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Logic is a process of critical thinking. Which is also known as logical
thinking.
Logic and critical thinking are correlated to each other and are the
branches of philosophy which facilitate the application of fruit full ideas in the
business.
Aristotle and John lock believed that the human mind is a blank slate and
that the most ideas and knowledge comes through the application of senses.
Hence the knowledge of logic and critical thinking is a basic need for the
managers of modern world business.
Logic in term of art science.
Science is the knowledge of nature while art is the application of science
for the well fare of human being.
As Science As Art
1. Logic Natural Ideas developed will be
utilized & applied for the success
of business.
2. Need Valid Result Results are used for the benefit
of human kind.
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LOGIC & CRITICAL THINKING
Premises & Conclusion
Premises:- are the limitations or boundary walls in which certain arguments can
be discussed. e.o Job design.
Premises are
1. Job Analysis
2. Job Specifications
3. Job Enrichment
4. Work Environment
5. Quality of work etc.
Conclusion are the results obtained from different arguments discussed in the
premises e.g Impacts of job analysis on the
1. Business profitability.
2. Stock holder wealth
3. Stock holder Satisfaction
Logic & critical thinking are always based on certain premises &
conclusion one can not move logically without premises & conclusion.
Basic terms
Normally the following terms are used in the process of logic & critical
thinking these terms are known as the basic terms of logic.
1. Idea:- It refers to a set of images originated in a creative form.
2. Proposition:- Refers to the ideas which is expressed in a specified
language or different languages
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3. Such as:-
1. I speak (English language)
2. Ich speech (German language)
3. je parle (French language)
4. Arguments:- refers to the set of proposition which is discussed with in
specified premises.
5. Judgment:- It is the end result of the logic process which may be aenial or
affirmation of the connection among ideas.
The Order of Premises & Conclusion
In the process of logic & critical thinking we discussed that premises &
conclusion are the milestones, hence the order of premises & conclusion in this
process is that logic & critical thinking lan always be initiated with premises &
then after detail & fruit full discussion results will be concluded.
Hence, the order is that premises come first & conclusion at the end.
i.e We open the logical & critical thinking process with premises & end this
process with conclusion.
e.g (A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state)
(Premises) the right of the people to keep & bear Arms shall not be
infringed.
USA Constitution
Premises & conclusion indicator.
Distinction b/w premises & conclusion can be made in the process of logic
& critical thinking through the following indicators.
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Premises indicator (Reason show)
Since, because, as for as for, as, follows from.
Conclusion indicator (Result)
Therefore, hence, thus, so, accordingly as a result etc.
Arguments in context.
Logic & critical thinking is a process where argument will always be
discussed in reference to the context.
e.g prohibition of riba in the light of holy Quran, Ahadith or in fiqa.
The study of motion, reaction & genes in the light of physics, chemistry
biology respectively.
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AGREEMENT & DISAGREEMENT OF ATTITUDE
Attitude:- The persistent tendency to behave in favour or against of certain
phenonomena.
Logically attitude & opinion are two different concepts.
Attitude refer to explicit behaviour regarding likes & dislikes of any phenomenen.
Opinion refer to implicit behavior regarding likes & dislikes of any phenomencn
Explicit:- something that is shown clearly or openely.
Implicit:- something that is unclear or explain in indirect way.
Agreement of attitude:- refer to the explicit behavior which shows liking or
acceptance of any phenomenon.
Disagreement of Attitude:- refer to the explicit behavior which shows disliking
or refection of any phenomenon.
Basis of Agreement & Disagreement:- there are certain bases which cause
agreement or disagreement of attitude towards a phenomenon. There are,
1. Social thoughts. 2. Social influence 3. Social relations.
1. Social thoughts: Social thoughts as the name signifies are the results of
social interaction b/w the members of society, such thoughts either results
in the form of agreement or disagreement of attitude.
2. Social influence: Social influence is a potential which divert the attitude
either in the from of agreement or disagreement, such influence normally
developed due to the following factors.
. Group Pressure: 1. Qualitative leadership 2. Cognitive approach
(n/on selfish approach)
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3. Social relation: Attitude are also social relation b/w the members of the
society. Therefore, the agreement or disagreement of the attitudes
depends upon the following variables.
1. Activity. Ii. Interactivity
ii. interactivity iii. Sentimental attachment.
The frequent & persistent presence of the aforesaid variables among the
members of the society results agreement of attitudes & vice verse.
The language: Language is a basic medium which facilitates the
exchange of ideas messages & understanding, Co-Operation & Co-
Ordination among the members of the society so as to ensure smooth
relationship & multiplicity of social welfare.
As discussed, language is the medium of communication &
communication fuels in the flouring categories.
a. verbal communication
b. Non- verbal communication
c. C Symbolic Communication.
a. Verbal Communication. Verbal Communication as the name signifies
is a most common type of communication in which we orally present ideas,
messages & thoughts.
b. Non- Verbal Communication: Simply speaking non verbal
communication is that type of communication where we do not orally presents
our ideas & messages, but show it through body language, gestures, eye
expression, facial emersion.
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C. Symbolic Communication: Symbolic Communication is a special
type of communication in which messages, ideas are presented are derived
through symbols such as beckon lights.
The basic Functions of languages:
a. Directive function of language.
b. Expressive function of language
c. Informative function of language
a. Directive function of language: Directive function of language
represents the authoritative style of communication such as instructions to
subordinates through their bosses, it is the autocratic usage of language in order
to control, of language in order to control. Guide & direct the behaviors in a
derided manner.
Expressive function of language:- Expressive function of language represents
the expression of emotions of human being such as oH! In case of sorrow &
wava! In case of happiness.
Expressive function of language:
Expressive function of language represents the expression of
emotions of human beings such as oh! In case of sorrow & Wava! In
case of happiness.
Informative function of language:
As against the directive & experience functions of language, it is a
very normal type function of language through which just information
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in a very normal style is communicated such as information about
scientific research advertisement regarding industrial exhibitions &
weather fore cast etc.
Discourse serving multiple function:
It is a special type of functions of language which serves multiple
purpose. This function represents the combination of the aforesaid
basic function & serves the purposes of the basic functions singly.
Such as the poetry of our national poet Allama Muhammad Iqbal
serves multiple functions.
The forms of discourse:
Discourse refers to general conversation. The form of discourse refer
to the ways of the presentation of conversation which either proves
the correctness or incorrectness of conversation such as grammatical
structure (mistake or grammatical corrections) phonemes (accent) &
perception of the word & sentences.
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EMOTIVE WORD & THE LOGIC OF EMOTIONS
As the words signifies, emotive words are those words & sentences
which directly influence feelings & emotions of the individual such as
exaggeration in the poetry.
What are two basic theories regarding the logic of emotion. They are.
a. Games lange theory.
b. Cannon Bord theory.
James Lange Theory:
This theory highlights that emotions in the human being are emerged
due to secretion of special brain hormones in a particular are a
hypothalamus.
Cannon Bord Theory:
This theory emphasis upon the importance of environment factors
which provoke the individual emotions in a specified manner.
For example of the environment presents a friendly atmosphere, the
result will be positive response in the form of emotions i.e. Joy,
happiness, co-operation will be develop other wise the negative
response in the form of angriness, sadness, fear may be provoke.
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Emotively Neutral Language:
When ever, the words & sentences are presenting the literal
meanings with in a specified language is called emotively neutral
language. In this type of language emotions are replaced by actual
information provided to the individuals in the society.
TRUTH & VALIDITY
Validity:
The process through which we compare our test scores with Criterion
standard scores is called validity.
Valid score: The score which falls near to the standard scores are
valid scores.
Invalid Scores:
If the scores fall away from the standard scores then it will be
considered invalid scores.
Truth: The value which is obtained from a valid test & which provides
the same scoring results as defined by the valid testis called truth
value of the test.
Test construction (Assignment):
Problem Solving (Assignment):
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Creativity thinking & Innovating:
The methods in which the individuals organize ideas, concepts &
images to form new constructive associations are called creativity
helps in invention. It is a cognitive activity which depends on
knowledge & interest creativity involves the generation of ideas that
are original, novel & useful.
The creativity Process:
Most people would agree that creativity is a highly desirable activity
that has made possible major invention, scientific break through &
great work of art & literature, usually people assume that creativity
springs suddenly from flashes of inspiration.
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FALLACIES
i. Fallacies ii. Fallacy of Relevance iii. Fallacy of
Ambiguity
Fallacies:
Any argument which is physiologically true or incorrect but logically
incorrect is called fallacy. Normally each fallacy is a type of incorrect
argument so Fallacy is an argument which is although incorrect in
nature but psychologically persuasive Fallacy can make us fool any
time but they prove upon examination. So it is necessary to study
these mistaken arguments and they should be avoided.
(Propagandas Hinary Fayol).
Normally the fallacy is divided into two main groups.
i. Fallacy of Ambiguity.
ii. Fallacy of relevance.
Fallacy of Ambiguity:
The fallacy of Ambiguity is not used intentionally but it is used
unintentionally. A phrase or word can be ambiguous in a particular
context if it can have two or more different meanings in that context.
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1. Equivocation:
An informal fallacy in which two or more meanings of the same word
or phrase have been confused.
2. Amphiboly:
In this type of ambiguity the grammatical structure is so loose that it
can be interrupted in two or more than two ways. If a fallacious
statement may be true on one interpretation & false on other e.g. he
is scholarshpoing.
3. Accent:
An informal fallacy committed when a term or phrase has a
meanings in the conclusion of an argument different from its
meanings in one of the premesis, the different araising chiefly from a
change in emphasis given to the words used.
Arabs Chinese Germans Africa
Bakistan Raing sinking Bubble
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Fallacies of Relevance:
When an argument relies upon the premises that are not relevant to
its conclusion. These fallacies are used intentionally, there are 5
types fallacy of relevance.
i. The Argument from Ignorance:
this type of fallacy is committed whenever it is urged that a
proposition is true is simply on the basis that it has been proved true,
this fallacy appcal to know the logical meanings while ignorance
appear most commonly in misunderstanding of developing sciences.
Example during war the propaganda & rumours are the example of
argument from ignorance.
ii. The Appeal to In appropriate Authority:
Some people appeal to inappropriate authorities to accept or eject
contain issues of subject matters with in specified population. These
inappropriate authorities are example of some model Sportsmen.
For example, we are argued to drive an automobile or special
models or sport cur of given make. Because of a famous player
confirms superiority. We are urged to drink a beverage of certain
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brand because some moves star or football player express
enthusiasm about it.
iii. Complex Question:
In this type of fallacious statement such questions are asked which
are unanswerable, the main aims in complex questions are to divert
an individual from actual subject matter. They presuppose the truth
of some conclusion. The question itself is likely to be euwkward
which beck no answer. Normally they put the questions very
seriously, for example how one can climb the sky.
iv. Accident:
The fallacy of accident is committed which we move carelessly or too
quickly toward a generalization. Here the conclusion which is drawn
accidentally and is already generalized is always considered true in
general populations.
For example when in any particular situation or events which results
in object or events which results in bad luck or good luck then that
situation is always associated with good or bad luck.
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v. False Cause:
Some individual induces such fallacy which can secure their right in
general population by violating of the correct methods of law & order
& therefore providing false causes or proof. For example during war
in Afghanistan the capitalist got sympathy of common people that
communist people are going to humiliate our ISLAMIC value &
culture and therefore, they secure their capital by using such
propaganda.
DEFINITION
Definition means on explicit statement of a term of symbol, in
connection with term. Our first concern is to fix their meanings. The
concept with which we work must be clear & distinctive, the aim of
logical definition is to secure the clear concepts.
For example child ask me, what is an elephant. I may just point to
an elephant to say. Any elephant is a creature of such type, this may
satisfy the child & may be enabling to recognize the elephant &
distinguish it from some other animals. If the elephant is available
near at hand. I shall proceed to describe some prominent features of
the animal, shall construct some rough image of the elephant. I shall
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talk of its massive body, its column like legs, its ear image, & its
rough skin etc.
Enumerative Description:
This is the external features of anything.
Connotation:
It means the characteristics of any thing.
Purposes of definition:
i. To increase Vocabulary:
Usually a term that is to be explained improper manner, requires
certain other words to form a sentences which should represent the
properties of that works, so in this way we increase vocabulary to
introduce new scientific definition. We may have to define all kinds of
terms such as.
i. Technical terms in various subject.
ii. Psychology, motivation, perception etc.
iii. Physics, maths, force, Newton laws.
2. To Eliminate Ambiguity:
Ambiguity means the confusion of one word with another, for
example (excess, access), (Accept, Except).
3. To Explain concepts & ideas theoretically:
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It should explain a useful description of the entities theoretically to
which the term is applied, e.g. laws of motion.
Types of Definition:
There are five types of different definitions:
i.stipulative definition
Stipulative means to attach new symbol or word to the old wording &
the term which is newly defined need not itself to be entirely novel.
But it may be newly in the context in which definition take place.
Therefore, the stipulative definition means only nominal or verbal
& it is not suppose to change the character of the symbol, this is only
done or the convenience i.e to same the time& reduce the writing
material.
e.g (1) Billion trillion 1021 Zeta
ii. Trillion Trillions 1024 yota.
2. Lexical definition:in this type of dominion warty to redefine
aeration symbolic values, the job of the lexical definition is to define
the symbolic more covariant way.
E,g Bird Two footed mammal--- Any wave blooded
vertebrate with feathers.
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5. Presise Definition: this type of definition has psychological &
emotional impact by influencing the attitude of the viewers,
Persuasive definitions are common in political arguments.
Written by Perviz khan Khalil Lecturer IBMS Agricultural Uni
Peshawar.
PRoPOSITION
Preposition is a statement / judgment Which is represented with in an
argument in a specified language.
There are three kinds of proposition.
a. Simple proposition.
b. Complex proposition.
c. Categorical proposition.
For example.
a. Simple Proposition. It is the connection of two terms, These term are
subject and Predicate.
e.g.
1. All human beings are mortal.
2. Muslims are human beings.
3. Therefore muslims are mortal.
1. In first one human is the middle term represented by M
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2. In second one muslims are the minor term represented y S (subject)
and
mortality is the major term represented by P (Predicate).
Capula: The link between the subject (S) and predicate (P) is capula.
Subject :- Subject is the term which is affirmed or denied.
Predicate: it is the term which affirm or deny the subject.
Here for example (Man is mortal) Man is subject, mortal is predicate & is capula.
b.Complex Proposition in complex proposition, in stead of using once
a subject or predicate, we use more than one time of the above terms,
where are two types of complex proposition.
a. Conjunctive proposition:- in this type of complex proposition we
use a term if then for example if A is B then C is D or if is rain then the
weather will be cool.
b. Disjunctive Proposition: in this type of complex proposition we used
Either or for example Either A is B or C is D either my brother will be
here or I shall go to see him
C. Categorical Proposition: The proposition which is categorized into two
standard forms are known as categorical proposition it s & P represents
the subject & predicate terns then the four standard forms propositions are
represented by symbol.
A, E, I, O
A = universal affirmative.
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B = is universal negative
I = is particular affirmative.
O = is the particular negative.
For example
Human is motal, is a simple Proposition & its standard forms of proposition
are.
A = All human beings are mortal.
E = No human being is mortal.
I = some human beings are mortal.
O = some human beings are not mortal
Here A is universal Affirmatleive
E = is universal negative.
I = particular affirmative.
O = is particular negative
Quality Quantity & destitution. When we divide the categorical
proposition into for forms.
i. universal affirmative.
ii. Universal negative.
iii. Particular affirmative.
iv. Particulate negative.
So in the above standard form, the affirmation negation of the statement in
a proportion is said to be quality of propos ion. While the universal son or
the particularism is the quantity of that specified propositions
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For example
All humans are mortal no human is mortal some humans are mortal
some are not mortal. Here ( All, no, some) repress ent the quantity &
mortality represent the quality of the proposion).
By, Perviz Khan Khalil ( Lecturer IBMS KPK Agricultural University Peshawar)
TRADITIONAL SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
There is a system made by logicians in order to compare the universal &
particular standard Form of Propositions.
Where
A. Universal affirmative, All human are Mortal
E. Universal Negative, No human are mortal
I. Particular Affirmative, Some human are mortal
O. Particular Negative, Some Human are not mortal
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Contraries
Sub. Contraries
Sub. AlternsSub. Alterns
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1. Contraries: (AE)
When there is similarity in subject and predicate but deference in quality & the
pair is universal.
2. Sub Contraries: (IO)
When there is similarity in subject & predicate but deference in quality &
the pair is particular.
3. Sub Alternes: (AI) (EO)
When there is similarity in subject, predicate & quality but deference in
quantity.
4. Contridictries: (AO) (EI)
When there is similarity in subject & predicate by deference in both quality
& quantity.
Therefore there are four (4) ways in which proposition may be opposed
as contraries, sub-contrarces, sub alternes & contredictries.
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Categorical syllogism (Deductive Argument):
A syllogism is an argument in which from two proposition containing a common
element, a new proposition follows as a necessary consequence.
e-g All human are mortal
All kings are human
There fore All kings are mortal
The first two are the premises & the last one is conclusion & in the above.
Mortality Major term - Predicate (P)
Human Middle term - (M)
Kings Miner term subject (S)
Because
Miner term subject
Major term predicate
Miner, middle & major term are the terms of syllogism.
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Figure of the syllogism
All humans are mortal
Muslims are human
Therefore Muslims are mortal
The form of above syllogism is
Major term (P) is Mortal
Miner term (S) is Muslims
Middle terms (M) is Human
So
All M are P
All S are M
Therefore all S are P
Mood is (AAA)
If
All is No.
No M is P
No S is M
Therefore No S is P
Mood is (EEE)
Figures
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F-1 M-P F-2 P-MS-M S-M
S-P S-PTherefore
MOOD OF SYLLOGISM:
Every syllogism has a mood, the mood of a syllogism is determined by the types
(A, E, I or O) of standard form categorical propositions it contains. The mood of
the syllogism is therefore represented by three (3) letters & those there letters
are always given in standard form order.
e-g 1. All human are mortal (A)
Some human are mortal (I)
Some human are mortal (O)
So the mood of this syllogism is (AIO)
2. No Heroes are cowards (E)
Some soldiers are cowards (I)
Some soldiers are not cowards (O)
Mood is (EIO)
We can identify mood from
- Universal Affirmative or negative
- Particular Affirmative or negative
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