PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

UNIT 4 SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

STRESS AND ANXIETY

JUNE 2013

Many elite performers complete personality and anxiety tests as part of their preparation for competition.

Name one self report questionnaire often used to measure anxiety and outline the disadvantages of using this form of data collection (3)

JUNE 2012

Using appropriate psychological theories, explain why performers may have different levels of optimal arousal and outline various somatic stress management techniques that can be used to control anxiety levels. (14 marks)

Different methods of assessment can be used to measure anxiety levels and also to identify potential successful performers.What are the disadvantages of using observation as a method to assess anxiety?(3 marks)

MAY, 2011

Identify and explain the different types of anxiety that may affect a performer.(3 marks)

JUNE 2010:

12) Name a cognitive stress management technique and describe how a player could use this technique to control their arousal level (3)

SPECIMEN: PHED 3:

In the build up to a major competition performers may get anxious.

What are the possible effects on performance when a performer enters a majorcompetition with a high level of anxiety? Discuss the strategies and techniques theperformer may use to manage anxiety in the build up to the competition. (14 marks)

JAN 2009:

Golfers have to remain calm when putting but may suffer from anxiety. Explain thedifferent forms of anxiety that may affect performers in similar demanding situations.(4 marks)

JAN, 2008:

The production of an elite performance involves the maximising of effort during the activity.

One difficulty facing performers is that competitive situations may often be seen as stressful, which may lead to anxiety.

(a) (i) Distinguish between cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety. (2 marks)

(ii) How do cognitive and somatic anxieties vary in the periods leading up to and during competition? (3 marks)

(b) Name and describe one technique for managing the effects of stress. (3 marks)

JUNE, 2007:

3 (b) The cognitive and somatic state anxiety of the competitors may vary as the start of the race approaches.

(i) What do you understand by the terms cognitive state anxiety and somaticstate anxiety? (2 marks)

(ii) Describe how cognitive state anxiety and somatic state anxiety may varyprior to and during the race. (3 marks)

JAN, 2006:

1) Before important competitions, cyclists tend to become anxious.

(c) Name and explain the different forms of anxiety that a performer may experience.(4 marks)

(d) Various tests have been designed for measuring anxiety in sport. Name one ofthese tests, state how it is administered and what aspect of anxiety it measures.(3 marks)

AROUSAL THEORY

JUNE 2013

The performer and the coach must work together so that the performer can control their arousal levels during a performance.

Identify three characteristics of the peak flow experience (3)

Using Chelladurai’s Model explain how a coach can help the performer to reach optimal levels of arousal (4)

JUNE 2010:

11) Using the catastrophe theory, describe how over arousal may affect a players performance (4)

SPECIMEN: PHED 3:

Sometimes elite performers fail to replicate the level of performance demonstrated intraining when competing in a major event.

Apart from drive theory, name two other theories of arousal. (3 marks)

JAN 2009:

Using drive theory, explain why performers such as golfers might hit some bad shotsdue to their levels of arousal. (3 marks)

JUNE 2008:

High board diving involves performers taking turns to perform complicated manoeuvres from a 10-metre high diving board before they enter the water in a controlled body position. Big competitions are usually held in front of many spectators.

(a) The presence of spectators may lead to an increase in arousal. What do youunderstand by the term arousal? (2 marks)

(b) Explain the effects of arousal on a performer in terms of catastrophe theory.(3 marks)

(c) The effects of audiences on performance often depend on the standard of theperformer. Explain what this means in terms of drive theory. (4 marks)

JUNE, 2007:

1) (c) (i) Tennis matches are often played in front of an audience.

Using appropriate theories, explain how the effects of playing in front of anaudience may differ for:

An elite performer;A novice. (5 marks)

(ii) How could a coach prepare a novice tennis player who is about to play infront of spectators for the first time? (2 marks)

JAN, 2007:

4) Many sporting competitions are now decided by ‘penalty shoot-outs’. In thesesituations, some performers readily accept responsibility while others prefer not to beinvolved.

Explain these observations in terms of achievement motivation. (6 marks)

JUNE, 2006:

4) Elite sport performers prepare psychologically for activities and use force to produce their required movement.

The inverted U theory may be used to explain how arousal may affect sportsperformance.

(a) (i) Name two other theories of arousal. (2 marks)

(ii) Figure 1 shows the arousal–performance relationship for:passing in hockeyputting in golftackling in rugby.

Using Figure 1, match each of the curves A, B and C to one of theseactivities justifying your choice. (4 marks)

(iii) Explain how the required levels of arousal vary between a novice and an eliteperformer. (2 marks)

JAN, 2005:

3) When competing on their own, elite performers such as ice skaters are affected by many factors.

(a) An elite performer’s motivation may be affected by their level of arousal. Figure 1 shows two graphs (A and B) that may be used to explain how arousal varies during performance.

(i) Identify the theories represented by graphs A and B in Figure 1. (2 marks)

(ii) Describe how each theory may be used to explain the effects of arousal onperformance. (7 marks)

GOAL SETTING

JUNE 2012

Effective captains use a variety of methods to motivate their teams.Explain the characteristics of effective goal setting. (3 marks)

JAN 2009:

How might goal setting enhance the performance of a marathon runner? (5 marks)

JUNE, 2007:

5) (b) When preparing for a swimming event such as the 200 metres free-style, eliteperformers will set themselves goals. Explain the main principles behindgoal-setting. (5 marks)

JUNE, 2006:

5) Elite performers take part in training programmes that are carefully planned and will often include goal-setting to improve performance.

(a) Why should goal-setting lead to improved performance? (3 marks)

(b) Explain the main principles of effective goal-setting. (5 marks)

JAN, 2005:

1) Elite performers often use goal setting as part of their training programme.

(c) What value does goal setting have for the performer? (2 marks)

d) Outline the factors that make goal setting effective. (5 marks)

SELF EFFICACY

JUNE 2013

Elite performers have to develop high levels of self confidence to optimise their performanceWhat do you understand by the term learned helplessness? (3)

Explain how the self efficacy of a performer may be improved (4)

JAN 2009:

Competing in the 100-metres at the World Athletic Championships or the Olympic Gamesprovides the performer with both psychological and physiological challenges to overcome.(a) Winning a World Championship requires high self-efficacy.(i) What do you understand by the term self-efficacy? (2 marks)

(ii) How can a coach help a performer to increase their self-efficacy? (4 marks)

JAN, 2008:

Weight training involves the use of resistance as a means of overloading the body to improve strength.

Lifting heavy weights above the head requires considerable self-efficacy. A coach may try to improve the self-efficacy of an individual who uses weight training, through vicarious experiences.

(a) (i) What do you understand by the term self-efficacy? (2 marks)

(ii) How may a coach make vicarious experiences a suitable method for improving self efficacy?(2 marks)

(b) How does high self-efficacy help a performer to produce better performances? (3 marks)

JAN, 2007:

3) Elite performers will train hard and develop high self-efficacy.

(c) (i) What do you understand by the term self-efficacy? (2 marks)

(ii) What strategies may be used to improve the self-efficacy of a performer?(5 marks)

JAN, 2006:

3) Elite performers are required to be well prepared both psychologically andphysiologically. Psychological preparation is best served if the performer has highself-efficacy.

(a) Explain what you understand by the term self-efficacy. (2 marks)

(b) What strategies could a coach employ to improve the self-efficacy of a performer?(6 marks)

PERSONALITY

JUNE 2013

How can knowledge of the interactionist theory of personality help a coach to improve the performance of an individual player (4)

JUNE 2012

Discuss the suggestion that personality questionnaire can be an effective predictor of performance. (4 marks)

MAY, 2011

Explain how ‘approach behaviour’ can be developed within the team. (4 marks)

JUNE 2010

13) What do you understand by the term profile of mood states? (3)

JAN 2009:

Explain how the interactionist theories of personality enable us to predict the behaviour of performers. (3 marks)

JAN, 2008:

Psychologists have presented different theories to explain personality. One of these theories is trait theory.Explain the trait theory of personality. (3 marks)

JUNE, 2007:

3) The London Marathon participants include both elite athletes and fun runners.

Figure 3 shows the start of the London Marathon.

(a) Morgan’s (1987) ‘Profile of Mood States’ questionnaire measures the emotionalstate of performers.

How would you expect the profiles to differ between elite performers and funrunners? (3 marks)

JAN, 2007: 1) Research has tried to establish a link between the psychology and physiology ofperformance. Trait theories may be used to explain several psychological constructs.

(a) (i) Briefly explain personality according to trait theory. (3 marks)

(ii) Sport may increase or decrease the likelihood of aggressive behaviouroccurring among competitors. How may trait theory be used to explainaggression in sport? (2 marks)

(iii) Explain how trait anxiety affects a performer. (3 marks)

4) Many sporting competitions are now decided by ‘penalty shoot-outs’. In thesesituations, some performers readily accept responsibility while others prefer not to beinvolved.

Explain these observations in terms of achievement motivation. (6 marks)

JUNE, 2006:

1) It was previously thought that certain personality types tended to become involved in particular sports: therefore, those participating in a triathlon may have shared common personality characteristics.

(c) In terms of personality, explain what is meant by trait and interactionist theories.(3 marks)

(d) One aspect of personality is achievement motivation. What are the characteristicsof an individual with a motive to achieve success? (4 marks)

JUNE, 2005:

2) Personality profiling and biomechanical analysis can be used to prepare performers who compete at the highest level.

Morgan’s Profile of Mood State (POMS) is a questionnaire given to performers to establish their relative measures on the six mental health states of fatigue, vigour, tension, depression, anger and confusion.

(a) Research has shown that the profile for POMS differs between elite and non-eliteperformers. Describe these differences. (3 marks)

(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires to provide psychological information? (4 marks)

JAN, 2005:

4) The outcome of a sprint race may be determined by a performer’s personality and ability to overcome and generate forces to provide acceleration and maintain velocity.

(a) The performance and behaviour of sports performers may be affected by their personalities.

Discuss this statement, using suitable examples, with reference to both trait and interactionist theories of personality. (7 marks)

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

MAY, 2011

Explain the factors that contribute to a performer’s level of ‘achievement motivation’.(3 marks)

JAN 2009:

Achievement motivation is an aspect of personality. Which type of achievementmotivation is most likely to occur in elite performers? Justify your answer. (4 marks)

JAN, 2008

(c) It has been suggested that a performer’s response to competition will vary according to the situation and their personality.

What are the characteristics of a performer with a motive (need) to achieve (n.Ach)?(4 marks)

ATTITUDE

MAY, 2011

Using one named psychological theory, outline how the negative attitude of anindividual or of a team can be changed. (4 marks)

JUNE 2010:

9) Name and explain the components of attitudes, giving an example of how a tennis player would display a positive attitude. (3)

JAN, 2008:

Elite performers usually have a positive attitude towards training. If this were not the case, briefly outline how attitudes to training could be changed. (3 marks)

JUNE, 2006:

2) Long-distance runners need a good psychological and physiological approach to their activity.

Most long-distance runners have positive attitudes to their preparation andperformance.

(a) (i) What is meant by the term attitude and how are attitudes formed? (4 marks)

(ii) Discuss whether attitudes help predict behaviour. (3 marks)

AGGRESSION

JUNE 2013

Sporting contests require the performers full commitment, both physically and psychologically. The performance of some individuals can be hindered by over arousal.

Explain, using appropriate psychological theories, the possible causes of aggressive behaviour during sporting contests and suggest strategies that a coach could use to develop the assertive behaviour of a performer (14)

SPECIMEN: PHED 3:

In order to achieve optimal performance, sports performers need to control certainpsychological factors such as aggression.

Discuss the ‘social learning theory’ of aggression. (4 marks)

What can a referee do to control aggression during a major sporting competition?(3 marks)

JUNE 2008:

Rugby is a team game that has high psychological and physiological demands. During a rugby match there is considerable physical contact, but incidents of aggression are relatively rare.

(a) (i) Explain the terms hostile aggression and instrumental aggression. (2 marks)

(ii) Explain how frustration may lead to aggression. (4 marks)

(iii) How might a coach try to reduce the aggressive tendencies of one of theirplayers? (3 marks)

JUNE, 2007:

2) Team games such as Rugby Union may involve physical contact which can lead toaggressive behaviour.

(b) (i) Use the frustration–aggression theory to explain why this may happen.(2 marks)

(ii) Explain why incidents of aggression occur only occasionally in team gamessuch as rugby. (2 marks)

JAN, 2007:

1) a) (ii) Sport may increase or decrease the likelihood of aggressive behaviouroccurring among competitors. How may trait theory be used to explainaggression in sport? (2 marks)

JUNE, 2005:

1) Elite performers need to control their psychological and physiological performance.

(a) (i) What are the similarities and differences between aggressive behaviour and assertive behaviour in sport? (3 marks)

(ii) Discuss the social learning theory of aggression. (5 marks)

JAN, 2005:

5) (b) Players in contact sports often display both aggressive and assertive behaviour.

(i) Distinguish between aggressive and assertive behaviour. (3 marks)

(ii) Using your knowledge of appropriate theories, discuss the idea that playing contact sports may increase or reduce aggressive behaviour within the game situation. (6 marks)

GROUP DYNAMICS

JUNE 2012

Identify and explain Carron’s antecedents (factors) that contribute to the cohesiveness of a group. (3 marks)

MAY, 2011

Explain the importance of cohesion to group productivity and outline possiblestrategies that can be used to reduce the negative impact of faulty processes onperformance. (14 marks)

JUNE 2010:

14) Explain the term task cohesion and why it is vital for success in any game (4)

JAN 2009:

Games players have to work alongside their team mates and try to maintain their levels ofexertion right up to the end of the game.(a) Name and explain the stages that groups tend to go through before they becomeestablished as a successful team. (4 marks)

(b) (i) According to Steiner, a team’s actual productivity depends upon their potentialproductivity less their faulty processes. What are the two main faulty processes thatcan limit a team’s productivity? (2 marks)

(ii) Distinguish between social loafing and the Ringlemann effect. (2 marks)

JUNE 2008:

Team games, such as basketball, require individuals to work together. Steiner (1972)suggested that the relationship between the individual members of a team and theiroverall performance may be expressed as:

actual productivity = potential productivity – losses due to faulty group processes

(a) (i) Explain the terms actual productivity and potential productivity and identityfactors that might affect the potential productivity of a team. (4 marks)

(ii) What are the possible causes of losses due to faulty group processes?(4 marks)

JAN, 2008:

Games players often play in teams and have to ensure that they have sufficient energy to last the duration of the match.

Carron (1982) defined cohesion as ‘a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its goals and objectives’.

(a) What antecedents (factors) may affect the cohesiveness of a group? (4 marks)

(b) Name and explain the four stages that teams (groups) go through during their formation.(4 marks)

JUNE, 2007:

4) (c) Netball is a team game. Teams are thought to achieve more success if they arecohesive.

What do you understand by the term cohesion and explain the different types ofcohesion. (3 marks)

(d) Social loafing can occur within sports teams. What do you understand by theterm social loafing and what factors may cause it? (5 marks)

JAN, 2007: 5) In order to perform effectively as a team, game players must train together.Steiner (1972) suggested that the relationship between the individual members of a team and their overall performance may be expressed as:

actual productivity potential productivity – losses due to faulty group processes

(a) (i) Explain the terms actual productivity and potential productivity, and thefactors that might affect them. (3 marks)

(ii) Suggest potential causes of losses due to faulty group processes. (4 marks)

JUNE, 2006:

3) (c) ‘In order to be effective, leaders need to be sensitive to the characteristics of thegroup members.’

Explain how leadership styles should be adapted depending on the differentcharacteristics such as age, gender, size and skill levels of a team. (4 marks)

JAN, 2006: 4) Elite performers often train by themselves, but may on occasions train as part of agroup.

(a) How would you distinguish a group from a collection of individuals? (4 marks)

(b) Name and explain the stages that lead to group formation. (4 marks)

The way in which the members of a group inter-relate is called cohesion.

(c) Discuss whether cohesive groups are always more successful. (3 marks)

JAN, 2005: 2) Team game players tend to play and train as a group in order to improve their performances.

(a) (i) What do you understand by the term group cohesion? (3 marks)

(ii) Explain how the size and structure of a group may affect its cohesiveness.

(3 marks)

(iii) Discuss whether cohesive groups are always more successful. (3 marks)

LEADERSHIP

JUNE 2012

Outline the characteristics of a favourable situation and name the style of leadership that should be used when this occurs. (4 marks)

MAY, 2011

Identify three characteristics of a good leader and explain the difference between anemergent leader and a prescribed leader. (3 marks)

JUNE 2008:

Fiedler (1967) suggested that the effectiveness of leaders depended on thesituation and the style of leadership.

(i) Describe the two styles of leadership identified by Fiedler and the situation inwhich each is most effective. (2 marks)

(ii) The effectiveness of these styles depends on whether the situation isfavourable. What factors determine the ‘favourableness’ of the situation?(3 marks)

(d) Using examples, explain why a leader, when choosing a leadership style, needs to consider the characteristics of the group they are leading. (2 marks)

JUNE, 2007: 2) Rugby Union is a team game and most successful teams have effective leaders. It has been said that ‘effective leadership is a dynamic interactional process’.

(a) What do you understand by the term dynamic interactional process? (4 marks)

JUNE, 2006:

3) (b) The members of a sports team are usually led by a captain, manager or coach.Fielder (1967) suggested that such leaders had one of two types of leadershipstyle.

Identify Fielder’s two leadership styles and describe the situations in which eachtype of leader would be most effective. (4 marks)

(c) ‘In order to be effective, leaders need to be sensitive to the characteristics of thegroup members.’

Explain how leadership styles should be adapted depending on the differentcharacteristics such as age, gender, size and skill levels of a team. (4 marks)

JAN, 2006:

5) An ice-skating squad may be regarded as a group and will often have a leader.

(c) Describe how, according to Chelladurai’s multidimensional model (1980), effective leadership leads to good performance outcomes and member satisfaction.(3 marks)

JUNE, 2005:

4) Team game players often look to their leader to assist their performance.

(a) (i) Distinguish between emergent and prescribed leaders. (2 marks)

(ii) Figure 2 shows three factors affecting leadership.

Using Figure 2, discuss the idea that leaders need to be adaptable in their approach.(6 marks)

SOCIAL FACILITATION

MAY, 2011

Discuss the suggestion that ‘home field advantage’ will always improve theperformance of the home team. (4 marks)

JUNE, 2010

11) The crowd can affect elite performers either positively or negatively. At the 2008 Wimbledon Tennis Championships, the British player Andy Murray commented after winning one match.

“You know, the crowd were awesome, they got behind me, I mean, more than they have ever before. I think to finish the set like that really got the crowd going. It shifted the momentum of the match hugely”

Explain the concept of social facilitation and how it can affect performance. Outline the possible strategies which the performer and coach may use to limit any negative effects that may occur. (14 marks)

SPECIMEN: PHED 3:

Discuss the effect that the presence of an audience may have upon the level ofperformance for a novice performer and an elite performer. (4 marks)

JUNE, 2005:

3) (b) Some weightlifters appear to perform well in front of an audience, while others seem to perform badly, “choking” under the pressure. Use social facilitation theory to explain this observation. (7 marks)

ATTRIBUTION THEORY

JUNE 2012

How would a captain use knowledge of self-serving bias to motivate their team? (4 marks)

JUNE 2010

10) How would a coach use attribution theory to maintain motivation following a defeat? (4)

SPECIMEN: PHED 3:

After a competition, games players may explain their success or failure using avariety of factors called attributions. Some attributions may be damaging to theplayer’s future performances through the development of learned helplessness.

What are the four main groups of ‘attributions’? (2 marks)

What do you understand by the term ‘learned helplessness’ and whatstrategies may a coach use to prevent this happening? (5 marks)

JUNE 2008:

In terms of attribution theory, explain what is meant by self-serving bias andlearned helplessness. (4 marks)

JAN, 2008:

Performers may attribute their success and/or failure to various factors. What do you understand by the term attribution retraining, and when would it become necessary?(3 marks)

JAN, 2007:

2) Competitors at the 2004 Athens Olympics who did not get beyond the heats may

eventually suffer from learned helplessness.

(c) What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and suggest the likelycause of it? (3 marks)

(d) Sufferers of learned helplessness may require attribution retraining.Explain what attribution retraining is and suggest why it is effective. (3 marks)

JAN, 2006:

2) After a competitive match, players may explain their success or failure using a variety of factors called attributions. Weiner (1972) classified these attributions into four groups, and split the groups into two dimensions.

(c) (i) What are the two dimensions of attributions? (2 marks)

(ii) What are the four groups of attributions? (2 marks)

In terms of the attributions that games players make about their results, someattributions may be damaging to the players’ future performances through thedevelopment of learned helplessness.

(c) What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and what strategies maya coach use to prevent this from happening? (3 marks)

JUNE, 2005:

5) (b) Figure 5 shows the types of attribution that are common in sport.

(i) Using Figure 5, describe the different types of attribution that may be used by athletes. (4 marks)

(ii) In terms of attribution theory, explain what is meant by self-serving bias. (2 marks)

(iii) People who fail in sport may at some time experience learned helplessness.Explain what this means. (3 marks)