PATTERNS OF LIFE

TITLES OF RELATED INTEREST

Biogeographical processes I. G. Simmons

Countryside conservation B. Green

Environmental impact assessment P. Wathem (ed.)

Environmental systems I. D. White et at.

Hedgerows and verges W. H. Dowdeswell

Introduction to world vegetation A. S. Collinson

Nature's place W. M. Adams

Practical ecology for geography and biology I. Gilbertson et al.

Processes of vegetation change C. Burrows

The young Earth E. Nisbet

ATTERNS 0 LIFE Biogeography of a changing world

H. W. MIELKE

Xavier University of Louisiana, College of Pharmacy

Boston UNWIN HYMAN

London Sydney Wellington

© H. W. Mielke, 1989 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edtion 1989

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention. No reproduction without pennission. All rights reserved.

Unwin Hyman, Inc., 8 Winchester Place, Winchester, Mass. 01890, USA

Published by the Academic Division of Unwin Hyman Ltd

15/17 Broadwick Street, London WI V IFP, UK

Allen & Unwin (Australia) Ltd, 8 Napier Street, North Sydney, NSW 2060, Australia

Allen & Unwin (New Zealand) Ltd in association with the Port Nicholson Press Ltd,

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First published in 1989

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mielke, H. W. (Howard Walter), 1941-Patterns of life: biogeography of a changing world / H. W. Mielke.

p. cm. Bibliography: p. Includes index. ISBN-13: 978-0-04-574033-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-011-6499-3 DO I: 10.1 007/978-94-011-6499-3

1. Biogeography. I. Title. QH84.M54 1988 574.9-dcI9 87-34694

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Mielke, H. W. (Howard Walter), 1941-Patterns of life. 1. Biogeography

I. Title 574.9

CIP

Typeset in 9 on 11 point Century Old Style by Columns of Reading

Cover photo Cape Maciear. Malawi. Africa. site of Lake Malawi National Park. This African rift lake is discussed in Chapter 8.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND DEDICATION

More years than I care to admit have passed since I first began this project. I have had the good fortune of extraordinary guidance. Mentors from the past include Alexander von Humboldt and George Perkins Marsh; and in the present, Hildegard Binder Johnson, M. Gordon ("Reds") Wolman, and Thomas R. Detwyler have played key roles in encouraging me to set down ideas about the Earth's patterns of life. I also wish to acknowledge the opportunity to carry on research under the direction of Drs. Charles Schnetzler and Nicholas Short, both at Goddard Spaceflight Center, and Dr. Rufus Chaney, of the United States Department of Agriculture at Beltsville, Maryland. Special thanks are in order to Bonnie Alexander who typed large portions of this text and to Lena Mielke and Ruth Paskewitz who assisted with editing and proof reading.

Many students, colleagues, and friends have contributed ideas and specific comments during the writing and reviewing of this manuscript. Portions of the book were reviewed by Phil Gersmehl, University of Minnesota, M. Gordon Wolman, The Johns Hopkins University, Lyndon Wester, University of Hawaii, Jonathan Sauer, University of California, Los Angeles, Mark Davis, Macalester College, Carolyn Harrison, University College London, Francis Rose, King's College, University of London, and Tom Detwyler, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point. More extensive reviews were contributed by Tom Vale, University of Wisconsin, Madison and Richard W. Holm, Stanford University, Stanford, California. Finally, Roger Jones, Clem Earle, Andy Oppenheimer, Michael Fitch, and the skilled people at Unwin Hyman were steadfast and helpful at every point in the writing and publishing craft. To all the above people my sincerest thanks. I profited from their interest and assistance and the book has been greatly improved and enriched as a result of their efforts and helpful advice. Whatever errors and deficiencies that remain are not theirs, but mine.

I wish to dedicate this book to my students who nurtured thinking about patterns of life and to my daughter Beverly Ann who is a constant inspiration and motivates thoughts about now and the future.

8 September, 1988 St Paul, Minnesota

Weare grateful to the following individuals and organizations who have kindly given permission for the reproduction of copyright material (figure numbers in parentheses):

K. D. Wood, reproduced by permission from Nature 240, 91-3, Copyright © Macmillan Magazines Ltd (2.2); Figures 2.3, 3.3, 4.1, 4.9, 4.11, and 5.3 reproduced or modified from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences, © Sceptre Books; Figure 2.7 reproduced from Bauer, Geographical Review 23, © American Geographical Society; L. Margulis (3.1, Table 3.2); Princeton University Press (3.2); Figure 3.6 reproduced by permission from W. J. Schopf, Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution, © 1983 Princeton University Press; M. Schwarzbach (4.2); Figure 4.4 reproduced from Hammond, Science 189, 779-81, Copyright 1973 A.A.A.S.; A. J. Boucot, reproduced by permission from Philosophical Transactions

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of the Royal Society B 309 (4.5); Figure 4.6 reproduced by pennission from the Times Atlas - 7th Edition, Copyright ©John Bartholomew & Son Ltd MCMLXXXVII; J. W. Valentine, reproduced from Valentine & Moores, The Journal of Geology 80, 167-84, by pennission of the University of Chicago Press (4.7); Figure 4.8 reproduced from Hays, Geological Society of America Bulletin 82, 2433-4, by pennission of the Geological Society of America; Figures 4.10, 4.12 and 4.13 reproduced from Tarling & Runcom, Implications of Continental Drift to the Earth Sciences (1973), by pennission of Academic Press, M. C. McKenna & A. Keast; J. Fooden, reproduced from Fooden, Science 175, 894-8, Copyright 1972 A.A.A.S. (4.15); J. P. Kennett, reproduced from Kennett & Thunell, Science 187, 497-503, Copyright 1975 A.A.A.S. (4.17); Figures 4.14 and 6.14 reproduced from C. Raunkier, The Lifeforms of Plants (1934), by pennission of Oxford University Press; Figure 4.16A&B reproduced from Calder, Scientific American July 1978, 135, Copyright © 1978 Scientific American, Inc; Tables 5.1, 5.2 and Figure 5.10 reproduced by pennission from R. F. Flint, Glacial and Quaternary Geology, Copyright © 1971 John Wiley & Sons, Inc; Figures 5.1 and 5.5 reproduced from D. E. Sugden, Glaciers and Landscape, by pennission of Edward Arnold; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (5.6, 5.7, 7.9, 15.7, 15.11, 15.12); E. S. Deevey (5.12); Figures 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15 reproduced by pennission from Webb, The Journal of Interdesciplinary History X, 749-72, © 1980 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the editors of The Journal of Interdisciplinary History; Syracuse University Press (6.13); R. A. Bryson (6.16); Figure 6.18 reproduced from Sprugel, Journal of Ecology 64, by pennission of Blackwell Scientific Publications; Figure 6.19 reproduced from Fritts et al., The Journal of Interdisciplinary History X, 773--93, © 1980 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the editors of The Journal of Interdisciplinary History; P. L. Richardson, reproduced from Kerr, Science 198,387-9, Copyright 1977 A.A.A.S. (7.1); Table 7.1 and Figure 7.12 reproduced from R. L. Smith in The Ecology of the Seas (eds D. H. Cushing & J. ]. Walsh) (1976), by pennission of Blackwell Scientific Publishing; Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (7.4); Figure 7.5 reproduced from Pough, American Naturalist 115, by pennission of the University of Chicago Press; H. Walter (7.7); American Scientist (7.14); Figure 8.9 reproduced by permission from Mather & Yoshioka, Annals of the American Association of Geographers 58; Figures 8.10 and 8.11 reproduced from M. A. Lock & D. D. Williams (eds), Perspectives on Running Water (1981), by pennission of Plenum Publishing Corporation; Figure 9.5 reproduced by pennission from R. H. MacArthur & E. D. Wilson, The Theory of Island Biogeography, Copyright © 1967 Princeton University Press; Figure 9.8 reproduced from Brown, American Naturalist lOS, by pennission of the University of Chicago Press; Figure 9.9 reproduced from Curtis in Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (ed W. L. Thomas) (1956), by pennission of the University of Chicago Press; Figure 9.10 reproduced from Wilson & Willis in Ecology and Evolution of Communities (eds M. L. Cody & J. M. Diamond), by pennission of Harvard University Press; Table 10.1 reproduced from R. E. Moreau, The Palaearctic-African Bird Migration System (1972), by pennission of Academic Press; D. von Frisch, reproduced from von Frisch, The Dancing Bees, Copyright © 1966 Methuen & Co, reprinted by pennission of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. (10.1); Figure 10.2 reproduced from A. E. Bradfield & M. J. Llewellyn, Animal Energetics (1982), by pennission of Blackie & Son; Figure 10.5 adapted from a drawing in World Atlas of Birds by pennission of Mitchell Beasley; Figure 10.6 reproduced from A. Keast & E. S. Morton, Migrant Birds in the Neotropics, by pennission of the Smithsonian Institution Press, © 1980 Smithsonian Institution; L. P. Brower (10.8); R. R. Baker, The Evolutionary Ecology of Animal Migration, Copyright © 1978. R. Robin Baker, reproduced by pennission of Hohnes & Meier (10.9); Figure 10.10 reproduced from Leggett, Scientific American March 1973, 93, Copyright © 1973 Scientific American, Inc; Figure 10.13 reproduced from Bell, Scientific American July 1971, 91, Copyright © 1971 Scientific American, Inc; South African Journal of Science, 1980 (11.1); Figures 11.3 and 11.4 reproduced by pennission from Gersmehl, Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 66; Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences, 1967 (11.6); Figure 11.9 reproduced from Heinrich, Scientific American April 1973, 98-99, Copyright © 1973 Scientific American, Inc.; Figure 11.10 reproduced from Ehrlich, Scientific American June 1967, 110-11, Copyright © 1967 Scientific American, Inc.; Figure 11.15 reproduced from Mielke, Journal of Biogeography 4, by pennission of Blackwell Scientific Publishing; R. H. Gammon, reproduced from Kerr, Science 222, 1107-8, Copyright 1983 A.A.A.S. (12.2B); Figure 12.3 reproduced from N.]. Shackleton & N. G. Pisias, The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2 : Archean to Present (1985), copyright American Geophysical Union; Population Bulletin XVIII, by pennission of the Population Reference Bureau, Washington DC (13.1A); Figure 13.18 reproduced from Deevey, Scientific American Sept. 1960, 198, Copyright © 1960 Scientific American, Inc.; Figure 13.2 reproduced by pennission from P. S. Martin & R. G. Klein (eds) , Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution, Copyright 1984 University of Arizona Press; Table 13.2 reproduced by pennission from Kurten & Anderson, Pleistocene Mammals of North America, Copyright © 1980 Columbia University Press; C. B. Officer, reproduced from Officer el at., Science 223, 22-7, Copyright 1984 A.A.A.S. (14.13); J. S. Steinhart (15.1); M. G. Wohnan, reproduced by pennission from Geografiska Annaler 49A (15.5); Figure 15.6 reproduced from R. A. Sanders, Urban Ecology 8, 13--27, by permission of Elsevier; AmericanJournal of Public Health, 1983 (15.9A); Institute for Consumer Policy Research (15.10).

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements vii

List of tables xiii

Introduction 1

PART ONE PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS 5

ONE The planetary and geological context of life 7

Introduction 7 General background 7

Cratering 8 Faulting 11

Volcanism 14 Gradation and landforms 16

Isostatic adjustment of the crust 20 Sea-floor spreading and continental drift 21

Organic landforms 22 Conclusions 23

Further reading 24

TWO The Earth, life, and energy cycles 25

Introduction 25 The Earth and energy cycles 25

Cycles based on orbital changes 28 The Moon and the Earth's tides 29

Periodic extinctions of plants and animals 34 Conclusions 35

Further reading 36

PART TWO PAST EVENTS AND THEIR BIOGEOGRAPHIC SIGNIFICANCE 39

THREE Evolution of the biosphere 41

Introduction 41 The evolution of the Earth's atmosphere 42

IX

CONTENTS

Evolutionary relationships between organisms 43 Biogeochemical pathways and the evolution of the atmosphere 47

Physical evidence of the evolution of the Earth's biosphere 52 Conclusions 57

Further reading 57

FOUR Continental drift 58

Introduction 58 The development of the continental drift idea: the early hypothesis 58

The modem theory of sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics 59 Paleogeography: continental drift during the Phanerozoic 60

The response of animals to continental movement and geomagnetic changes 64 Plate tectonics and the pattern of life 67

The continuing effect of continental drift 73 Conclusions 77

Further reading 77

FIVE Biogeographic patterns and ice age events 78

Introduction 78 Types of glaciers 78

Causes of extensive glaciation 79 Glacial climatology 80

Reshaping the Earth's surface 84 Biogeographic implications of glacial events 88

Conclusions 98 Further reading 98

PART THREE PRESENT ENVIRONMENTS AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS 101

SIX The climatic environment 103

Introduction 103 Meteorological processes 103

Mountain climates and biogeography 108 The relationship between climate and vegetation ll2

Dynamic aspects of climate and biogeography ll8 Proxy data of climatic change 121 Causes of climatic fluctuations 122

Conclusions 124 Further reading 124

SEVEN Marine and terrestrial environments 125

Introduction 125 The Earth's two major environments 125

Soil as a major evolutionary development 130 Productivity and structures of the marine environment 137

x

CONTENTS

Productivity and structural characteristics of terrestrial biosystems 141 Interaction of marine and terrestrial systems 146

Conclusions 147 Further reading 147

EIGHT Freshwater environments 148

Introduction 148 The water cycle 148

Streams 149 Soil-plant-atmosphere continuum 156

General characteristics of stream organisms 161 Natural impoundments 165

The estuary 170 Conclusions 171

Further reading 171

NINE Island environments 172

Introduction 172 The physical geographic setting of islands 172

Biotic features of islands 176 Characteristics of the patterns of island life 181 Mountain tops, refugia, and other islands 185

Evolutionary significance of islands 187 Human disruption of islands 188

Conclusions 192 Further reading 193

TEN Environments linked through animal movements 194

Introduction 194 Skills and aids required for navigation 194

Navigation feats of organisms 195 The origin of flight 197

Bird migration 198 Insect migration 205 Fish migrations 206

Migration among mammals 208 Conclusions 212

Further reading 213

ELEVEN Organisms and environments integrated through coevolution 214

Introduction 214 The compartment and transfer model 216

Plant-to-plant relationships 217 Plant-soil relationships 217

Plant-animal interactions 222 Animal-animal relationships: predators and prey 227

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CONTENTS

Animal-soil relationships: biogeochemical dynamos 231 Conclusions 237

Further reading 237

PART FOUR THE HUMAN IMPACT 239

TWELVE Fire as an old and new agent of change 241

Introduction 241 Attributes of humans and other animals 241

Metabolism of animals and humans 242 Evolution of fire as a human cultural tool 243

Carbon dioxide 248 Acid rain 251

Nuclear winter 257 Conclusions 260

Further reading 261

THIRTEEN Man the maker and exterminator of plants and animals 262

Introduction 262 Human population growth 262

Subsistence diet of the hunter and gatherer 264 The plant diet and neolithic lifestyle 270

Plant domestication 272 The Columbian exchange 281

Conclusions 287 Further reading 288

FOURTEEN Biogeographic repercussions of the intensification of agriculture 289

Introduction 289 The North American prairie: grassland to grainfield 289

The cultural evolution of till agriculture 293 Industrialization of till agriculture 298

The impact of agriculture on patterns of life 299 Plant breeding: expanding the perplexity of mechanized agriculture 309

Conclusions 311 Further reading 312

FIFTEEN The impact of urban-industrial development on patterns of life 313

Introduction 313 The impact of petroleum and petrochemicals 313

Industrialization, urbanization, and population growth 317 Final conclusions 331 Further reading 336

References 337

Index 361

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LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Comparison of some physical properties of the planets of the Solar System 8 3.1 Comparison of the partial pressures of constituent gases, in millibars, of the atmospheres

of Venus, Earth, and Mars 41 3.2 Major differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes 45 3.3 The carbon reservoirs of the Earth 49 4.1 Closely related plants separated by Wallace's Line 72 5.1 Estimated volume of present ice and glacial age ice 85 5.2 The most prominent of the former Quaternary land bridges 87 5.3 Number of genera, appearances, and extinctions of North American mammals during

glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary 89 5.4 Related species of genera shared between southeast Canada and northern Europe 96 6.1 Volcanic dust ejection of selected volcanic events 122 7.1 The principal constituent elements of sea water 127 7.2 Comparison of light penetration of sea water at nearshore and offshore sites 128 7.3 Abundance of elements of the Earth's crust compared with the abundance of the

elements in plants 143 7.4 The major currents 146 8.1 The major water reservoirs of the Earth 149 8.2 The major river basins of the Earth, ranked by discharge 154 8.3 Comparison of the chemical inputs and outputs of undisturbed and disturbed drainage

basins 158 8.4 Comparison of physical and chemical characteristics of mineral and peat soils 166 9.1 Area and relief of New Zealand and neighboring islands 175 9.2 Climatic data for New Zealand and neighboring islands 175 9.3 Relative dispersal capabilities of major groups of organisms 182 9.4 Impoverishment as measured by the ratio of species per genus for New Zealand and

neighboring islands 183 10.1 Palearctic-African bird migration 200 10.2 Number of Nearctic breeding species and number of species wintering in various

regions 203 12.1 Geologic trend of the ratio of brain to body size among mammalian herbivores and

carnivores 242 12.2 Approximate daily per capita energy use of various societies 247 12.3 Fuel changes in the United States from 1850 to 1975 252 12.4 Places exhibiting signs of forest die-back 256 13.1 The major periods and rates of growth of the human population 264 13.2 The late Pleistocene extinct and living genera of terrestrial megafauna of four

continents 268

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

13.3 Major food crops and their place of domestication 282 15.1 Number of people by percent of the total population living in cities of over 20,000

inhabitants between 1800 and 1980 and projected to 2000 318

xiv