M," "f ad,"e" ....67 G"d,hlc,n<! non-l\..d,h l" adl""" '" ( I)

68 G..d.hlc . nd non·l\..d. h l" . J I""" .... (2)69 P,<t;,;'pk 'd."e, i..... ,oo " ""I"",nd aJj""" ...70 Ad,c."{,wn . ,... in~ni'i"•.inK. ,ha ,·du-< h_da"..,71 AJjc."{...... . nd .d.er'"72 Adj...."{'.n.nd ad"", ..., """pa,,,..,,.nd "'pc' I.""., 10,....

7l ComPO"".' ph' a"" and d .."""74 Po.iIlO of ad (I)

75 """ino 01 ad." (1)76 Ad 1 pL.",. d" ""'. ,nd,~nll" I,"!"........,.. and \lID<

n Dqrtt ad.erb- and f ~• •d........7K Com"""" ad........ and .'.... po'n' a.h"m.

,w,.....tn.B d........ •"J "',.......79 Ad• ....n..1do of 11 m<!IO G,vtng ,.,."""" bn:auv. <t<:..; .... and w llh

K1 Pu'JIO>" and ol,,, in oN... '0. "" b ' 0. <t".82 Com.....: ..,hou~.nd ,'-~; ..... ' hoootth!if; wh~.,. ..hil" and ..........,...83 If (l l84 If (2 )

85 If I w... ., you.-; lor w«<, '0wi.116 IL..- and " if and w .....hn-; <to.:.87 ConMetmtt ode a """,~.., and ho<tw ..... wnI<n<:n

-gg PT<po... of 1"""'_ and " .... " ...~ Iktw and . ''''''''It

"0 P"'POO" """ of lim<91 Talk"'lt . houc n....pn"'..92 ",""powl""" .her • .,m.93~ .."",• • lIer no"....~ T...... and rh....,.""",d ..erb-: word and."

~1I!l' '"fomul"'"'is 110«<'~ ,....... Wb. ne.~ 11 •.• 11)'17 I•••• (2 )

'HI FOOl" "!\' i, -d a..,," and ..ha, ...I. ..,,"9"1 In ...,., (II

100 1" 0" II I

Gram ' .....'cw 201Glo. " 11 9

If YO'J ARE NOT SURE WlliCH UNITS YOU NEEO TO STlJOY. USlTHE STUDY GUIDE ON PAGE 240 •

i\ rP'" ,••h~ 1i\Pf'tnoJl ~ 2i\Pf'tnoJ; ~ }i\Pf'<1'dI~ <4

I'n . i rb form. 2241\.0, .. 01"" '" forms 225tJ~otl'" ,.h~, pc<>pl.'h"'k or wlu""", h~,.""d 1161..<'lI:~I~r ..... 1>s 21 1

.i

"'~dy Gu.... 2<40K~ 10 E..",ion H lK'1' k> Addi ,i< ...al ••«<no:s 2711

""'" II> Sludy Il~io.k 28 1

J r><k~ 282

If YOU ARE NOT SUAE WHICH UNITS YOU NEED 10 STUOY USE T STUOY GUll)( ON PAGE 2<40

Thanks

I l\I"tn ..·........k,.hk ""I' by .....ny I""'rk In wril1ntt.I>< li,,, Nit"," al Ad"""c~d G,,,"' .... .", V and ,hn t mt1....~. ,"",II <,(,11 he-......., ,n ,h" II<'W nl"...... In "" 1.. •• 1 ",'ou1<1 I,k. to,Iwlk J•.annt \.I.cu rt", . 1C.m~ l: ' " . Pr.... and m,- ~oIlt.l': and otu<k<lr- ,n 1Mf~"" for Irwtrn.a""lal ",...1,.", Un" <Of l"nwn-o,.,- oI llorm'''ld>a .

for ,hn _ Nil ...... I h••• hnon """,,11y lucky on , uppon I h••• r""n~ from . "U"' ..... oj

kncw.lnjgnt>lo. proln.1olOlUl. and ~ pt<>plt•.'h rpe' h.ad Itu,drd "'. prot<Ct '0.nnpWflllll w"h , .....u ..........rattrmnlt d VUI d,pkwTw.-,. Ako., c..m!>nd(tt t:",~ ,.rr....... I ..ould Llt.o rNnk Knry .\b~ ...n1, X.n' '>no<1 Taylor, Je'an Uud.on . and ....T (>rain of I'tftnno.-.. nu.mal .., .ad by ~, Olatkn, Fu E. ." :.lIon,.c..rmoru C.....,.., ~'ll..... Can... Parad, k" lu rd I.n Thnr ."Om"''''''' .iau.lu..ohk ,n http'....... loITYN.nddarif"h.. panotrlwbook.'l'hanJ<••I> '"I~.n Man ,n. R..... P""...~II 100 L.... S",,,h for .... I• •••".,,"'" and '0 " .......

On.1lJI for.h.nr "~,or. nn 'M fin,.h,N prod ....... I ,,·oul..l aho kk, 10 rlunl< Camb,idjlt l:n; .""",.,".... f...I""'·mll .... au: .... lo ,tot c...mbrid~. r.......... _ al Corru..

A o ~r n.l ••a.; " .he> u~ Ih. ~"• •.111''''' n. m. ,u~"o'" on bow '.ough, Imp.",,"', and.~ tu .. hftn ..ry u..iul ;o P'<f"""lt . hi, ~~"ion- Th onk youfor ...,ng ,II. I>clOk .n.J ,.k,ng Ih. lroubk 10 ...."'. '0 m•.

vii

WIl" II>< hoo k i~ for

The b"ok i, io,<oJed fOT aJvao,~ "uJ nl" of Eo~h,h , h i, wrifleo mdlnll' os a .d f-"",ly b<~)k,

but mighl al,o be u>eJ io d a" with a teach...

How the book i, orgaoised

Ther e are 100 uoit, io the l><w,k . Each ooe I,w>ks at a pa" icul...... 01 ~ramm... S""", ""tiooswithin each uoit fucu, 00 the particul" u>e ol a gcammarical pa" "'o, 'u,h os wi/I he + .ing (.,in w,/lbe tr,,,,rlling ). Othe" explore gcammarical cootra, t" , u, h as whet ....r 10 u'" would orused to to repo" past e.en", or wheo we u'" ex cept or e",ep t {or. The 100 uoit> are gro upeduoJ.,. a numbe r o f h. adlng., .uch as Tm u. and The future, You can lioJ J eta il> 01 this in t....COOleO" pag.e;"

Each u" it o;<"" i" , of two pag... 0 0 t.... left haoJ pa~e a re cxplaoa""ns doJ example" 00 ,heright ar. practic'e rei..... The lene.. next to each e..rci", ,huw you which >e<.1 'oo, " f the lefthand pa ~. l'OU n J TO understand to do that exerei,. . The Grammar Rev,ew pre,.ots exampl..anJ ..planalion, on areas of gramma r rhat you are likely to have "uJied alreadl' at earlier"a~•• o f I.arning Engli' h, Altho,,!;h rerm. t<> de""ibe grammar have 1>«0 kept to a minimum"'m' h..e be.n ind oded, and y"U can lind expla"a, ion, of , ....... term, in the GI"'>ary. fou,Appemlie., tell you al>o ", pa", i....rb form, . b.,ie' '1u",ion form., '1u"",ion, and irregularverb•. A oumber of AJditioo. 1Exereise••re i",-'Iuded f", fu" her pTaCliee of paTtieular atea,. Youcao uS<' rlx- Study (;u ide f<> help you J " ide which uoit>10"udy .od which .re.. of grammar to

revise io , .... Gcammar R..-iew. You cao ch"k your a",we" '0 , .... prderi" e" re' ..... Add"io ",,1Exetc i",. and Study Go,J e in the l(ey. The l(ey ai,,, o;<>mmeots 00 ,,,,,,,, of , .... ao,wel"';. 1" ....Ipyou lind the infor mati"" l'OUneed there i, an InJ ex at , he back "f the b,~>k,

How to use the book

It "nOl n"e'-ary ,,, work thro ugh ,he uoi" in order. If you know what ~rammar I""nl> youhave difficulty with, go ' tra'gh" o ,he unit>,hd' deal with Ihem, U'In~ ,he ('.oorent> <>T Index 10help you lind the reieva", unit. If yo u th iok that it wou ld be u,efu l,o rev,,~ more basi.info,mat io" bef".. you read ,h. ref...nce material in a unit anJ J o th~ exere'i,.., man~' unitshHe links ar rhe I>onom o f the ,eferro",e page poiOling you ", Ihe ,ec,ion " f rhe Gramma rR<1iiew where l'OU can lind Ihi,. In ,,,me units you will al", lind links I" the Gramma r Rniewin the expl.na,i"n,; for eumple ' I"" GR :TIl r.

y"u edn u>< ,he uoi" 10 a number of W'y' , You migitl >rudy rite explanation aold . xamples Ii",.d" ,he e" ete"'" <>n ,he opl""i re p.~e, check yo ur ao,we" ,n ,he key, .nd Ihen I (~ )k .gain at rhe.-planation, if you made .ny mi. ,ak",. [I you IU" w.nr f<> pracri", dn drea 01 grammar youthink yo u alreaJy know, yo u could do the exerei",. li" , .nd ,hen "udy the e"plaod" on, lorany you got wrong, You mighl of " )Ill'" ,i mpll' use the I>ook as. reference b<~)k w"hout J oingrhe exetci.., .

Vtll

To the teacherAJ,'~ naJ G,,,m,,,,,, m Uu ..... "'flUrn." ~1f·.(uJy gramma' b"o k bu. ,.ach...., mijl,hl .lso§nd """"lul l,,, .upplcmcn""II 'ot '''1'1'''"'''1\ ,fltLr d ."mom lu.:hing.

T~ t..~,k w,lI proNhly II< m..... ......h.1 1m •.1'0",10<1 10,,1 « ".len" In. rtfn.n"" and pro"-.",,,.~ Gra mma' Rn lCW "". ...1. , n., b. d , "I ,,,," l><...k ... ....!e ren q-.on ly <ttIi"" which p''''''''ISboo.." kno wkJl';< on' nurn"', of .n.," f lI.ammar. Thi. w,lI he "",lui foo- ...U<lcn.. wno wi.h '0.""'... a p.rtKuLa • •~. boot,,« mov,,,,,,,," to 1M mon .J••ncN mo,...,.I," ,he umn.S o .tt<mp( h• • """" m.<k to n.ok< ,Il< un," ."c...d,n~ to " .. tl of J,fh.ully. I" ..... J rou should..Ira uni.... ,..." • ..., ",It..", 10 ,hr .,lld.... , hal you .r. foll......i"ll ",j<1> ,our "'OOent" 0' "panicul•• diffiwltin ..i,...

llnt- .... mo."y way. in whl<h y"" m'llhl ..... tho hook .."h . d;..... You might, 10. cumplt.~ llor UpbnollOl'1' on tho Ion h.and p_ 01. unll, and the u."'i.... for d .."",,,,,mpr~ or .ct .hom .. .......,.,.1.".... m......1for ...-11 '''00,. Ah n.U1~ly. you mogl" W3n' fO

hc&an w,.h,~ ......,.... 3nd rd....fO'~ Jef. h.anol P"1litonly w .....J..n.. art' ha~,nr; probkm...You <:oukl also .... p.>nk.",lar un•• or IVOUpo of un'" (, ,,,,h u ,,,,- on "met... or"fbr {tI, ......for ...If... udy if onoli...J....I ..uolm'. art' h.aw"'!t olli~"'lIion..

n.r... .. a ... ci ....deL,.......J h ....,~............ of whor;h can boe .,....J 10 p..md., p...ai<.... of

lVatnm..:lt poont< frum a numhtr <Ii ol.ttcnn< ""....

'" ·d~ ...l,,,,,,,. 0/ Ad""""N G,..-". '" V... .. al ... awalla...... I. hn no kty and ........l.....n.n~ I'kk< '0 ""'" If wlIb ,~" .....1m...

Advaoced E"9Ii~ Grammar in U!>(' Srtond Edition1/ you h.an al",aoly """,.I ,~ fiN ...l,n" n ci Ad.",,,,,,,, G,..", " .. V you..-in ott..,..,.

....10< d'la~ In ,h.. """ ...lm"". Thor """'" N.oc ...u 0/ lVa r ha Mn ....,....l oul01,,,, ... ,n 10'0 a ...,ir........, ,"",,"'" .. ,boe ~k, caill ol,~ Gramma, R..v "'I 01 thortfco<noor J'IliIn h.a~ br..n .1, _ ,ub.ran"ally. anol so """ """. h.a"" bttnaoIJN. ..t"" of II.. ..~' po.j\n h.a~ ...."'<'Iy """ .....rei Of many """ q~oon..

Thor hook is "","' a.a'Lobl< .."b or wir....... ' CD-RO M. On , '" CO· RO..t you " ';0 find'""'" ..-...,..... on d of ,'" unol. lol,1tnC'nr iron> ,,,,- ,n I'" hook ). -0......, a..., aka hundf'C'<h,oI'nI '1......ion .. and ,.... un ma.... y<>Uf .....n ,nil. Thor CO-RO M can aka bt b<>ut;hr><p.>rardy.

I

AdvancedGrammar

in Use

Grammar

208

review

Here is a summary of common patterns together with exam ples of verbs that are usedin thi s pattern. Note that many verbs can be used in severa l different patterns, and thatsome of the verbs given can be used just with an object, and may also be usedint ransitively (e.g. He failed to sto p, He failed the test, He failed).

F4 o They won't agree to pay for the damage.

Verb + to-infinitive agree. aim. ask, decline, dema nd, fail, hesitate, hope , hurry,mana ge, offer, plan , prepa re, refuse, want, wish

F5 o Stevens admitted stealing the wallet.

Verb + -ing admit, avoid, cons ider, delay, deny, detest, dread, envisage,feel like. fi nish, imagine, miss, recall, resent , risk, suggest

F. 0 Before we began eating/to eat my father thankedeveryone fo r coming.

Verb + to-infinitive or -ing begin, cease, continue, startwith little d ifference inmeaning

F7 0 She came hurrying up the path to bring us the news.F8 0 How did you come to buy the car?

Verb + ro-infinirivc or -ing but come, go on, mean. regret, remember, stop, trywith a difference in meaning

F. o My parents wou ldn't allow me to go to the part y.

Verb + object + to-infinitive a llo w, believe, cau se, command, consider, enable, encourage,(= there must be an o bject) ent itle, force, invite, order, persuade, show, teach, tell, warn

FlO 0 I woul d hate (her) to give the job up.

Verb + (object) + to-infinitive hate, help , like. love, need, prefer, want, wish,(= there may be an object )

F11 o The police caught him driving without a licence.

Verb + object + -ing catch, discover, feel, find, hear, leave, notice, ob serve,(= there must be an ob ject ) overhea r, see, spot

F12 0 I can't stand (him ) wearing a suit.

Verb + (object ) + -ing can't stand, detest, d islike, dread. envisage, hate , imagine,(= there may be an ob ject) like, love. mind (in quest ions and negatives), miss, reca ll,

regret, remem ber, resent, risk, start , stop

F1 3 0 She felt the mosquito bite/biting her.

Verb + object + bare feel, hear, notic e, ob serve. overhear, see, watchinfinitive or -ing, but thereis sometimes a d ifference. .In meaning

act iveIn an act ive clause or act ive sentence, the grammatical subject is the person or thi ng that performs theaction given in the verb (e.g. Geoff wrote the book ). Compa re PASSIVE.

adject iveA wo rd that describes a noun te.g. an interesting book) o r a pro no un (e.g. a red on e). Gradableadjectives ca n be used to say that a person or th ing has more or less of this quality Ie.g. She's veryhappy ), wh ile non-gradable ad jectives can't (e.g. It's impossible, We can't say ' It's very impossible' ).Classifying adjectives say that something is of a pa rticular type (e.g. atomic. initial) . Emphasisi ngadjectives stress how strongly we feel about something (e.g. complete nonsense}. Q ualita tive ad jectivessay what qualities a person or thing has (e.g. big, rich ). See also grad ing ADVERR'j and no n-gradingADVERflS.

adjective phraseA group of words where the main word is an adjective (e.g. it's extremely important; it wasn't strongenough ).

adverbA word that describes or gives more information (when, how, where. erc. l abo ut a verb (e.g. He ranquickly ), adjective Ie.g. a n extremely expensive ca rl. another adve rb (e.g. She did it llery easily). orphrase (e.g. They live ;ust across the road. ). Types of adverb include : adve rbs o f manner (e.g. slowly,violently) which we use to say how something is do ne; con nect ing adverbs Ie.g. consequently, simildrly );time adverb s (e.g. tomorrow, ,llrtady); place adverbs (e.g. upstairs, olltside); direct ion adverbs (e.g.backwards , tl1fough); comment adve rbs (e.g. apparently, personally ) which we use to ma ke a commenton what we are saying; viewpoint ad verbs (e.g. financially, politically ) which we use to make clea r fro mwhat point of view we a re speaking; adverbs of ind efinite freq uency (e.g. always, nel'l'r); degree adverbs(e.g. completely, quite ) wh ich give info rmat ion about the extent or deg ree o f somet hing; focus adverbs(e.g. ;ust, el'en) which we use to focu s o n a pa rt icula r word o r ph rase. Grading adverbs (e.g. ex tremely,l'ery) are used with gradable ADJf.C11Vf.S. Non-grading adve rbs (e.g. completely, mainly ) a re used withnon-gradablc ADJECTIVf.S.

adverbia lA word or gro up of words that says whe n, how, where, etc. something happens. They ma y consist of anADVERB Ie.g. quietly), a I' RU ·OSITlO NAI. PHRASE (e.g. through the door), a NOUN PIIRAS E (e.g. next week ),or an AOVf.RIIlAI. Cl.AlN:. (e.g. after Silt! left ).

adverbia l clau seA type of subordina te Cl.AUSf. that says when. how, where, etc. so mething happens (e.g. Before I went toschool this morning, I did my hom ework ).

affirmative sente nceA statement (i.e. no t a quest ion) that is positive. not negative.

agentThe person or thing that performs the action described in a verb. Usually it is the subject in an activeclause and co mes after ·hy...' in a passive clau se.

arti cleThe word the is the definite article and the word a (an before vuwels ] is the indefinite arti cle. Whenthere is no article before a noun we refer to this as the zero article.

auxiliary verbsThe verbs be, have and do when the)' are used with a main verb to form questions. negatives, tenses,passive forms, etc. MODAl. VF.RB\ are also auxiliary verbs.

219

Glossary

clau seA gro up of words that conta ins a verb. A clause may be a complete sentence or a part o f a sentence. Amain clause can exist as a sepa rate sentence, while a subordina te clause cannot (e.g. If I see Ton)' atwork [= subord inate clause], I' ll invite him over this evening 1=main clau se/). Types o f clause include:since-clause (e.g. I haven't seen him since we left schoo l); th at-clau se (e.g. She said that she wasthirsty ); wh-claus e (e.g. I asked Sand ra where she was going). it-clau se (e.g. It 's not surprising tha tyou ' re feeling co ld); what-clause (e.g. What I want to do is buy a bett er co mputer); if-clau se (e.g. Ifyou leave now , you'll be home by 10.00); whether-clause (e.g. You have to take the exam whether youwant to or not ); to-infinitive clau se (e.g. To become a doctor takes years of study ); present parti cipleH ng) clau se (e.g. Feeling hungry, I went into the kitch en ); past pa rticiple f-ed ] clau se (e.g. Built duringthe 1950s, the buildin g is now in need of repair ); being + past participle (-cd ) clause (e.g. Beingunemployed, Tom had a lot of t ime on his hands); having + past parti ciple (-ed) clau se (e.g. Havingseen the doctor, I went stra ight ho me). See also COND1110 NAL CLAUSE, NO :-.l-FINITE CLAUSE, RELATIVE

CLAUSE,

cleft sentenceA sentence in which focus is given to either the subject or ob ject using a pattern beginn ing ' It ...' [e.g. Itwas my bro ther who lent me the money) or 'What.. .' (e.g. Wh at you need is a ho liday).

compleme ntA word or phrase th at fo llows a LISKING VERB and describes the SUBJECT (e.g. Linda is a lawyer) orOBJECT (e .g . I found the food inedible ). A complement may also be an ADVERBIAL or PREPOSm ONAL

PHRASE wh ich com pletes the mea ning of a verb. Some verbs need a com plement (e.g. T he diseaseo riginated in Britain; 'T he disease originated ' would be inco mplete).

compoundA co mpo und noun consi sts of two o r more words toge ther used as a noun (e.g. a language schoo l). Acompound ad jective consists o f two o r more words together used as an adjective (e.g. Th ey were we/l­behaveds,

co ndit iona lA co ndit ional clau se usua lly starts with ' if', but other patterns are possible (e.g. Had it not rained,England wo uld have won ). A co nditional sentence contains a co nd itional clause. A d istinct ion can bemade between real co ndit ionals, which suggest that th e situation is or was t rue, or may have been orma y beco me tr ue (e.g. If she ma kes a promise, she keeps it ) and unr eal co nditiona ls, which suggesttha t the situation is imaginary or unt rue (e.g. If yo u had asked me, I wo uld ha ve helped ).

conj unctionA wo rd such as and , but, if, while, after, because wh ich con nects words, phr ases, o r clauses in asentence. Co mpare SENTENCE CONNECTOR.

counta bleA countable noun can be both singular an d plural (e.g . cuplcltps). An uncountable nou n doesn't havea plural form (e.g. electricity, but not 'electr icities' ).

decla rativ e sentenceA declarati ve sentence is a sta tement. In a decla rati ve sentence the subject is followed by the verb.

det erminerA word that goes in front of a no un to ident ify what the noun refers to (e.g. this, some, the, a/an,each, all, my ). Possessive determine rs (also called possessive adjectives) are words such as my, yourand their.

direct speechSpeech that is writt en using the exact word s of the speaker, without an y change s. Compare REPORTE D

SPF.E.CII.

220

Glossa ry

dynamic verbA verb that describes an act ion (e.g . walk, throw ). Compare STATE VERB.

imperativeAn impera tive clau se uses the bare 1~ F1NmVE form o f a verb for such things as giving o rde rs andmaking suggest ions (e.g. Go 10 bedt s.

infin itiveThe form o f a verb that usually goes after 'ro ' , The form can be eithe r the to- infinitive (e.g. to sing, toeat ) or the bare infinitive Ie.g. sing, eat ).

intransitive verbA verb that doesn 't take an obj ect (e.g. She smiled ). Compare TRAl"SmVE \'E RB.

invers ionChanging the usual wo rd o rder \0 that the verb comes before the subject (e.g. Up wenl the balloon).

linking verbA verb (e.g. be, become. appear) that con nects a SUBJECT with its CO,\ IPl. I::MU.'T.

moda l verbsA grou p of verbs (can. could, dare, may, might. must, need, ought to. shall, should , will, would. uSt'dto ) that give info rmation abo ut such things as poss ibility, necessity, an d obligation. Semi-modal verb s(ought to, used to, need, dare. had better. bare (got ) to, be able to ) have similar mea nings to moda lverbs.

non- affirm ativeReferring to a lack of pos itive, affirmat ive mea ning; for example, in most q uestions and negatives.However, quest ions which expect a pos itive reply are affirmative. Th e terms 'no n-asse rtive ' and'asse rtive ' are sometimes used for ' no n-af firma tive ' and 'a ffirma tive ' .

non-finite clau seA clause with a non -finite VERB; either a to- infinitive form (e.g . I wa nt to leave soon ), an -ing (presentparticiple) form (e.g. I caught him stealing my camera), or -ed (past part iciple) form (e.g. We cleared upthe mess feft after the IJarty ).

nounA word that refers to a person, place, thing, qua lity, etc. A collective nou n refers to a gro up of peopleor things (c.g. aud ience, crowd, herd). See also COUNTABI.E NOUN.

noun phraseA group of words where the main wo rd is a noun (e.g. I've been talking to the woman across the road;We spoke to several small children ).

objectThe direct object is the pers on o r th ing affec ted by the act ion of the verb (e.g. I put the 1w ok[= direct ob ject ) back on [he shelf) . T he indirect object is the person or th ing who benefits fro m theaction or who receives something (e.g. I gave my mother [= ind irect ob ject ] some flowers[= direct ob jecrj}. Compare SUBJECT.

participleThe present part iciple is the -ing fo rm of a verb te.g. walking, singing, eating) used. for exam ple. incontinuous tenses. Th e past partic ip le is the -ed form of a verb (e.g. walked, SJng, eatm ) used. forexample. in perfect tenses. A participle ad jecti ve is one formed fro m the present or past participle of averb (e.g. the candidates dpplying, a brok en plate). A participle clause has a present participle o r pastpa rticiple verb form (e.g. Feeling unu'ell, he went to bed; The person appointed to the post wi ll have adifficul t job to do).

22 1

Glossa ry

parti cleAn adverb or preposit ion tha t follows a verb in TWO -WORD VERBS and T IIR EE-WO RD VERBS {e.g. Whatt ime d id yo u get in? [in =adverb]; I flicked through the magazine [through =preposit ion]; She looksup to her mother (up =adverb, to =preposirionj].

passiveIn a pass ive clause or passive sentence, the grammatica l subjecr is the perso n or thing tha t experiencesthe effect of the action given in the verb (e.g. The book was written by Geoff). Compare AcnVE.

performativeA performative is a verb whic h states the action that is performed when a speaker uses the verb (e.g. Ipromise I' ll do it tomorro w; I apologise).

phrasal verbA verb together with a following ad verb and/or a preposition that has a single mean ing (e.g. set off.look up to ). Compare ' I ran across Tanya at the concert' (= met unexpectedly; a phrasal verb) and 'Sheran across the road' (= a PREPOSITIONAL VERB).

possessiveThe possessive form of a noun ends in either -'s Ie.g. Mark 's car ) or -s' (e.g. the girls' changing roo m).

prepositionA wo rd such as in, on, or lJy that comes before a noun, pronoun, noun phrase or -ing form (e.g. inMarch, above my uncle's head, by invest ing).

prepositional phraseA group of words that consists of a PREPOSITIO N and its prepositional object (a nou n, pronoun, nounphrase o r -ing form) (e.g. behind our house, across it ).

preposit ional verbA verb and a following preposition (e.g. believe in, consist of, look after). Compare PII RASAL VERB.

pronounA word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. Prono uns include personal pronouns (e.g. I ,she, me ), reflexive pronouns (e.g. myself, herself), possessive pronouns (e.g. my, mine, your , yOllrs),and REI.ATIVE PRONOUNS (e.g. who, which).

quantifierA word or phrase that goes befo re a noun or noun phrase to ta lk abo ut the qua ntity of something[e.g. a little water, many of the women in the room ).

questionA wh-qu esrion begins with a WH -WORD (c.g. Where are you going?). A yes/ no questio n is one that canbe answered with 'yes' or 'no' (e.g. Do )'ou like coffee?). An echo question repeats part of a previousutterance and asks for a repet ition of all or part of it (e.g. ' I'm moving to Alaska .' ' You 're movingwhere?' ). We can ask an indirect quest ion by putting it into a subordinate CLAUSE beginning with aWH-WORD o r with if or whether (e.g. Can yo u tell me where you live?).

relat ive clauseA kind of subordinate C1.AUSF. that describes a no un tha t comes before it in a main CLAUSE. A definingrelative clause says which person o r th ing is being talked a bout (e.g. A friend who lilies in London isgetting mar ried ). A non-defi ning relative clause gives more information abo ut the noun (e.g. Mybicycle, which I've left outside your house, is over 20 years old). A nominal relative clause begins witha WH -WORD or whatever, when ever, etc. and functions as a NOUN PHRASE in a sentence (e.g. What 1need now is a long, hot bath). A reduced relative clause usually begins with an -ing (present parti ciple)or -ed (past participle) form and has a similar meani ng to a relative clause (e.g. I mer the peop le livingin our old house 1= ...who live in our old hou se], The new rules on ly affect peopl e born before 1950[= ...who were born before 1950]).

222

Glossary

relative pronounA pronoun such as who, wh ich, or that which is used at the beginning of a relative clau se.

relat ive wordWords including RELATIVE PRO NO UNS and ot hers (e.g. whereby, why ) that can begin a RELAllVE CLAU,SL

reported speechSpeech tha t is reported without using the exact wo rds of the speaker. Sometimes called ' ind irect speech'.

reporting clause Et repo rted clauseA statement that reports wha t people think or say is oft en divided into a reporting clause and areported clause (e.g. She said 1= report ing clause] that the building was unsafe [= reported clause j).

report ing verbA verb used in a REPORTING ctAUSE that describes what people say or think (e.g. ask, claim, say).

sentence connectorA word or phrase that shows a connection between two separate sentences (e.g. My car isn't verycomforta ble. Hoioeoer, it 's very cheap to run.: T he house is large and has a beaut iful garden. What 'smore, it's very close to the srano n.). Compare CONJUNCTION.

simple sentenceA sentence consisting of one clause.

state verbA verb that is used to describe a state (e.g. believe, think ) ra ther than an action. Compare DYNAMIC

VERB.

subjectThe persoll or th ing that docs the action of the verb [e.g. Tommy went home). Compa re O BJECr.

subjunctiveThe subjunctive is a set o f verb forms used ma inly in ra ther formal English to talk about possibilit iesrather than facts. The present subjunct ive uses the base form of the verb (e.g. We suggest that she leaveimmediately) and the past subjunctive uses were (e.g. If I were you, I'd go home now).

tran sitive verbA verb that takes an object (e.g. She was holding a bunch of flowers). Compare !!"'frnANSm VF. VERB.

two-word verbs Et three-word verbsVerbs tha t are commonly used with a particular PARTICLE (adverb or preposition) are referred to here astwo-word verbs (e.g. She look ed afte r her elderly parents). Verbs that are commonl y used with twopart icular part icles (adver b + preposition) are referred to here as three-word verbs Ie.g. He luuked up tohis older brothers). See also I'REPOSITIONAI. VERB and PHRASAL VERB.

verbA finite verb has a tense (e.g. She waited; She is waiting for yo u'. Non-finite verb form s arc INFlNmVE

(e.g. He came to see me) and PA RTIClPI.E forms (e.g. Shout ing loudly, I was able to make myself hea rd;Built in 1980, the tower is still the tal lest construct ion in Europe).

verb phraseA group of word s consisting of une or more verbs (e.g. gives, is giving, has been giving ).

wh-wo rdsA group of words (who, wh om , wh ose, where, when, why, how ) that a re used in Wh-QUESTIO NS.

223

282

IndexAalan, the, and zero article~(ncrahsati tlns about da~..n of

Ih inl':s 90geographical areas 90holidays, seasons, da ys o f the

.....eek, and f~tiV3 ls 94iohs/joh litb 91mean s o f tr ansport and

com mcnicauon 94n,l m("l of people 92nouns both cou ntable and

ullI;ounlabl(' 90

~alnJIrd;ucd words joinnl bypreposition 94

spn:ific I 'ffSU S gene ral 94with supe rlative aJ ja."'ti,"("l 92wilh there + M 190t hin~ that are ueiqce 90this, in srones and ink" 92ti~ of day and nil4h1 94

alan and o neahhrrvial ion s 88in numhc-r/q u3mil y C'xpr~Si(HlS

8Hone •••olhcr/ano lhcr pattern 8Spankular. hUI unspecified

pc-l'w nl,hinw'evC'OI 88with p""''oC'!Osivcs 811before singuJ.u countable nouns

8Hbefore .....wchlcon«lm3nrS 88

abb reviations 11 11ahilify

he able 10 30can/co uld 30,34,204.105

academic wrilinltfew and lill ie 104may 34much (of). many (uf) 100preJlt" ilional phrases 114such th.n, ltl introd uce ,I result

' 62act ive (1'1"$11$ pa ssive ) fo rms 44,

46,48, 2 19, 224aJ Ji n!\ information

conjuncrion v 174noun phr;lSl:s 112,1 14prepositional phrase'> 114senrence con necrors 174

ad jectivesand adverbs, usc o f 142. 2 16J ctlnilio n of 2 19easily confused 2 16gradahle and non-grada ble 134

borh senses 136d ass il),ing ad Jn :t is'n 136diffe ren t senses 136good andllovdy and/nice and ...+ grada ble ad jective 136gra mm3r review 2 16more an d mo re + ad jectiv e 136nat ionality adin;tiv~ 136q u.!lira tive adjectives 136

p.:I ttt' ms 3fter linki ng verbs

ad jective + -ingl lhat1:lausdlo-inflnilivdwh1:la usc 140

il + linking verb + ad iect ive (+ to­infinitive) 140

il + make + adjcaive (+ to­inflnirivd -ingl thaH lause) 140

position o faddinonal exercise 238hefu relafter nou n 132class ifying ad jecnves 132emphasis ing adjectives 132grammar review 2 16with linking verbs 132qualiearive ad jectives 132red uced relative cla uses 132

stu dy guide 248-49types of 2 t 9~ also compa rative fo rms;

compound ad jecrives, pan idpkadjectives; supe rlative forms

adve rbial clausesaddit ion.al exe rcise 138con trast s 164defininon o f 2 19st udy guide 250lenses in 21 7o f time 158

adverbial phra ses, as complemen t22.

adverbialsadverb as 2 19adverbial clause as 2 19dt'finit inn tlf 2 19inve rsion afte r negative 200no un phrase as 2 19participle clauses 116, 118prepositional phrase as 2 19

adverbsa nd adjectives, use of 2 16defini tion of 219formation of 142participle adjecti ves in -ed,

adverbia l fo rm of 142panicles 222ph rasal verbs 222position of

add itiona l ex ercise 238after objec t 148com ment adv erbs 150. 156connect ing adverbs 150degree adve rbs 150, 154focus adverbs 154frequency adverbs 148. I SO, 152long ad verh ials 1411and meaning 148more than o ne ad,'crhial 148o rder of events 150place and direction adverbs 150.152time adverbs 150 ,1 52viewpoint adverbs 150

preposinooal phu,ses. ad verh ialusc o f 142

stud )' guide 248-49ty pes o f 2 19

with and with out -ly 142see ,,1$0 com parative forms;

supe rlative formsad vice 40, 78a f!irmalive semences 2 19. 22 1agem 2 1'JYr oJl$o passive forms

agreernenr, suhject and verbd.1usc. as sub jC\.1: 80co-ordinated nuun v phrases. as

subject 112collectivenoun s 80complex subject 80tktermi llCTS 82howlha cb"'heft + belhave 82items joined by (either) ••. or or

(neithal .•• no r 82mc:.asurcmcnl1am< lU nl/ ttu:.a nril)',

wit h s i n~uJa r verb 84nameVlitks ending in ~ 110no uns end ing in ·s 84suhj«t, posiliun of 80IhCTe + bclhave 82whar -clauce, ;u suhiC\.'t 80

:.a ll (00 . whole, every, eachtime ex pressions 102" 'ho lcJrn lirt , hefort nouns 102

amt lllMan d between 1711amounts 104:.a ny su som e and :.anyapost rnphl". fnr p<lSsessivcs 2 10a n icks

additional exercise 235-36dl·finili" n Ilf 2 19grammar review 2 11stu dy guide 245-46see also al an, the, and aero arti cle

a uxiliary verbs 2 19in inversion l 'JlIl ea \' in~ words ou t afte r 128

he as ma in verb ill previouscla use/sente nce 1211have as ;l\l xiliary + done 1211moda l au xilia ry + dulbc 128more tha n one au xiliar y 128no a uxiliar y 1211substit ute do 1211

negative quest io11s 54, 207sun..tilute sO and nor 124see oJlso mod;, l verbs

Bhare in!initive 22 1b..-inM+ pasl parti ciple cla use 220bet ween and among 178

Cca n~ ah ihty ; perrmssion;

possi"i lilycha nge, prO(~s o f 42'choos ing' verbs. 611dnsifying adjectives 132. 134,

136, 21,}dausn

definilion o f 220

srudy guide 247types o f 220

cleft sentences 196, 220cl ima te 90collective nouns 1\0, 22 [colon 174, 226colour ad jectives 122comma 226comment adverbs 150, 156 , 219comparative fm ms 2 17

ad jectives with corn parn nve/super lat ive meaning 144

comparative adjec tives, linkingwith ao.\ 136

mo re + o ne-syllable adject ive 144more/less + rwo-syllahle ad jectives

144on e-syllable ad jectives and

adverbs + -er 144phrases and cla uses

as + adjective + alan + nou n146as + adjective/adverb as 146go so/as far as + to-infinitive146Il:SS + adjective + tha n 146as liul d few as 146as much/many as 146nnr + ad jccrivc/ ad vcrb + eno ugh+ to -infinitive 146so + adjective/adverb + as + to­intinirive 146so + ad jl"(.1:ivel advl.'rb + that­clause 146sufficiently + adject ive 146too + ad jective + alan + no uo146100 + ad jective/ adverb + to­intinirivc 146

seealso few, little, less, and fewercom plaining 12complcmcur

aJ verbial phrases as 220definition of 220and linki ng verbs 42, 220, 221and object 220prep<Jsit iona l phrase as 220and subjec t 220transitive/intransitive verbs 56see <115" verb complementa tion

compound adjectives 138, 220compo und nouns

counta ble compo und nou ns 1\6definition of 220gra mmar review 210hyphenated phrases, be fore noun s

86nn un + nou o 1\6no un + preposition + noun 1\6one wo rd, separa te wo rds,

hyphenated 210plural forms !i6posses sive forms !i6two- and three-word verbs, nouns

related to 86conclusi ons, dr awing

grammar review 205-6must 36, 74

prloscnt perfect continuous/preMontperfect 12

will/would 32condi nonal clauses

definition of 220real and un real cond itio ns

2 17- 1S,220real conditionals, tenses in 20,

166, 16S, 172 , 21 8unreal condi t ionals, tenses in 166,

170, 172, 21 8cond itiona l sen tences 220

conjunctions 174sentence connecto rs 174

conjunctionsadditional exe rcise 23 8-9conditions 174ddini tion o f 22 0no un phrases, adding info rmat ion

to I 12reasons and resu lts 174study guide 250timc 174,2 17

connecting adverbs 150, 2 19conrrasriug

althou gh, though, while andwhils t, with particip le clauses164

although and thou gh 164conju nctio ns 174even tho ugh and even if 164senre ncc connec tors 174in spill' o f the fael tha t 164while/ whereas 164while/ whilsl 164

could sec a bility; perm ission;possibility; rqlurting; unrea l past

'ountabldun'ounta ble nounsdefiniti on of 220generalisat ions about classes of

things 90grammar review 209with therc + be 190sec also alan, the, and zero a rticle;

alan ana n ne; agreement, subjecta nd verb; all (of), whole, every,each; few, linle , less, and fewer;much (o f), many (o f), a 101 of,lots (o f); one and o nes; SOOleand any

cruic ising 12might/ could + have + paSI

parlkiple 34negative ques tions 54, 207wilVwo uld , usc o f 32

udash (-) 174days o f the w ee k 94dec larative sen tences 220defining rela tive clauses 222

see <llso relat ive clausesdetinue article 2 19

set'also a/au, the, a nd zero articledegree adver bs 2 I 9

much, very much 154wi th owing 10 160posi lio n of 150, 154

very, 100 154determiners 220

grammar review 2 11-12study guide 24 5-46

direct obj ect SR,22 1see also compleme nt; oh jC(t;

rra nsinv e/in rra nsinv c verbs; verbcomplemenrarion

dire ct speech 220direction ad verbs 150, 152, 19R,

2 19d isapp roval 168'dislikingt verbs 60distance 104du, afte r negative adv erbinls 200

sec also auxiliary verbs;substitution

d ynamic ver bs 22 1

E-cd cla uses see past part icipleeach see all (of), whole, every, eachecho q uestions 54,222em phasising ad jectives 132, 2 19every sn' all (of), whole, every , eachexceptions 182excla ma tion ma rk 226cxpccrurions 40

pfestivals 94few, little , koss, and few er

(a) few, (a) little, ;15 pronouns1114

the few, the lin k + noun, as 'norenough ' [04

few + person al prono uns 104few and little, as informal

alternatives 104less (th'ln) and fewer (Ihan) 104a little, as informal ale-m auv e

104what few/what lirrlc, as ' rhe sma ll

(numb...r/a mount)' IG4fewer see few, lillie , less, and fewerfinite verbs 223focus adverbs 154 , 2 19fo,usiug

fronti ng, fo r emp has is 198it-cla uses 196wh-cla uscc 196wha r-clnuses I ~6

frequency ad verbswit h have 10 36indefirure frequency 2 19pasl conti nuous with 4posit io n of 14S, ISO, 152present connnuous wi th 4

fuJI stop 226futur e continuous

arranged even ts/activities 22grammar review 204imagining what is hap pening

around now 22partic ular po int in futu re, relat ing

sta rt o f event to 22repeatcdlregula r events 22willin gness, avoidin g 22

Index

283

Index

284

future eventsaddi tiona l exercise 23 Ihe abou t to + infinitive 24, 26he goin g In + infinitive 20, 166,

203be to + mfinuive 24commo n phrases fo r ta lking about

16grammar review 20 3-4past a nd present co ntinuo us for

intent io n IIp ossibility, can/ could 30present conti nuous for 20

gra mmar review 204info rmal arran gement s 22

present simple fo rco ndinona l clauses 20fixed events 20gra mm ar rev iew 20 3if· clauses 24supposc/supposjng/whar if ...20rime clause s 20

rea l co nditio na ls 166seen f W IIl t he past

be supposed 10 2 8intent ions 26reporting 28was/ were to + infinitive 211was/w ere to have + pastparticip le 28

shall/shan'r ucrsus will/won'! 26stu d}' guide 24 1verbs + tu-infinirive, for intentions

26will + infinitiv e 203will and be going ro 18, 20

futu re perfectand futu re pe rfect co ntin uo us 22passive fnrm 224

future simple 224

Ggeneralisations 90geog ra phical areas 90glossary 2 19-23going 10 see will and be goin g 10

gradablc adjecnves 1.14, lJ6, 2 16,219

grading ad verhs IJ4,2 19

Hhave (got) 10 36, 205-6having + past particip le (-cd) cla use

62, 116, 220hol idays 94however 174

I-ing (preSt'nt part iciple) form

gra mma r review 214- 15no n-finite cla uses 22 1prepositiona l object 222red uced relative clauses 221see <llso participle ad jectives: ver b

co mplc menrariouif, in co mparison cla uses 168if and whet her

a fter certain verbs 172a fter prepo sition 172in clau se act ing as subject or

complement 172noun + ad jective + as 10 whether

172possihiliries, talking a bou t 172repo rt ing yes/ no questions 64hd ore to-in finitiv e 171wheth er .. . or not 171

if-clauses 120afte r wou ld/wo uld like lJOfutu re events 24inve rsio n instead nf 19Kshould, were, had, and o mission

of if 168without mai n clauses 168see also cond it iona l clauses

imagina ry sit uations 31, 1 18impe rative clauses 42, 166, 12 1indefinite a rt icle 1 19

see ateo alan, the, and zero articleindirec t obje ct 58, 11 1

see <1150 o bject; verbcomplementation

indirect questions 22 2see <llso reporting

indirecr speech 113see IllsfJ reporting

in tinirive for ms 11 1inst rucrions 24 , 166, 196

gra mmar review 104-5if-clauses, without ma in clauses

'68intent ions 26, 7Hinrcrrupred past actions/events 8int rans itive ver bs see

rransirive/in rmnsinve verbsintroducing new mpic 196IIIVCrSIO n

additio nal exe rcise 139adverbs u f direc tion of movement

'"a fter negative adv erbials 200a fter neither and nor 200a fter lime adve rbs 151from ing, for emphasis 19Hwith here co mes, there g ill 'S 19Hinstead of if-clauses 198with so + ad jective 100with such + be, for emphasis of

extent/degree 200with as and th a n, in compar isons

'9"o f verb and subjec t 21 1

irregu la r verbs 117-18;,

il is/ was no I'USIIS there is/ was no

'9'as ohlect of verb 194reporting with passive for ms 50with viewpoin t ver bs 194

it, irnroducm ryto focus attention on sentence

cle ment 192ir + he + adjective/ nou n 192il + verb + obj ect + that-cla use

192

il + verb . obj ect • ro-in finuivcclau se 192

il + verb + that -clause 191il + verb + In-infinitive cla use 192no t as a lternative to noun as

subject 191where subjec t is to-infi nitive , that ­

clause, wh-clause or -ing clause

'92it-clauses 4 8, 196, 120

Jjo hs/jo h t ides 92

Lless St'e few, little, I~s, and fewerlin king veri'S

adjective patterns with UH, 140,

16'beco me and get 41'bec oming'verbs 42'bei ng'verhs 42a nd complement 42, 110, 121go and ru m 41'sITming' verbs 42stu dy guide 242-43superl.lI ives 144

little see few, lin k , less, a nd fewer

Mma in clauses

definition o f 22lland relative clau se 112

manne r; ad verbs o f 148, 2 19may see possibilitymight see possibility; unreal pastmod a l verbs

additiona l exercise 23 1-32au xiliary verbs 2 19definition o f 21 1gra mmar review 204-6with pcrforrnanves 2repllr ling to repo n ed cla use,

summary of cha nges 74slUd~' guide 241

much (of), many (o f), a lot of, lOIS(of) roo

musldr awi ng conclusions 36formal rules, regulat ion, and

warnings ,16and hav e (got) to 36, 205-6must/mustn't , in repo rt ing 74nccd tn't ], don't have In , mustn'l

206pro posing future arrangements 36

Nnames, of people 80, ~2

na rrative 64na tionality adjectives 1.16necessity 205-6need

ill formal writt en English 311need(n 'I), don 'I have 10 , mu sm 'r,

don 'I need 10 38, 206as ordi nary t 'erSlf 5 modal verb 38in questions 38

negat ive questions 54, 207newspaper writing

be to + infinilive, fo r events likelyto happen 24

participle clau ses, use of 112past perfect contin uous, use of 14

no, nonetof], and nor any 911nominal rela tive clauses 108 ,222

seealso relat ive clausesnon-affirma tive meaning 22 1non -defining relative cla uses

for adding infor mation 106definition of 222participle clauses, use o f instead

of 112prepositional ph rases 114whose, claus es with lOllset' also relative clause s

non -finite cla uses 221non-finite verbs 22 3nou-gradable adjectives 134 , 1.16,

2 16,219non-grading adv erbs 134, 2 19noun phrases

adding information to 112conjunc tions 112namely, use of 112particip le cla uses 112prepos itiona l phrases 114th at is, use o f 112ro-infinuive cla uses 112

complements 42dl'li nilion of 22 1nom ina l relative clauses 222

nounsadditional exercise 234- .15definition of 22 1study guide 245see also compound nouns;

countable/uncounta ble no unsnumber expressions !Ill

oobject

and complement 220definit ion of 22 1pos it ion o f in two- and th ree­

word verbs 188transitive verbs 223seealso transit ive/intransitive

verbs: verb com plementationobligations 40, 206offers 18, 72, 166, 204-5one and ones

with countable nouns 122inc lus ion o f 122not used afte r nouns used as

adjectives 122omission o f 122with possessive det ermin ers 122referring ro people 122seealso alan and one

opi nions 62or ders 24,72, 78organisations, names of 80org anising information 25 1oughl to sce should and ought 10

pparticiple adjectives 22 1

-ing and -ed forms, as adj ecrives

13'a fter nou ns, reduced rela nves 138in compound adjectives 138with much, very mu ch 154position of 138that/those before 138

pa rticiple clau sesac tive and pass ive in noun phrases

112with adverb ial meaning 116contrasting 164defini tion of 221having + participle, and timing of

action 116implied subject, and subject of

main cla use 116not, posit ion of 116with ow n subjec t 116use of pre positions with 118

paruclples 221panicles 188,222passive fo rms 222

active pattern s 44,46addit ional exe rcise 2_12-33agent, o mission of 411'appoin tingt verhs 44'giving' verbs 44grammar review 206- 7it-clause as subject o f 48' Iiking/wa nting' verbs 46modal verbs 224'naming' verbs 44re po rting with 50study guide 242-43'te lling' verbs 44tenses 224topic emp hasis 48rra nsinve two- and three-word

verbs 44verbs wirh related nouns 48

past contin uouswith adv erbs of frequency 4as/when/while 158grammar review 203passive fmm 224past perfect con tinuous, and pas t

perfect 14and past simple 8, 16

intentions not ca rried our 8, 10in nar ratives 8past events in succes sion 8past events over same period 8repea ted past action s K

past pa rtic iple t-ed) 220,221gra mmar review 2 15non -finite clause 22 1red uced relative clause 222seealso pa rt iciple adjec tives.

participle clausespast perfect

grammar review 203passive for m 224past perfect contin uous, and pas t

conrmuous 14and past simple

additiona l exercise 230-31inten tio ns not carried o ut 10ordering past events 10report ing pas t events 10review o f use o f 16

tim e cla uses 6past perfect continuous

add itio na l exercise 230-3 1gramma r review 203intent ions not ca rried ou t 10past perfect and past continuous

ac riviry in progress recentlyversus finished 14number of times so methingha ppen ed 14part icula r past time, relati ngevents to 14review of use of 16sta te verbs 14

pa st simplegra mmar review 202passive form 224and pa st con t inuous 4, ll, 10, 16and past per fect 10 ,1 6 , B0-31and present perfect 6, 230

past subjunctive 223as il were 170unreal conditionals, were in if­

clause 170were, fur imagi nary situations

170were, in comparisons 170

perfect fo rms 16performarive verbs

definition of 222present simple 2

permiss ion 34, 38, 204could, be allowed to 30

persona l pron ouns 222pcrr.uading 54phrasa l verbs

definit ion of 222word order 188see also two- anJ thr ee-word

verbsplace ad verbs 2 19possessive de termine rs 22 0po ssessive nouns 2 ID- I I, 222possessive pronouns 210, 222pos sibility

can and could 30, 34grammar review 204may and might 34, 205

predictions 18preferences 170prepos itionalobjects 5 8, 222preposi tional phrases

as complement 220definit ion of 222

prepositio nal verbs 222see also phrasal verb s; I W O - and

thr ee-word verbsprepositio ns

add itional exercise 23 9af ter nouns 186af ter verbs 184defini tion o f 22 2pa rticles 222

Index

285

Index

286

ph rasal verbs 222of place 17Sof pos ition and movem ent 176reasons, giving 160in relativ e clau ses 110sllldy guide 25 Iof time 180

present and past time, review 16,zzs

present co ntinuo uswith adverbs of frequency 4for futu re events 20, 22, 204gram ma r review 202inte n tio ns 26passive form 224and present simple 2,4,16

present part iciple (-ing) 220, 221see also participle ad jectives;

participl e clau sespresent perfect

gramma r review 202- .1passive form 224a nd past simple 6, n oand present pe rfect cont inuous

12,1 6, 230real cond it ionals 166

present pcrfIXt continuousgrammar review 20.1pas sive form 224a nd present perfect

ac tivities in progress untilrecently 12additional exercise 230conclusions fro m what can heseen/heard etc, 12recently comple ted events 12repeated I't'rSIIS one-off ac tivit ies12result s of circumstances/activities12review of uses of 16sit ua tio ns existing until present12

presen t simpleconte n ts of hooks/films etc. 4fo r fut ure events 20, 24, 166,

172,203gra mmar review 202intent io ns 26newspaper head lines 4passive form 224phrases introd ucin g news 4and present co ntinuo us 16

immeJi'lcy 4life commentaries 4mental sta tl's 2perfcrmanve verbs 2sta le verbs 2

reul co nd itio na ls 166time cla uses 6

present subjuncnve n, 223present tenses, in repon ing and

reported clauses 70product names 92promises ISpronouns

definiti on of 222study guide 24 7-48

type s o f 222purposes and results

in order /so as + to-infi nitive 162in order thai and so that 162so + adjective/ adverb + that-clau se

146such that. in such a way th at,

such ' .. tha t 162

Qqualirarive adjectives 132, 136, 219qua mi fiers

definition of 222grammar review 2 1I . 2 12- 13stud )' guid e 245-46with an d without 'o f' 2 12, 21 3,

214quantity expressio ns 1l4, ss

see also some and anyq uestio n form s 225

gramma r review 207indi rect questions 222nega tive que stions 54study guide 242-43with that-clauses 54types of 222see also wh-q ucstions; yes/ no

q uestionsqu est ion mark 226question tags 207quotation marks 226

"real con dinonalsif-clau ses 166, 168real and unreal con ditions

2 17- 18, 220tenses in 20. 166, 168. 172, 2 1l!un less and if not 172

reasonscleft sentences 196co njunctions 174prepositions I IH, 160sentence con nec tors 174

reduced relati ve cla uses 1.12, 138,m

sec also relative clausesreflexive pronouns

definitio n of 222for emp hasis 120formality 120grammar review 2 15inclusio n/omission o f, with some

verbs 120in verb + object + ad jective

comple m ent structure $6regret 170relanve clauses

addition al exercise 236-37defining 106, IOH, 112.222definition of 222grammar review 2 14nominal 108, 222non -dcfinm g 106, 108,1 12, 114,zzz

prepositions in 110reduced 132, 138, 222slUdy guide 247

relat ive pronounsdefinit ion of 222, 223omi ssion/inclusion of 106,1 10,

1'0as subject/object o f relative clause

106relative words 223

a/the reason why/tha t 108nominal relative clau ses. with

who/what 108what ever. whoever, whichever

108when, whereby, where, why 108whose, cla uses with 108

reported speech 223reporting 64

addirionul exe rcise 234gra mm ar review 209modal auxili ari es 74negative form s 64offerslsuv.gest ions/orders/

intent ions/requcsts 72passive forlll s 44punc tuation for 226questions 64quotation s 64study guide 244reuse cho ice in 70that-claus es 66. 72, 76usin g ad jectives 76usin g no uns 76

repo rtinwrcported clause s 64,72definition of 223past tenses 70present suhjun<:t ive 78

repo rting verbs 64, 22Jrequests

grammar review 204-5j f-clauscs 168reporting 72, 78will and be jloinjl to 18

Sseaso ns 88 , 94semi-colon 174semi-mod al verbs 22 I

grammar review 204-6see also mod al verbs

sen se verb s 30sen te nce con nec tors 174. 223short answers 124should a nd ought to

he supposed to 206expect ations 40had bencr, in spoken English 40ohli galiol1s1rccommend,ltions 40qaestions/rcqu csts fo r

co nfirmatio n or advice 40regret/cri ticism 40should and sha ll 40

simple sentences 223simple versus continuous forms,

s ummar~' of uses of 16since and for 12, 14since-c lauses 220some a nd any

with hefore 96'appro ximately' 96

with compa risons 96general sratemcnrs ab out whole

classes of t hings 96grammar review 2 11-12with negative words 96non -affirmative conte xts 96nun-specific, un s pL~ i fi ed Ihings 96odure plural a mi uncountable

no uns 96slrong and weak forms 96unknown/unimporranr person or

th ing %stall: verbs 2, 12, 14,1 66 , 223subject

and com plement 220definition of 223it-cla use as 4Spassive, uses of 4Splacement o f long 4Srelative pronouns as 106whu ur what as 52sec a/so agrcvmcnn invers ion

suhiu nctive 223past 170present 7!l

subordmarc clauses 220,222see .lIm adverbial clauses; rela tive

cla usessubstitution

10, for to-in finlrive clau se 130additional exercise 237do 128,200,207,216do so and such 126so and nor 124stud y guide 247-48

suggestions 54, 72, 7R, 20 7superla tive forms

the + adjective with -eSI 144the + most + adjective 144of + plural noun phrase, a fter

superlative 144in + singula r nou n phrase, af te r

superlati ve 144adjectives with alan, the, a nd zero

article 92most + ad jcl:t ivd aJ vcrb 144noun + o f which I 10

Ttenses

grammar review 202-4study guide 240-4 1

that-cl auses 220passive semen....es 48reporting 66, 72, 76should in 7llwh-q ucst ions with 54

the sec alan. the, and zero oni dcthere + he

change of topic , rupic Known tolisreuer/ reader 190

ir nroducmg topics 190noun fo llowing, ag reement of be

with 190no un fo llowi ng, indefinite/non­

specific mea ning of 190with nouns followed by that-,

wh-, to-infinitive or -ing cla use190

' Ihinki ng'verbs .10, 60three-wor d verbs SCI' two- and

three-word verbsnm e adverbs 2 19time clauses

conjunCiions 174tenses in 2 17

times, o f day and night 94rirles, of newspapers, books, films

' 0to-infinitive

with come and grow 42definiriun uf 220leaving out 130with linking verbs 140non-finite cla uses 22 1no un phrases, add ing information

ttl 112sec ulsfJ verb complemcmarion

tra nsitive/int ransit ive verbs 56gra mmar review 207implied objec t ,S6intrans itive verbs 56, 22 1passives, gra mmar review 206transitive or int ransit ive verbs 56tran sitive verbs 56, 223t wo- and thr ee-word verbs, word

Imler 188sec u1so verb complemen tati on

two - and three-word verbsdefinition of 223particle in 222posit ion of prepos itions in 110word order 111 8

Uuncertainty 76unchan ging states 12uncountable nouns see

coulltabldunClluma ble nounsunless and if nor 172unrea l cond itiona ls

bu t fur 166if + past simple 166rea l and unreal conditionsn z-rs.zzo

unlt:ss and if nut 172were in if-clause 166, 170

unreal pas tmight/could have + pasr participlen a

would have + paw participle 32 ,zis

used togrammar review 204-5repea ted eve nts in past 32in reportin g 74

Vverb com plcmc mation

additional exercise 233-34dire ct a nd indi rect oblects 5 Rnegative for ms 62preposi tional obje ct, with for/ IO

5'

study guide 243-44summa ry o f common pat terns

20 7-Rverb + -iug or bare infinitive 60verb + objec t + hare infinitive 60verb + object + to -infinitive 62verb + object/possessive + ing 60verb + pr eposition + objec t + to­

infinitive 62verb + ttl ha ve + pa st partici ple

62verb + to (preposition) + in~ 60St'e aim transitive/in tr ansitive

verbsverb phrases 22 3verbs 22 1, 223viewpoint adverbs 156, 2 19

Wwh-clauvcs 220

focusing 196with linking verbs 140verbs wit h 611

wh-q uesrions 52,222, 223auxili ary verb 54how J nJ what 52repo rting 64with that-cla uses 54what 52which 52who 52whum .52whose 52see u/so negati ve questio ns

wh-words 222, 223whar-clauves 80, 196 , 220whether Sl'C if a nd whetherwhether-clauses 220whole SI'C all (of), whole , every .

eal:hwill, would and used ttl

churacrcns ric behaviour/ha bits .12conc lusions/ass urn ptionv 32crit icism .12gra mmar review 204-5repeated eve nts in past 32unreal pasr situa tions 32

willa nd he loIoiolol lOhe lIoin).: to + go/come 20cond ition al sentences I IIdecisions 18forrna lityJinformali ty 18, 20offcrslrequ estslprOlllises 18plarmeJll ikcly events 18,20pr edic tions I II

willingness 22works of art 92would SCI' if-clauses; will. would

and used to

yycs/no quest ions 64 , 222

sec also quest ion forms

Zzero article 2 19

see also alan, the, and zero article

Index

287

Index of lexical items

288

Aalan Nil, 'JO. sz, <) 4, 146,

190 , 21 <,1 , 220a hit 134a bit o f 104a few (0 1) 2 14a hnle (0 1) 2 14.1 101100 Nl. 100, 2 1.Ja n umber o f 82, 110allhe ma jori l)' of li lahililY 186able 140about IS4.above 176above all 174a~1 from 120absolur e 132ahwluldy 134ahusive 76academic J36;l C'"CV1 124, 194"'o:d dcol 194ac d im ;u i'>e 120accoedmg 10 156accoum for 111 11ache 202admowlc:Jl{c 2. 50, 66ack rsowledgemcm 76acr..." 176act o n IRIIactive 144ada mant 7badapt 60, 120adapt ed 4 2addrc.... hoo k lUiadhere to 56ad jU\ l 60admir at i,," 186admire 1.~4

ad mit 2, SH, 60, 62 , M,124, 194 , 2UIl

adult U 6advi ce 76ud visable 711advise 2, 46, 62. 66 , OIl ,

72, 78. \ ,10, 172a ffcele d 1.111a fford 130afraid 130, n z, 140.

144aftlT 6, 20, 118, 158,

174, IlN . 220a fter all 174a fte r thai 174afternoon 94;1furwilrd , 174a~i l a lcd l y 142a~r« 2. 26. 46. 50. 62.

66.72. 124. 130.202.l O,

.altf~~ .about/on/wilh 184agreed 76aim 26. 46. 186. 20Hala rmed 140.al<lrmaVal.armin~ 2 16

alert 144alik e 132. 144alive 132.a ll 110. 220.all (of) H2. 102. 212. 2 13all of .asudden 4all over 176all the same 174allqtalion 76allege 50. 62alleged 138all~ooly 142.alloc.alO:d 138a l1o••, 46. 58. 62. 208almO'u 102.134. 150.

lS4alone 132. 144. 154.alonl/; 176. 198alw 174ahcrna tiliC' 194alternatively 174although 118. 164.1 74altoget her 154.alway, 4. 36. 150amaze 192a mazed 78. 140amalNlamalin~ 216a mazement 186amazing 140ambition 186amonK 171:1a mong o the r Thing, 171:1among others 178a mongst 178amount of 100amused 78and 112.1 74.220a" lI:ry 76. 134. 140announce 44. 50. 58.66announcement 76annoy 192anno yed 76. 140annoying 140annual 132annually 152another 122an swer 56. 66. 76answer back 188anticipa te 2. 46. 202an l(iou ~ 78any 96. 186. 211- 12any- 82any (of) H2.2 12anybody 98. 2 12anyone 96. 98, 190. 2 12anylhing 96. 98. 2 12anyway 174any...here 98apan 182apart from 182apol~etic 76apo 'ORiK' 2appalling 78appar~n t 42appar~ntly 156

appeal 62appear 2. 42. 46. 62.

124.132. 140. 164.190. 192. 207

apply 62applying 13Happoint 44appreciat e 46. 154. 102approve 60appro\'r of 60. I IUIargue 66 . 194argu~ abo ut/fm/with 184argument 76ari se 227arms tra de 86. 90ann}' 80arrange 46. 62. 68arres t 107an, fnlilial 116a~ 144. 146. 158. 174.

198a~ a conKqurnce 174a~ a resuh 174av a rule 150avif 170a, it were 170a, long a, 174a~ many 146a\ much 146av soon a, 6. 20. 174a\ thou~h 170a, 10 68. 76. 171as ...d l 174asha med 132. 140.144.

IS'aside 1112ask 44.46. 56. 58.62. 66.

611. 71. 78. I .lO. 20 11ask ahout/afler/for/ uf

184ask of 184asleep 1,12aspire to ,S6a"no alc wirh 56a ~ \()t:iat i {)n 110ass ume 50.56. 66. 124.

202assuming (that ) 174assure 66auoni\h 192asm niched 140a~lOni,hinKly 156asto unded 78al no tim e 152al thai lime 174at lhe ,arne limc 174athletics 84atmosphe re \10atomic 132attempt 46. 186att ract 2. 202,lUribule 10 Sf,audience SOaut umn 94nail of 120

availa ble 132ave rage 1.16avoid 46.207.208awake 1.12, 227award 44. 58aware 42. 132. 140. 144away 19Sawful 134. 140aw k...-a rd 140

•bahy', bedroom 86back 198bole!. to back 94bold 140bald 41han 186hardy 96. 200base on 56be 41, 128. 130, 132.

140.164. 219. 227he able 10 30. 130. 204 .

zz:he abo ut 10 24.26be afraid 124be allowed 10 30. 104he bou nd TO 26be cenain 124be due to 26he going 10 18. 20. 166.

l03be likely 34be on the brink of 26be on the point of 26be on the licrge of 26be ~ uprmed to 211. 190.

zosbe sure to 26. 124he til 24beach 90bea r 227bea r 227beautiful 0 2becau\c 1111. 160. 174.

nobe ca use of 160become 42. 132. 140.

164. 227before 20. "6 . 118.158.

174. 200before that 174hl.1l, 2. 711hl.1tin 46. 56. 60. 130.

lOS. 127behav e 120believe 2. 30. 46. 50. 56.

62.64.66. 124. 194.202.208

belnnK 12. 166belon g 10 202be:lnn~inR' 84below 176bend 56. 127beneath 176bnidn 118.174.1 82

Index of lexica l item s

bet 227between 178bi~ 134bind 227biolOjtically 156bird of prey 86hird~' n~ts 86bill: 227bleed 227blind 42blo ...· 227book 58bored 144bored/horinR 2 16borin g 144bOlh 110both (of) 2 12bother 311boy's arm 116brave 140bravely 156break 56,227break in 111 11break-out 116brick-built 1311hrid ly 14 11bring 46, 511 , 227brinR abo ut 111 11broadcast 227broken 138brother-in-law 86brush up on 44build 511, 227build ing materials

indu~lry 86bum 56,227bunt 227hu~y 134, 140bu~y wirh 120hUI 174, 1112,220hUI for 166, 1112buy 58,227by 94, 118, 1110by air 94by bus 94by car 94hy comran 174by email 94by phone 94by plane 94by pos t 94by Ka 94by Ini 94by Ihl: time 6, 20by train 94

Ccalculate 50, 68calculated 131call 44call back 44, 188call o n 72, 11111call up 44campajgn 62can 30,74, 111l, 204 ,

205, 22 1can't bear 46, 194can'l stand 194,108

capable 132care 150care about/for 111 4careful 140, 144a rdns 144cardnsly 156carry out 44eaSI 227a SI back 44each 46, 58,208,227catch oul 188cause 62 , 2011caused 138cautious 144cease 2011certain 76, 140, 144certainly 156chance 102, 130, 186,

' 94change 56cheap 144chcap{ly) 142check 66, 6Scheck into ISSchemical 1.12chicken dr umsticks 86Chid of Siaff 86choice 194choose 511, 68, 130, 172,

227chosen 138civil 136claim 50,76d an 110clean 136clean up 188clear 140, 144clear away 1118clearly 148, ISO, 156d tar(1y) 142clever 1.14climate 90d imb 46d inll 227close 56, 60clothes 84clothes shop 86dub 80, 0011mine 116coffee 90coincidence 194w id 144w ll('(1 58college 80come 42, 46, 152, 198,

207,2011,217come: abo ut 192come: acros s 110come: in for 1118come: 10 1118come up ajtainsl 44 , 188command 62, 72, 78, 208commander-in-chief 86comment 76com mittee 80common 134, 136community 80compeer 80

co m paer director 92co mplain 66co mplete 132, 144completely 134,1 50co mplex 144complimentary 76computer 90co mputer keyboard 86concen tra te 60concern 38, 186, 192concern with 120concerned 78, 132, 140,

172co nclude: 2, 68conclusion 76confess 2, 60, 66confide 66co nfide nce 101confident 140conflict 172co nfusion 172congratula te 2cc ngrarulano ns 11 4co nsenl 62consequent ly 174consid er 2, 8, 10, 46, 50,

56, 62, 66, 68 , 172 ,194 , 201, 20 11

consis l of 2, 202con n ant ly 4constitu te 202co nta in 202content 132continually 4co ntin ue 46, 208conversa tion 90convince 66convinced 42coo k 56,58cost 2,58,186,192,

202,227could 30,34,74, 128,

204,205, 2 18,22 1,22.

co uncil 80co unt 60, 62co unt out 1118cc umry tside) 90co ver up 1118co wardly 142co w's milk 116cra zy 140creased 144creep 227Cf('W 80criteria 84critical 76, 136crop up 188crowd 80crucial 78culminate in/wilh 56cup of lea 86curious 140curiously 150customs off icer 86cui 227CUI back on 188CUI OUI 111 11

[)

dai ly 152dan ce: 56dare: 60,204,22 1dar k 144data 84dawn 94da wn on 192d;ly 102day by day 94day-to-d ay 86deaf 42de:al 22 7debate 68, 172decide 30, 50, 62, 68decision 76, 186declare 2, 44,56, 66decline 20 8decrease 56deep 134deep/ly) 142definitely 156delay 208delighted 130demand 66, 72, 711, 208democratic 132demonstra te 44 , 50 , 5Sdeny 2, 46, 58, 62, 61"

96, 194, 208department 110depend 60, 62depend on 172descri be 44,46, 58descripti on 186deserve 130deseevedly 142desire 186, 202despite 164deter 60dete rmination 186dete rmine 68determined 130determinedly 142detest 60, 208derracr fro m 56develop 150dia betes 84di ffer 150di ffer from 202differ emia re between 56di flicuh 42,1 40dig 227digita l 132dignified 142diplomanc 136direct 78, 144dir«t(lyl 142disagree 66disagrc:nnml 172disappointed 78, 140disappointedly 142disapprove of 44, 60discou rag e: 60discover 50 , 68, 208d iscuss 68, 172d iscussion 76 , 172 , IS6d islike 12, 46, 60 , 194,

208 289

Index of lexica l items

290

dismissive 76dive 227do 126, 128, 192, 200,

207,2 16, 2 19, 227do 0 11I of 188do so 126do mestic 1] 4don't ha ve III 311, 206dou bt 2, 124, 166, 172,

202doubtful 76, 140down 1911do wn stai rs 148draw 227d read 201ldreadfully 134d rea m 227dress 120d rink 56, 22 7d rink up 1118drive 56,227drop 56duck's eg gs 86due to 160du rinl( 180dwell 227

Eeac h 82, 102, I I o, 122,

2 14,220each of 82each (of) 2 12each other 2 15eager 144earl ier 174earn ings 84easy 140easy-going 138eat 56,227econ omic 132economics 114effect l Sbeit her 122, 2 13either ••• o r 112eith er of 82elderly 142electorate 110elecrrjc 136emerge 192emphasi",~ 194empty 136enable 62, 20Senco urage 50, 62, 72, 20Sencouragcmcm 76end 60end III end 94end up 42enemy 80en joy 46, 154, 166, 194,

207enormously 150, 154enough 146enquire ahout/after 1114entire 102, 132entirely 134, 150, 160entit le 62, 208environment 90envi ronmental 132, 134

env iro nment ally 156envisage 208envy 5Sequal 144eq ua te with 56espedally 154essential n, 134establish 50, 68esrimarc 50even 154even if 164, 170even so 174even though 164, 174even ing 94ever y 82, 102, 11l6, 2 14every few (months ) 102every now a nd again 102every oth er (kilomelre)

102everr single (day ) 102every so often 102, 150everybody 82everyo ne 82everything 112exact 144excellent 1] 4except 182except for 182excepted 182exc ited / exciting 2 16excited ly 142excl usively 134expect 2, 8, 10, 26, 46,

50, 54, 64, 66, 72,124, 130,202

exp la in 44, 50, 66, 61lex planation 76extremely 134, 154

Fface 46face to face 94fail 56, 62,96, 130,208failu re 1116fair 144fai rly I J 4fa ll 207,227fall throug h I lI8false 136familiarise wit h 120family 80far-reaching 138fashi on 142fast 134fast-growing 138fa \'Ourite 144fear 38, 90, 186feed 227feel 2,30, 44, 46 ,50,60,

64, 66, 132,1 40,1 64,194,202, 208 , 227

feci like 201lfet ch 58few 104, 146few (o f) 2 12fewer 104fight 227fi ll in 110

finally 141lfinancially 150, 1$6find 2, 46, 50, $6, 58, 66,

194, 202, 207, 208, 227find o ut 46,68fine 132fine(ly) 142finish 56, 60, 201lfirst 122, 150, 1.s2fit 2, 227fix 58f1 a t(ly) 142flee 227f1i,k through 188fling 227fly 1.'i2, 198, 227focus 60fo llow 192fo nd 186fondness IIl6foolish 140foolishly 156fo r 12,14,1 74, 1114fo r one thinM 174fo r {reason s] 160fo rbid 2, 96, 227force 62, 207,208fo recast 76, 227fo re ign 136fo rest 90forever 4forget 46, 60, 62, 68,

UO,227fOrKive 58,227forma l 144forwards 148found 138frank ly 150,156free 140free(ly) 142freeze 227frequ ent 144friend ly 134, 142frighten 192frightened 132fri lo;h tcncd/ friio\hteninl(

2 16fro m my/ his/h er

per spective 156from time III time 150fully 134fun 144furio us 140furniture 96furt hermore 174future 90

Ggather 124Mather up I 118gencrul 132generally 156ge neration 110I(encrously 156genuine 136get 42, 51l, 132,206-7,

207,227ge l down 44, 1118

get up IIlIlgirls' school 86give 44, 51l, 227glad 132, 140glasses case 86go 42, 146, 152, 1911,

207, 2011, 227go bad 42go bu st 42gc dead 42go mi~~i ng 42go mo uldy 4210\0 off 42go on 62go ove r l lll!10\0 ro tten 42go th rou gh ..... ith 1M81(0 up ISOgo wrong 42Iloat '~ cheese 86good 140, 194good and 136good-look ing 138good s 84government SOgrab 207grammar 90!tra teful 76!tread y ISOground 90Io;rouP 80grow 42, 227grow up 188grumble 66gua ra ntee 2,26, 51l, 72,

76, 194!tu e~~ 61l, 124guess so/nor 124guilty 136, 140gymnastics 84

"habit 1116had better 40, 204, 22 1hair 90hair-raising 138han d 44, 58hang 152, 227hanger-on 116happen 168, 192, 207happi ly 142happy 134, 140hard 140hard ly .J8, 96, 150,1 58,

200,205hardly e\'Cr 150, 152hate 46, 60, 130,194,

202,208ha ve 2, 60, 62, 114, 121l,

202, 2 19,227have 101m 121lhave go t 10 36, 204,

20,)-6,22 1hav e to 36, 31l , 74, 205-6hea r ] 0, 44, 46, 60, 124,

202, 208, 227hear oul 188help 44, 60, 192, 208

Index of lexical items

help o n with 111 11help out 1811hence 174her 122here 82here ctlmn 198herself 120, 2 1.5h..... ira te 2011hide 120, 227high{ly) 142him~lf 120,21.5hit 192,207,227hoM 56,227bold out 188hold over 44ho liday 180home-made 13Sho nndy 150, 156hope 8, 10, 26, 46, 50,

H, 62. 72, 102, 124,130, 194, 202, 208

horizon 90hourly 152how 52, 68, 82, 146,

196,223howev er 174, 223huge 134hu~dy 134human 136human race: 90hurriedly 142hun 192, 227

bet 18C:X~'a 18gather 4hear 4hope 18imagine 18reckon 18sec 4think 18understand 4wonder III

Idea 130, 1116idea l 144idenrificd UKideologically 156if 20,64, 166,172, 174,

200, 220if ont 172if on ly 170if so 174ill 42, 132illnn s 1110I'm ~ UTl: 18imaginab le 132imagi ne 2. 46, 60, 611,

124, 170, 202, 208immen~dy 134imperative 78imponanc..: 90imponant 78, 134imf'O"sible 96, 134, 140improvement 186in 118,180,1 911in addition 174

in amazement 142in any caw 174in cave 20in consequence 174in conlfa ~l 174in my/ hiVhe r opinion

1S6in ord er th oU 162in or der III 162in spite of 164in such a way that 162in that 160,1 74inJ bility 186inappropriate 78inavmuch a~ 160ind ine toltoward~ 56incl ined 140indude.! 138income ta ll 86inconceivable 711increave 56indicate 66ind ication 76ind ifferen t 172individual 136ind ustrially 156infected 42intliet o n 56intlu ence 1116info nn 50, 66, 68innocent 136invist 60, 78insistent 76imofar as 174instead 174instruct 46, 68, 72, 78instru ction 76insulting 76intake 86intend S, 10, 26, 50, 64,

72,711, 130imensely 134intent ion 186interested 42, 138interested/ interesting 2 16i ntere~ ti ng l oi ni ntere~tin gl y 156interview 1116introdu ce 44, 58invaluable 134invitation 76invite 62,72, 208invo lved 132iron 90irrel evant 42inue 76it 50, 140, 192, 194it uys here 4itself 2 15

Jjoke 66journa list 92judg e 56jury 80just I Hjusttly) 142

Kkeep 42,46,60, 227keep on 62kind 140kind l)" 142, 156kneel 227knit 227know 2, 12, 50, 60, 68,

124,166, 202, 227know about/of 184

Llack 186lamh chops 86largely 134, 154, 160last 150late 136lat e{ly) 141lat er 174la y 227lead 227lean 217leap 127learn 68, 227learn about/of 184least 144leave 58, 194, 208 , 227leave ou t 188lend 44, 58,207,227In~ 104, 144, 146less (00 2 1-4let 60, 227let go 60let in 44let in on 188let out 44lie 152, 227light 227like 2, 46, 60, 130, 1H,

166, 194, 202, 207,20'

likelihood 1116likewise 174linguistics 84lion's den 86lill ie 104, 146,200lillie (of) 212lill ie ones 122live 152live up 10 188lively 142logically 156Lo ndon-ba sed 138lone 132lond y 142lon g 72long-Iaseing 138lo ngn t-so.:rving 138look 2, 42, 164, 202look aha 110, 188look down o n 188look forward 60100J,; forward to 154look o ut 188look to 26lookup 188look up 10 188looker-on 86

lo..e 227lOI S o f too, 2 13luud (1 y) 142lo ve 2, 46, 60, 130, 194,

20'I.....ed "nl'" 122lovel y 140,142lovely a nd 136low 134luckily 156lucky"nlos 122

Mma d 140ma de-up 138mainly 134, I H , 160mAl e 44,58,60, 140,

227mal e up 188ma nage 62, 208manner 142many 100,11 0,1 46ma ny ("n 212,2 13ma rch 152ma thematics 84matter 207maximum 132may 34,74, 128,205,

221me 222meal 1110mean H, 10, 26,46,1 30,

140,1 92,202,208,227

mea ns 84meanwhile 174measles 84measure 2, 202med ia 84medical 132med ically 156meet 227mend 58mention 44, 50, 58,66,

'"mere 1.12mes~ up 11111midd ay 94midn ight 94might 34, 128, 205, 2 111,

22 1,224mind 46, 208mine 222minimum 132miverable 140mi..~ 208mi\ take fur 56mobile 136modern 144mo ney-making 138month 102monthly 152mo ra lly 156mo re 144more and mo re 136more wro ng 144moreover 174morning 94 291

Index of lexical Items

292

ml"t 110,144mo\ d y 154Olmt(1 y) 141mo unt up 11111mo ve: 56, 110mo ve off 111 11mo w 117much 100 , 146, 154much (of) 1 11,1 13mU\1 36, 40, 74, 1111, 111mU\ln'1 36,311,74,106my 111, 110, 121my\c:l f 120, lIS

Nnam e 1, 44namel y II Inaturally ISO, 156ne:arby ISOnearl y 101, U4, 150need 311, 46, 130, 194,

204 , 2011, 22 1needn't 311,106neither 122,200neith er do I 100, 2 16neilh er/nor 111neither o f 82, 110neith er j oO 213nerve-wr ackin g 138nCO'OUl 140nCVl-r .1",38,54,96,911,

1SO, 200, 105nevcnhdl~~ 174news 114next 150,151nk c 140nice and 1.16nilfht 102no 54,911, 1111, 1116,

100,1 13no amount of 911no hot her 98no chance 'JIIno comment 98no idea 9 11no long er 194rio-one .111 , 'IXno probl em 98no sooner 15 11no sooner th an 200no way 9Kno wonder 911nobod y 311,54,98, 1111no(bod y) 190nominate 44non e: (0 0 112,911, 110 ,

111,113noon 94nor 200nor do I 200norma lly 31tnorthern 132not 200nOI a \ inltle: 911nOI a ny 98 , 186n or ce:rtain 76nOI many 104n or much 104

ne t once 151not o ne 98nOlhinlf 54, 1111notice 46, 60, 66 , 68,

194, 20 2, 2011nmify 66now 151nowhere 54,98numbcr o f too

oo bject 60obliltalory 711o bservation 76o~e 44,46, 60, 10 11o bvio us 41ob\'iou~ly 156occas ional 132occupy ••. with 110od d 136, 140oddl y 150of 144, 184off 198offer 44,58,61, 72.107.

2o,office-wo rker 116o fte:tl 150old 136o n 118,1 84on co nditi on thai 174on many occasions 150on rhe ccnnary 174on the oth er hand 174once: 6once a week 151one 811. 112one another 88, 1 15o ne of IIIones 122o neself 110on ly 38, IS4, 200, 205only lat er 152open 56, 60opportunity 130, 1116opposite 132opposition snopl ion 1116or 112, 174orchestra 80order 2, 46.58. 62,72,

76. 78. 201lo rder about 188ori llina l 136o therwise 174oUllht to 40, 128, 20 4,

206. 22 1. 22 4ourselves 215OUI 198ou tco me 86o Ulskirts 114o utwardly 156o ver 176, 180o verheads 84overbear 60, 208owe 58, 194owing eo 160ow n 1,202own up 60

"panic 38pa rk 56part 110pa rticular 1.16particularly 154parnculars 84partly 160pass 511pa lS(T-hy 86pas l 'KIpau \C' 56pay 58 , 192,207,227peace-keeping 1] 11peculiar 144pen to p 86peop le: 411, 114per cen t 84perfea 134, 144perfealy 134permiwion 186pennil 2,58perso n 10 penon 94perso nally 156pers uade 50, 62, 66, 72,

20'phmomena 84phone: 56phonetic 132phon L-rio 114physically 156physics 84pick up I III!plainly 150plan 8, 10, 26, so, 61,

64, 61l, I Il6, 2011plans 130play 56, 51!plea ~ed 140, 144plea~(d1plca~in~ 1 16pleasure 'JOplenty of 1l2, roopoint 194po int o ut JIi , 66po intedly 142po lice li4polit ically I S6politin 114pop ular 1.14pop ulation 110poairiv e 140ptme\s 202pt}\~ihili ty 1116poss ible 1] 2pml 5 11pour 58practically 134predict 2, 194pr efer 2, 46, 78, 1]0,

154 , 194 , 102, 20 11pregnanl 42pr emises 1I4prep are 120, 208prep ared 140pr esent 'KIpre:-.~ 80presumably 150, 156presume 66, 124

pretend 62prelly 1] 4prevail 62prevent 60, 96pre\·iou ~l y 174prid e: 1116prid e: on 120pri mari ly 134private 136pmbabililY 186probahly 156pr oblem 76, 186professional 136proh ibu 60, 96pecmise 2, 26, 66, 72,

76, 124, 1] 0pronoun ce: 56proper 132propc:ny 90pro pmal 186pro~ 26,44,50,64,

66 ,72, 78prospect 1116prood 11!6pro ve 42, 56, 58, 164,

mprovid e for 11111provided 20 , 138provided Ihat 174publ ic 1l0, 1]6puhl i calion~ department,.pull 207pull to 11! 8pu~h 10 1111!push -up Ill,put 227pUI dow n as I 118PUIOUI 44PUI pen In pape r 'J4pUI up 10 111 11pUI up with 188

Qquarterly 152question 76, 172, 194qoickly 142, 148quick{ly) 142quie t 134q uietly 1411qui l 227qu ite 150, 1 17

Rrabin 11 4ra rely ]6, 96 , 150, 152,

200rather 134, ISO, 170read 44 , 56, ss,227read-o ur 86read y 140read y-made: 138real 144ru li'>C' 2, 61! , 201rea lly 134, 154re:a\Oll 102, 108, 11I6, 194rca\Onably 134reaw ure 50, 66

Index of lexical items

recall 46, 60, 62, 208recent 144reckon 54recognised 42recoermeed 50, 66 , 72, 78recommend aricn 76refusal 76, 1116refuse 2, 46,58,62,72,

96, 130,2011regard 194regard u / with 56region to region 94rqutt 2,62,154,202,

20.regularly 150reluctance 1116reluctant 96rely 60, 62remain 42remaining 1JIIremember 30, 46, 60, 62,

611, 166, 194,20Sremind 2, 50, 62, 66, 611,

72remind of 56repair 58repeatedly 142rt'ply 66, 76report 44, 46, 50, 56, 58,

66,207reponedly 142reputedly 142requese 2, 72, 78require 46, 66, 711resemble 202resmt 46, 60,194, 208resolve 26~n 60

responsible 132resull from 188rcsulling 1311reveal 50rich 134riches S4ride 227right 144right across 176rip;h tly 156ring 227rip 56rise 227risk 186, 208roll 152rough 144rule of thumb 86run 152,227run inro 188runner-up 86

Ssad 140s,adly 156u .tisfaetion I K6satisfied 186save 58savings 114u vings account 116saw 227

say 50,54,511,62,66,611,72, 124,209, 227

scarcely 96, ISO, 158,200

sca re 192schoo l SOscient ific 136scornful 76~. 90~aside 90secret 194see 30, 44, 50, 60, 68,

194, 202, 20S, 227seeing;as 160smng Ihat 160seek 227seem 42, 46,62, 114,

1J2, 164, 190, 192 ,202

seen 140seldom 96, ISO, 152,

200self 120sell 58, 207, 227selves 120send 44,46, 511,227sense 1116seriously ISO, 156set 227sew 227sha ke 227shall 40, 74,1 28,121sh;aIVshan't 26shame 1116sham poo 90shave 120she 112shea r 227shed 227sheer 131shine 227shock 192, 107shock ed 78, 140shoot 227shoot down 188shop around I ll lIshort-term 1311shon(ly) 142sho uld 40, 74 , 128, 198,

205,206,221,224sho w 46, 50, 58, 62, 66 ,

68 , 208shrink 217shul 56,127shul up 11111side by side 94sign 1116similar 132similarly 174simple 140simply 134, 154since 6, 12, 14, 1111, 174since ( becau~l 160, 174sing 56,58, 227sink 227sister-in-law 86sil 152,227sky 90

deep 207,227sleeping 132slide 227slighdy 134, 150sling 128slowly 148slow(ly) 142sma ll-Kale U Ssmell 30 , 202 , 228smoke 56so 146,174, 200so as 10 162so do 1 200, 216so far 180so long as 174so Ihat 162,1 74soft 144sofH poken 138solely 154some 96, 110, 122,

2 11- 12,220some' 82some (of) 82, 212somebod y 48, 96, 2 12someone 48, 96, 1 11something 48, 96, 190,

212sometimes 36, 148so mewhat 154soon 174sooner 15K, 170, 200sorry 1J 2, 140so rt OUI 188sound 2, 42, 90 , 164 ,

202so ur-tasting 138sow 128speak 60 , 218special 144special ise in 56specifically 154speculate 66 , 68specula tion 76 , 172speed 228spell 228spend 228spill 228spin 128spit 228splash out 188split 228split up 188spoi l 22 11spo t 208spread 128spring 94, 228sla ff 84Slam 11 4seand 151, 118srand up 188sian 46, 56, 60, 62, 130,

20.sian 10 finish 94state-of-the-art 86state ment 76srarisucs 84Slay 42, 1110steal 228

Sik k 128Sling 22 8Slink 22 8sdp ulate 78stolen 138stop 60 , 1011srraig hr 136str ange-soundin g 138strike 192, 22 8strive 228srrong 134study 56stupid 140stu pidly 156subdued 142subsequently 174such 200such th at 162sudden ly 4, 142suffer 150sufficiently 146suggcsr 2,44, 50, 54 , 58,

66 , 72, 78, 124, 20 11sUgKtslion 76, 130suitable 132sum mer 94sun 90superb 134suppose 20, 50 , 54,64,

124, 170scppcsed 10 28, 190 , 106supposedly 142supposing 20, 170, 174sure 76, 132, 140surprise 191, 194surprised 78surprisedlsurprisinR 2 I 6surprisingly 156surroundings 84suspect 114suspicious 42swea r 72, 228sweep 228sweet-smelling 138swell 128swim 151, 207, 228swing 22 8sympathetic 76sympa thy 102

Ttact ful 76lake 58, 191, 194 , 207,

mlake ahn 44, 1118lake aga inst 188take on 110take over 188lake up on 188lakto 138ralk 60la lk aboulloUonlwi lh

68, 172, 184talk dow n to 44talk OUI of 188taste 30, 192, 201lea cup 116lea leaf 86 293

Index of lexical item s

294

teach 44. 46, 58,62, b6,68 , 208 , 228

team 80lea r 228lear awa y fro m 110technical 1] 6tech nically 156tell 44,46, 50, 58,60.

62, 66 , 68, 72 , 124,20 7,208,209,228

tell apa rt 188lend 46, 190terr ible 134, 140terrific 140th an 198tha nk 2than ks 84that 106, 110, 112, 138,

196 , 209, 223t hat is 112the 92 , 94, 122, 144,

2 19, 220th e affluen t 122the disa dvantaged 122the elderly 122the ho meless 122the low-paid 122the mai n 122th e majorit y of 82th e minute/ second!

moment 6th e num ber of 112th e onl y 122the ponr 122th e position of 92th e post o f 92the privileged 122the rich 122the ro le of 92th e sligh les t 186the sole 186the wa y 6Sthe wealthy 122the who le of ISOthe young 122their 220themselves 120, 2 15then 152, 174th ere 50, 82, 190th ere goes 198there is 190t herefore 174these 122, 209they 48the y say 4thi nk 2,8,10,50, 54 ,

56,62,64,66,68,124,194, 202 ,228

think abo ut 8, 10, 172thin k o f 8, 10,60thin{]y) 142this 92 , 122,209 , 220this morning/week/

month 6those 122, 138though 164, 174thoughlful 140threa t 76

threaten 62, 72thro ugh 118,1 76, I IlOthrougho ut 176 , 1110th row 44, 58, 207, 228throw away 188thrust 228thus 174tidy aw ay 188lill 180tired 140tired/ tir ing 216title 4410 13010 da le ISOto my/h is/her knowledge

156tod ay 6tomorrow 150too 146,1 54,1 74total 132tota lly 134touch 207town 90transpire 192travel industry 90tread 228trea tment 11Wtr ee-lined 138tr emendo us 134tr emendously 154troub le abou t/ with 120tr ue 136, 144tr y 130,20Stry out IS8tu rn 42turn in 18Sturn ou t 42, 192

Uun able 96, 140un aware 140unbel ievabl y 156uncertain 76, 140, 172uncer tain ty 172unco mfortable 140undecided 172under 176under lying Ll2undern eath 176understa nd 2, 12, 30, 46.

50,66, sa. 124, 166,194, 202, 228

undert ake 26undoubtedly 156undress 120unexpectedly 142unh appy 42, 140uniqu e 134, 144universit y 80unknown 134unless 20, 172 , 174unlik ely 96un necessary 78unprofession al 140un reasonable 140unsure 132, 140, 172unsure, nor sure 76until 6, 20, lSI!, 174,

180, 200un til now 180un well 132unw illingness 186up 1911up liII 180up to 180upset 78. 140. 192upsta irs 148urge 72, 78urgent 78usc 194use up 18Sused to 32,74, 190,204.

205 . 22 1usuall y 148utt er 1] 2utt erly 134

Vvary 56, 150very 134, 154very much 154view 194violentl y 148virt ually 102, Ll4. 1J4visit 180visually 156vital 78volun tee r 62 , 72vote 44vow 72

Wwait 62,207wak e 56, 22Swalk 152want 8, 10, 26, 46, 64 ,

72 , 130, 207,208warn 2, 50, 62, 66, 68,

72,78,207, 208wa rn ing 76, 78wash 56 , 110wash up 56. 18Sw atch 60 , 208wave 56way 142,186we 48weak 134wear 228weave 228week 102weekly 152weep 228weigh 2, 202welco me 140wel l 132well-behaved 138well-resourced 138were 170wet 228what 52. 64.68.76.

108.207what if 20what with 118whatever 108what's more 174, 22Jwhen 6,20,54,68, 108,

158, 174, 196, 200,213

whenever 118, 174where (,4, 68, 82, 108,

196,22Jwhereabouts S4whereas 164, 174whereby 108whether 64,68,76, 172which 52, 64 , 68, 106,

110, 122,1 96, 207,222, 223

whic hever 108while 20. 111I, 1511, 164,

174, 220whilst 164who 52, 64,68, 106,

10~ , 196, 207, 222.213

whoe ver 108whole 102, 134whom 52, 106, 110, 223whose 52. 108, 207, 223why 68, 108, 196,223wide(ly) 142wild 136will 18, 20, 26, 32, Il8,

204,22 1willing 140willingness. 186win % , 228wind 2211wind up 188winter 94, 102wisely 156wi\h 170, 201lwith 118, 184with confusion 142withou t 96, 118woman's face 116women 's clinic 86wonder 4, 8, 68wonderful IJ4, 140world 90worn 144worried 42, 140, 144worried/ wnrryinK 216worriedl y 142worry 31l, 19lwould 32. 74, 128. 204,

205,218, 221would like 130would rather 170would sooner 170wrinK 228wrue 56, 58 , 228wrong 144wro ngly L'i6

yyeste rda y 152yet 174you 48young 134your 122, 220, 222yours 222yourself 120, 2 15yourselves 2 15