PERKEMBANGAN PERKEMBANGAN KOGNITIFKOGNITIF

PsikologiPsikologi UmumUmum 22UniversitasUniversitas BundaBunda MuliaMulia

Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Developmental psychology concerned with psychological change Developmental psychology concerned with psychological change over the life spanover the life spanBasic question: What shapes the way we change over time?Basic question: What shapes the way we change over time?Every area of psychology can be looked at from this perspectiveEvery area of psychology can be looked at from this perspective–– biological developmentbiological development–– social developmentsocial development–– cognitive / perceptual developmentcognitive / perceptual development–– personality developmentpersonality development

Issues are very broadIssues are very broad–– heredity vs. environmentheredity vs. environment–– stages vs. continuous changestages vs. continuous change–– Are there critical periods?Are there critical periods?–– prenatal influencesprenatal influences–– How much ability are we born with?How much ability are we born with?

ChepalocaudalChepalocaudal & & ProximodistalProximodistal

MenurutMenurut prinsipprinsip cephalocaudalcephalocaudal, , urutanurutan kematangankematangan dandan pertumbuhanpertumbuhan fisikfisik dimulaidimulai daridaridaerahdaerah kepalakepala ((chepalicchepalic regionregion) ) sampaisampai padapada daerahdaerah tulangtulang ekorekor ((caudal regioncaudal region). ). ProporsiProporsikepalakepala bayibayi yang yang barubaru lahirlahir tampaktampak lebihlebih panjangpanjang. . KepalaKepala bayibayi iniini merupakanmerupakan 70% 70% daridaribentukbentuk kepalanyakepalanya ketikaketika dewasadewasa, , dandan merupakanmerupakan seperempatseperempat (25%) (25%) daridari seluruhseluruh panjangpanjangtubuhnyatubuhnya. . KetikaKetika tumbuhtumbuh menjadimenjadi kanakkanak--kanakkanak, , proporsiproporsi iniini berubahberubah. . PadaPada umurumur satusatu tahuntahun, , kepalakepala anakanak hanyahanya 20% 20% daridari panjangpanjang tubuhnyatubuhnya. Dari . Dari masamasa kanakkanak--kanakkanak sampaisampai remajaremaja, kaki , kaki bertambahbertambah panjangpanjang, , dandan menyebabkanmenyebabkan sekitarsekitar 60% 60% daridari pertambahanpertambahan tinggitinggi badanbadan. . PadaPadamasamasa remajaremaja, , pertumbuhanpertumbuhan didi bagianbagian lipatanlipatan pahapaha terlihatterlihat lebihlebih cepatcepat. . KetikaKetika dewasadewasa, kaki , kaki akanakan mencapaimencapai 50% 50% tinggitinggi badanbadan, , dandan kepalakepala hanyahanya 12%.12%.PerkembanganPerkembangan proximodistalproximodistal adalahadalah urutanurutan kematangankematangan dandan pertumbuhanpertumbuhan fisikfisik dimulaidimulai daridaridaerahdaerah pusatpusat tubuhtubuh ((proximal regionproximal region) ) keke daerahdaerah yang yang sangatsangat jauhjauh ((distal regiondistal region). ). SelamaSelamamasamasa prakelahiranprakelahiran, dada , dada dandan bagianbagian internal internal terbentukterbentuk pertamapertama kali, kali, diikutidiikuti lenganlengan dandantungkaitungkai kaki, kaki, dandan kemudiankemudian telapaktelapak tangantangan dandan kaki. kaki. PadaPada masamasa kanakkanak--kanakkanak, , lenganlengan dandantungkaitungkai kaki kaki mulaimulai tumbuhtumbuh lebihlebih cepatcepat daridari telapaktelapak tangantangan dandan kaki. kaki. NamunNamun, , polapola iniini berbalikberbaliksebelumsebelum pubertaspubertas ketikaketika tangantangan dandan kaki kaki tumbuhtumbuh lebihlebih cepatcepat dandan menjadimenjadi anggotaanggota tubuhtubuhpertamapertama yang yang mencapaimencapai proporsiproporsi dewasadewasa, , diikutidiikuti tungkaitungkai kaki kaki dandan lenganlengan, , kemudiankemudian terakhirterakhirbagianbagian lipatanlipatan pahapaha. .

Fundamental Issues: Fundamental Issues: Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. Nurture

What is role of heredity vs. What is role of heredity vs. environment in determining environment in determining psychological makeup?psychological makeup?–– Is your IQ inherited or determined Is your IQ inherited or determined

by nutrition and early environment?by nutrition and early environment?–– Is there a Is there a ‘‘criminalcriminal’’ gene or does gene or does

poverty lead to criminal behavior?poverty lead to criminal behavior?–– Is sexual orientation a choice or Is sexual orientation a choice or

genetically determined?genetically determined?

These are some of our greatest These are some of our greatest societal debatessocietal debatesMistake to pose as Mistake to pose as ‘‘either / oreither / or’’questionsquestions

Fundamental Issues: Is Fundamental Issues: Is Development Continuous?Development Continuous?

Development means change Development means change -- change can be change can be abrupt or gradualabrupt or gradualTwo views of human developmentTwo views of human development–– stage theories: there are distinct phases to stage theories: there are distinct phases to

intellectual and personality developmentintellectual and personality development–– continuity: development is continuouscontinuity: development is continuous

These views have been applied to social, These views have been applied to social, personal and intellectual developmentpersonal and intellectual development

Fundamental Issues in Fundamental Issues in Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Critical period Critical period -- Are there periods when an Are there periods when an individual is particularly sensitive to certain individual is particularly sensitive to certain environmental experiences?environmental experiences?–– Are the first hours after birth critical for parentAre the first hours after birth critical for parent--child child

bonding?bonding?–– Is first year critical for developing trust?Is first year critical for developing trust?–– Easier to learn a language before age 10?Easier to learn a language before age 10?

Are there individual differences in stages and Are there individual differences in stages and critical periods?critical periods?

Developmental Research Developmental Research MethodsMethods

CrossCross--sectional sectional -- performance of people performance of people of different age groups is compared of different age groups is compared Longitudinal Longitudinal -- performance of one group performance of one group of people is assessed repeatedly over of people is assessed repeatedly over time time Sequential Sequential -- combines crosscombines cross--sectional and sectional and longitudinal approaches in a single study longitudinal approaches in a single study

Physical and Psychological Physical and Psychological Development RelatedDevelopment Related

Physical development begins at Physical development begins at conceptionconceptionPhysical maturity sets limits on Physical maturity sets limits on psychological abilitypsychological ability–– visual system not fully functional at birthvisual system not fully functional at birth–– language system not functional until much laterlanguage system not functional until much later

Prenatal environment can have lifetime Prenatal environment can have lifetime influence on health and intellectual influence on health and intellectual abilityability

Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

Conception Conception -- when a sperm penetrates the when a sperm penetrates the ovumovumZygote Zygote -- a fertilized egga fertilized eggGerminal period Germinal period -- first two weeks after first two weeks after conceptionconceptionEmbryonic period Embryonic period -- weeks three through eight weeks three through eight after conceptionafter conceptionFetal period Fetal period -- two months after conception two months after conception until birth until birth

Prenatal Influences on Prenatal Influences on DevelopmentDevelopment

Teratogen Teratogen -- any agent that causes a any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses)viruses)Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)–– cluster of defects occurring in infants born to cluster of defects occurring in infants born to

mothers that drink heavily during pregnancymothers that drink heavily during pregnancy–– leading cause of mental retardationleading cause of mental retardation–– can be totally prevented by abstaining from can be totally prevented by abstaining from

alcohol during pregnancyalcohol during pregnancy

Infant Abilities and Infant Abilities and PerceptionsPerceptions

What does an infant feel and perceive?What does an infant feel and perceive?William James said, William James said, ““booming, buzzing booming, buzzing confusion.confusion.”” Was he right?Was he right?–– Is infant vision just a blur?Is infant vision just a blur?–– Is infant sound just buzzing and booming?Is infant sound just buzzing and booming?

He was probably wrong, but infants He was probably wrong, but infants have limited ability to communicate, so have limited ability to communicate, so it is hard to tell what they experienceit is hard to tell what they experience

Infant AbilitiesInfant AbilitiesInfants are born with immature visual Infants are born with immature visual systemsystem–– can detect movement and large objectscan detect movement and large objects

Other senses function well on day 1Other senses function well on day 1–– will orient to soundswill orient to sounds–– turn away from unpleasant odorsturn away from unpleasant odors–– prefer sweet to sour tastesprefer sweet to sour tastes

Born with a number of reflex behaviorsBorn with a number of reflex behaviors

Infant ReflexesInfant Reflexes

Rooting Rooting -- turning the turning the head and opening the head and opening the mouth in the direction mouth in the direction of a touch on the of a touch on the cheekcheekSucking Sucking -- sucking sucking rhythmically in rhythmically in response to oral response to oral stimulationstimulationBabinskiBabinski -- fanning and fanning and curling toes when foot curling toes when foot is strokedis stroked

Rooting & Sucking

Babinski

Infant ReflexesInfant Reflexes

Moro Moro -- throwing the throwing the arms out, arching the arms out, arching the back and bringing the back and bringing the arms together as if to arms together as if to hold onto something hold onto something (in response to loud (in response to loud noise or sudden noise or sudden change in position of change in position of the head)the head)Grasping Grasping -- curling the curling the fingers around an fingers around an objectobject

Methods for Studying Methods for Studying InfantsInfants

Infant reflexes provide insight Infant reflexes provide insight into their mental lifeinto their mental life–– gaze duration related to visual gaze duration related to visual

perceptionperception–– head turning related to auditory head turning related to auditory

attentionattention–– sucking, reaching, kicking can be sucking, reaching, kicking can be

used to measure interestused to measure interest

Infant PerceptionInfant Perception

Not just a blur or a Not just a blur or a buzzbuzzIn first weekIn first week–– will recognize their will recognize their

mothermother’’s smells smell–– will show preference will show preference

for novel stimulifor novel stimuli–– gaze at facegaze at face--like like

pattern rather than pattern rather than similar non facesimilar non face--like like patternpattern

Infant PerceptionInfant Perception

Infants explore their environment in Infants explore their environment in whatever way their physical whatever way their physical development permitsdevelopment permitsAt 2At 2--3 months will grasp object and put 3 months will grasp object and put in mouth to explorein mouth to exploreAt 3At 3--4 months will manipulate object, 4 months will manipulate object, examine it visually, selectively attend to examine it visually, selectively attend to novel objects or eventsnovel objects or events

Infant PerceptionInfant Perception

A basic question is how A basic question is how knowledge of the properties of knowledge of the properties of physical objects arisesphysical objects arises–– object permanenceobject permanence–– objects canobjects can’’t pass through other t pass through other

objectsobjects–– dropped objects falldropped objects fall

Research on infant selective Research on infant selective attention attention –– measure gaze durationmeasure gaze duration–– create physically impossible eventscreate physically impossible events–– infants notice at 3infants notice at 3--4 months4 months

Depth perceptionDepth perception-- visual cliffvisual cliff

TahapTahap PerkembanganPerkembangan KognitifKognitifJean PiagetJean Piaget

MenurutMenurut Jean Piaget Jean Piaget terdapatterdapat empatempat tahapantahapan perkembanganperkembangankognitifkognitif. . –– TahapTahap pertamapertama disebutdisebut periodeperiode sensoriksensorik motorikmotorik ((sekitarsekitar lahirlahir –– 2 2 tahuntahun). ).

PadaPada tahaptahap iniini, , bayibayi menggunakanmenggunakan alatalat inderaindera dandan kemampuankemampuan motorikmotorikuntukuntuk memahamimemahami duniadunia sekitarnyasekitarnya. . BayiBayi mengalamimengalami perkembanganperkembangan daridarigerakgerak reflekreflek sederhanasederhana menujumenuju beberapabeberapa langkahlangkah skematikskematik yang yang lebihlebihterorganisirterorganisir. .

–– TahapTahap keduakedua disebutdisebut periodeperiode praoperasionalpraoperasional ((sekitarsekitar 2 2 –– 7 7 tahuntahun). ). AnakAnakdapatdapat membuatmembuat penyesuaianpenyesuaian perseptualperseptual dandan motorikmotorik terhadapterhadap obyekobyek dandankejadiankejadian yang yang direpresentasikandirepresentasikan dalamdalam bentukbentuk simbolsimbol ((bayanganbayangan mental, mental, katakata--katakata, , isyaratisyarat) ) dalamdalam meningkatkanmeningkatkan bentukbentuk organisasiorganisasi dandan logikalogika. .

–– TahapTahap ketigaketiga adalahadalah periodeperiode kongkritkongkrit operasionaloperasional ((sekitarsekitar 7 7 –– 11 11 tahuntahun). ). AnakAnak mendapatkanmendapatkan strukturstruktur logikalogika tertentutertentu yang yang membuatnyamembuatnya dapatdapatmelaksanakanmelaksanakan berbagaiberbagai macammacam operasioperasi mental, yang mental, yang merupakanmerupakantindakantindakan terinternalisasiterinternalisasi yang yang dapatdapat dikeluarkandikeluarkan bilabila perluperlu. . AnakAnakmelaksanakanmelaksanakan operasioperasi iniini dalamdalam situasisituasi kongkritkongkrit. .

–– TahapTahap terakhirterakhir adalahadalah periodeperiode formal formal operasionaloperasional ((sekitarsekitar 11 11 –– 15 15 tahuntahun). ). OperasiOperasi mental mental tidaktidak lagilagi hanyahanya terbatasterbatas padapada obyekobyek kongkritkongkrit, , tetapitetapi jugajugasudahsudah dapatdapat diaplikasikandiaplikasikan padapada kalimatkalimat verbal verbal atauatau logikalogika, yang , yang tidaktidakhanyahanya menjangkaumenjangkau kenyataankenyataan melainkanmelainkan jugajuga kemungkinankemungkinan, , tidaktidak hanyahanyamenjangkaumenjangkau masamasa kinikini tetapitetapi jugajuga masamasa depandepan. .

TahapTahap PerkembanganPerkembangan KognitifKognitifJean PiagetJean Piaget

Dari Sampai Nama Pemahaham Kemampuan Kelemahan 1 0 2 Sensorimotor Dunia bukan

perluasan diri Pola refleks Ketetapan obyek

Simbol

2 2 7 Praoperasional Simbol Gambaran citra kata-kata animisme artifisialisme

Manipulasi symbol Peran jender Kalsifikasi ] Moral egosentrik Realisme

3 7 11 Konkrit operasional

Obyek fisik menghilangkan cara berpikir egosentrik.

Konservasi Urutan bolak balik Coba-coba/salah

Penalaran abstrak

4 11 Dewasa/ tidak

pernah

Formal operasional

Hipotesis/pengujian Deduksi hipotetik ideal aljabar.