Media Effects Debates

AS Media Studies: Lesson 3/4

• The theories we'll be looking at here are largely described as ‘Media Effects Theories' - and that describes exactly what they are - models, arguments and theories which examine exactly what kind of effect the media can have on an audience.

Media Effects Theories • Academic theories of audience can be split between models which see the audience as passive and those which see it as active.

But what do we mean by Passive & Active?

• PASSIVE: ACTIVE • Easily manipulated Engaged • Compliant Involved • Weak willed Responsive • Followers In Control • Controlled Free willed • Dominated

• Many of these theories are very old (starting from as long ago as the 1930s - Yikes!) and as you will see, many of them can be considered as out dated and in fact are essentially obsolete.

You may then be thinking, why do we look at them

at all? Unfortunately many of the arguments we look at are still used by the news and other institutions to blame the media for all kinds of terrible things that happen in the world (moral panics).

What do these four media texts have in common? They have all been blamed as being the cause of something very negative or being harmful to others

1) The Matrix lobby scene is cited as being recreated by Klebold & Harris – Columbine High School shooting

2)Child’s Play 3 – was watched by Venables and Thompson before killing James Bulger

3)Teletubbies blamed for dumbing down of children’s TV

• The arguments used to blame these media texts for violence and for dumbing down are all arguments that have been used time and time again...A particular focus today is the effect of video games on children

The Passive Audience The Hypodermic Syringe model -short term effect

o Developed in 1930s o All audience members react in the same way. o All passively receive messages. o Audience are manipulated o The media affects thoughts and behaviour.

Out dated model? • The Hypodermic Syringe model was used for years to convince us that the Media could weald a terrible and dangerous influence over our lives. Essentially it works around the idea of 'Copycat' - that is to say that it assumes the audience will copy whatever they see on screen.

Problems with the Hypodermic Syringe

model... • Ignores people's free will

• Ignores people's personalities • Ignores your environmental situation - what are you

doing? Where are you consuming this text? • Doesn't consider the cultural upbringing that people

have • Neglects to consider an individual's moral compass • Suggests the audience is PASSIVE

• The hypodermic syringe model has been refuted for many years. So theorists looked for ways in which the media might have a more long term effect on an audience.

And this is what they came up with... • The Inoculation/Desensitisation Model -Long Term effect theory

Inoculation/Desensitisation Model

• This theory suggests that long term exposure to repeated media messages make audiences ‘immune’ to them. E.g. exposure to violence desensitises the audience with the result that they are no longer shocked by it.

So, the problems with the

Inoculation model... • Despite certain things becoming normalised by the

media - we are not all violent • People have free will to decide what they do • Ignores changes in culture - e.g. attitudes to

swearing change over time, not just because the media has more bad language

• Your personality and cultural upbringing are likely to be much more influential on your behaviour than the media

• Treats the audience as PASSIVE

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• The last couple of theories are a little more sophisticated and may be closer to the truth in the way that we consume the media and the way in which we look at the world.

• The Cultivation analysis (Gerbner)

-Long term effect theory

This theory is concerned with the long term effects of particular ideological representations on beliefs and values that we hold. What is Ideology? A system of ideas and beliefs promoted by dominant groups (governments, corporations, cultural groups) to reinforce their power.

An example of ideological representation that is often portrayed in the media, is… The manifestation of the ‘ideal women’ which has given rise to young girls being conditioned to believe that they should be as thin as catwalk supermodels/celebrities.

This model is not suggesting that the media rules our lives or makes us do things - it states that we have a set of existing beliefs - these are our ideologies - and that the media can reinforce those ideologies. Think about the stereotyped views you may have of certain nationalities/social groups because of their portrayal in the media - if you have never met anyone from that group of people, how can you be sure that it is not just a creation of the media? e.g. • Teenagers are all violent • Pensioners are all old fashioned • The French are all romantic

• This is not to say that the media creates our perspectives on these ideas - but it may reinforce our ideas through stereotypes used in advertising, characters in sketch shows and sitcoms, stock characters (career women/mother/secretary) used in films and so on.

• You will find that some of the beliefs you have in your life are reinforced by lots of different types of media. Let's look at an example of ideology....

Friendship is an important part of our lives. Seems like a pretty reasonable belief, most people share this ideology. But what media reinforces this idea to us...?

Active Audience Models

The Two Step Flow Katz & Lazarsfeld; 1940s

• The previous theories discussed proved too clumsy for media researchers seeking to more precisely explain the relationship between the audience and text.

• As the mass media became an essential part of life in society and did not reduce populations to a mass of unthinking drones, a more sophisticated explanation was sought…

The Two Step Flow Katz & Lazarsfeld; 1940s

• Katz & Lazarsfeld concluded the media alone wasn’t that influential in affecting an audience’s attitudes, but was part of a larger system of situated culture.

• The audience often received the media’s message through

‘opinion leaders’ – individuals who pay close attention to the media and filter information to family and friends, so people receive the message without consuming the text. E.g. a politician commenting on a newspaper story may influence an audience response without them ever reading it themselves.

• Whilst this model still suggests that we rely on others to help us

understand messages, and that others influence how we consume; it is treating the audience as active and not passive.

Part 2: Audience Appeal • One of the big questions (Question 2c or Question 3)

could be based on audience appeal and might be phrased like this:

• Using your own specific examples, discuss how audience are attracted to media texts

• Using your own specific examples, discuss how media texts appeal to an audience

• Using your own specific examples, discuss what use an audience has for media texts

• Using your own specific examples, discuss why audiences consume media texts

Audience Appeal

Technical and audio codes – The text may employ these to target an audience. For example, dramatic music and fast paced editing attracts audiences. Language and mode of address – This may target a specific audience and alienate another. For example, CD covers/video games may use lexis and a tone specific to a particular audience. Another example, Is the deep foreboding voice used in a horror movie trailer – which attracts fans of that particular genre. Construction – The construction of a text and the audience within the text. The way in which a film trailer is edited, will suit a particular audience. E.g. the use of stars, voices, and narratives. Context – This is very important, the placing of an advertisement needs to be seen by that specific audience, for example, a makeup advert between the breaks of a soap opera. Positioning of the audience – Through camera shots, and angles, music, language and mode of address.

Uses and Gratifications Model

Blumler and Katz (1974) developed the Uses and Gratifications model to identify four needs that were fulfilled by viewing television. This was further developed by Denis McQuail (1987)

The theory suggests that media audiences make active use of the media in order to fulfil their needs.

Uses and Gratifications Escapism/Entertainment Information/Surveillance

Social Interaction Personal Identity

A form of escape from everyday pressures. A source of entertainment.

Comparing own life with characters and situations portrayed & to explore individual problems and perspectives

Information about ‘what’s going on’ in the world

Sociability through discussion about TV with other people

Learn this theory! • Make sure you know this theory as you can

apply it to most texts • It's all very well knowing what the Uses and

Gratifications are, we must know how to apply it. To do this we'll first look at the target audience of Men's Fitness magazine and decide exactly what uses and gratifications they would have for it...

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Applying Uses and Gratifications

• Think about what types of audience would consume this magazine from the 4Cs and the Lifestyle Categories...

Think about the needs those audiences have and determine what uses they might have for the magazine from the U&Gs model.

Task: Uses and Gratifications (hand out)

• HH K Factor • Boston • Mrs Brown • Dove • QT Nick Griffin • Grime Fighters

Morning… • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NFV8dHrZYM

Learning Objectives • Hand in audience homework • To recap and clarify key terms learnt in last lesson • To further explore, through case studies, the Uses and

Gratification Theory • Using case studies, to explore and apply the Reception

Theory to a media text

Recap: 25th March 2014

•The story so far…

Active Vs. Passive Consumption

• Media texts are ‘consumed’ by different audiences in different ways – an audience member can be Passive or Active

• Passive – a passive model of consumption suggests that

texts have an effect on the audience

• Active – an active model instead suggests that audiences interact with the text to create meaning

A passive model

Audience

Text A media text has a direct influence on a passive audience

Hypodermic Syringe Model

Inoculation/Desensitisation Model

Cultivation Analysis

Briefly explain…Jot down an explanation

• The Hypodermic Syringe Theory • Inoculation/Desensitisation Theory • Cultivation Theory

An active model

Audience

Text

Audiences engage with what they consume and are actively making their own meanings

Two Step Flow

Uses and Gratifications

Reception Theory (this lesson)

Briefly explain…Jot down an explanation

• Two Step Flow Theory • Uses and Gratifications Theory

Uses & Gratifications (PIES)

Personal Identity Information

Entertainment Social Integration

Reality TV-Celebrity Big Brother

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vJ10KP18zM

• What needs does Big Brother fulfil? • Escapism/Entertainment – escaping from everyday

pressures and a source of entertainment • Information – what is going on in the world (or may be

not!) • Personal Identity – Comparing own life and situations –

giving different perspectives • Social Interaction – Sociability through discussion about

TV with other people – ‘Watercooler’ effect.

Why we consume media texts…

• Reassurance – when the text reassures us about issues and conflicts we are anxious about.

• Voyeurism – the pleasure of watching without being watched. The enjoyment of looking at beautiful people. Enigma codes – the pleasure of suspense while audiences wait for an enigma to be resolved. For example, cliff hangers.

• Intertextuality – the pleasure of spotting references to other media texts.

Intertextuality

Limitations? • Whilst the Uses and Gratifications model does have its

limitations. • Can you think of any? • It is simplistic in its view of how an audience works with a

text • It ignores demographics, social and cultural factors • It assumes that the media identify these needs on behalf

of the audience and they meet the needs – could we have other needs that are not identified?

• Is this theory affected by developments in new technology?

MS1 Exam Questions- Audience Response

• How does the same media text attract a range of different audience responses? Refer to your own detailed examples.

• In what ways do different audiences respond differently to the same media text? Refer to your own detailed examples.

• How do texts construct and position audiences?

How texts construct and position audiences: Texts can be said to construct an idea of their viewer/reader. This can be applied to an analysis of magazines where the magazine constructs an idea of ‘Men’s Health man’.

‘Late 20’s to mid 30’s, predominantly ABC1’s, a performance driven achiever, self confident ,open minded and adventurous Advanced in his career with the benefits of success translating into spending power Older and wealthier than the other major UK men’s lifestyle magazines with an appreciation of quality and an aesthetic eye’

Evidence that magazines construct their audiences can be found in their press packs. For example the Men’s Health press pack reads as follows:

Audience Positioning • Media texts are constructed in order to place audiences in

a particular position to that text. They do this by: • Technical codes – in AV, the use of camera shots and

angles, e.g. a close shot at an emotional time in the narrative. A POV shot – from characters point of view

• Language - The use of chatty colloquial language includes the audience – makes them feel involved

• Mode of address – direct and informal, magazine covers – the formal language and mode of address used by quality newspapers

Part 3: Reception Theory • As discussed we generally don't passively

sit in front of the TV, play video games, watch movies and then copy exactly what we've seen, ...but we definitely react in some way, don't we?

• Positioning of audiences by media texts suggests that the audience should accept the encoded messages contained within the text and decode the text in the way expected

•However, all audiences are different and do not all respond in the same way!

Reception Theory (encoding/decoding

model) • This theory, developed by Stuart Hall, was

a reaction against the hypodermic syringe model and the inoculation model which have been repeatedly dismissed for assuming the audience is passive and unable to use the media.

Reception Theory

• Stuart Hall’s Encoding/Decoding model is the idea that an active audience has to decode the meanings within a text, therefore different audiences will do so in different ways

• PREFERRED READING: When the audience accepts the dominant reading of the text. This is usually if the texts reflects the ideas and beliefs of the audience.

(I.E. Readers of the Daily Mail will broadly agree with the papers stance on

issues like asylum seekers and young people)

• OPPOSITIONAL READING: When someone makes a conscious rejection of the preferred meaning.

(I.E. a criminal may reject the concept that the police are the “goodies” in THE

BILL as they believe their reasons for committing crime are fair and they connect with the criminal on screen rather than the heroes and heroines of the Police force.)

• NEGOTIATED READINGS: When someone understands the meaning but it doesn’t relate to them so it is of no interest to them to decode it.

( A teenager who is not interested in Politics watching A Question Time discussing the issues of Junior Doctors may well understand the points of views being raised but has no interest in the matter therefore they will not be persuaded or dissuaded to either POV being raised in the programme.)

Examples: What position could we take? Any why?

Task

http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b03zf2v3/Louis_Therouxs_LA_Stories_City_of_Dogs/

Louis Theroux – LA Stories: City of Dogs

Thylane Blondeau on Jalouse Magazine

(French)

• Grand Theft Auto

Modern Family – American sitcom

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aogZUDx51vQ

Tinie Tempah • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYKKfFQCx2k

Case Study - Hollyoaks • Hollyoaks

Working in pairs, read through the sheet. Research Point – in your pairs, choose another show you know and provide the three readings.

Issue with the Evaluating Encoding & Decoding

• Is there one single message in a text which has been deliberately encoded by producers?

• Would all audiences agree on the intended meaning? • How do we know if we have found the preferred

meaning? • If there isn’t a single preferred meaning, does that mean

there is a range of oppositional readings? Ooh!

What affects the way in which an audience responds to a media

text?

Factors effecting response to text:

• Gender • Age • Ethnicity

1) Cultural competence:

Some audiences have different ‘cultural competencies’ to others, this is particularly true with regard to users of the Internet and video games.

Other influences can shape the way an audience interprets texts. The audience’s ‘situation’ can affect how it responds to different texts. This can include daily lives, routines and relationships. This can literally mean where the audience is when viewing the text.

2)Situated culture:

3) The culture, upbringing and experiences of the audience will often shape their view of and response to a text. It also includes how the understanding of the world is shaped by media experience. E.g – might never have been to prison but our experience might have been shaped by exposure to television programmes.

3) Cultural experience:

Handout Task: Think of three texts that may be

read differently because of gender, situated culture

and cultural experience

Reception Theory - Summary

• Audiences are active • This model was based on the view that meaning is the

result of a communication process. • Readings of texts are dependent on who the audience is,

and what their social position is, because this influences their interpretation of the denotative codes.

• Both encoded and decoded meaning will be understood in the context of the social and cultural background of the producer and audience.

MS1 Exam Questions In the exam you may have to discuss how and why an audience may take different positions - your job is to know how to apply this theory to your case studies.

Outdated? • These active models were constructed 30+ years

ago. • The available mainstream media was:

o Terrestrial TV: 4 free to air channels o Analogue radio: BBC and commercial stations o Press and magazines o Film: cinemas and home video o Home video games consoles

New technologies such as computer games and the internet, have seen audiences become interactive users of the media who are active in their choices.

From the Active to the Interactive Audience

• David Gauntlett describes a ‘pick and mix’ audience who uses texts, ignoring some aspects of them and choosing the aspects that suit it at that time.

• Now that we can access any TV programmes on-demand at any time of the day or week, we create our own viewing schedules.

• Netflix – new ways of consuming TV

Pick and Mix Theory

Much has been made of the rise of ‘we media’. The audience no longer just receives and interprets media texts, but actively creates their own texts in their own homes, using digital technologies, and distributes their products through social networking sites (MySpace, Twitter, etc)

…But who’s really in control? Interactivity, active choices, creativity…sounds wonderful. But how much control does the audience really have over what they access, create and upload?

Marxism A Marxist perspective of the media would consider how much of what we read and do is not just monitored, but closely controlled (see materials on ideology and false consciousness). The view of Marxist critics is that the media are controlled by those in power, politically and economically 1. distracts us from what’s really going on (think about metaphors of

media as drugs -‘television the drug of a nation…’, etc) 2. persuade us to accept the imbalance of political and economic power

as ‘right’ or ‘natural’, thus maintaining the status quo and keeping us, the ordinary people in our place!

This state of distraction or persuasion is called ‘false consciousness’.

We could say that women have been lulled into a state of ‘false consciousness’ because society (dominant ideology), through the representation of women on TV, in films and in magazines, encourages women to conform to stereotypes about how they should look and behave.

Dove Photoshop exercise, Renee Zellwegger Hello article on her weight loss, the size zero ‘debate’

What do you think? •Is the Marxist view of the media valid? •Do you favour the view of the active, creative, audience? •What about the other theories of the hypodermic needle, two step flow and uses and gratifications?