Chapter IV

PARTICIPATION IN GRAMA SABHA

The democratisation of planning is reflected in the participation of people

in different stages of planning. Participation becomes effective only when the

participants have control over the decisions. Democratic decision-making requires

equal control over the decisions, in which all sections of the society participate.

The decisions shall reflect the views of all the sections. If the participants are a

few, then decisions reflect only the interests of a few. The number or rate of

participation is important; but Inore relevant is the quality of participation-

whether participation is active 01. passive. Genuine participation is empowered

participation in which the vitality, energy and commitment of the people have a

stamp on decisions. In such case there is a shift in power (Nelson and Wright

1995) in favour of the people. The number of participants, their occupation, age,

level of education, sex etc are important in influencing decisions.

An important dimension other than the rate of participation to be reckoned

is the trend of participation over the years, which reveals whether people show

increased or decreased interest towards the grama sabha. Equally important is to

know whether participation is inclusive or not. Therefore, the participation of the

marginalised sections of the society, especially that of the scheduled caste and

scheduled tribe population and women is important. The popularity for

participatory development is due to the shortcomings of past development

strategies, which did not make much difference in the lives of large segments of

the population especially the poor, women, tribes and the scheduled caste

population. Participatory approach is expected to reorient development in favour

of the vulnerable sections of the society (Mathur 1995). The participation rates of

the scheduled castes and women are important indicators of the 'inclusiveness'. It

is also interesting to examine whether the political affiliation of the ruling party in

the panchayat has any relation in terms of performance in participation.

In this chapter, we examine the participation of the people in grama sabhas

of sample panchayats in Thrissur district. The chapter has three sections. Section I

deals with the participation and its trend. In section 11, the characteristics of

participation are examined and section 111 analyses the quality of involvement of

the participants.

SECTION - I

Direct participation of the people in decision making is possible only in the

case of the lowest tier of the local bodies - grarna panchayat, municipality /

corporation - since there is a legal structure for participation in the form of grama

sabha 1 ward sabha 1 ward committee. In the case of block or district panchayat,

direct participation is difficult due to the absence of an institution with statutory

backing.

The grama sabha is the most important participatory space provided in the

Kerala experiment. The details of powers, functions and the rights of grama sabha

are listed in section 3A of KPA 1994. The right to formulate the proposals and

fixing the priority of schemes and development programmes to be implemented in

the village panchayat vests with tl~e grama sabha (Section 3 KPA 1994). The

beneficiary selection of all projects including centrally sponsored schemes (CSSs)

and state sponsored schemes (SSSs) is made at the grama sabha.

Participation rate is an indicat-or of the democratic involvement of people in

local development. Crook and Manor (1998) concluded that participation had

positive effect on performances of local government. But, some of the studies

reveal a dismal picture of grama sabha participation (Bandyopadhyay and

Mukherji 2004). The World Bank (2005) study on four South Indian states

revealed that only 20 per cent of the household respondents ever attended the

grama sabha. In Madhya Pradesh often the quorum was not reached and the

attendance of women and the poor was very low (Behar 2003). The grama sabhas

functioned just as a formality in Haryana and Rajastan and often the attendance

was below quorum. No important issues were discussed and the participation of

women and scheduled castes was very low (Nambiar 2001). Ghatak and Ghatak

2002) pointed out that the participation rate of the well-off sections in the society

in grama sabha, in West Bengal was higher than that of their population share. In

Kamataka, grama sabhas were not taking place or were delayed and the attendance

was very low. In Kerala, the participation in grama sabha is falling. (Chaudhari et

al. 2004; Narayana 2004).

The details of participation of people in grama sabhas were collected from

eleven grama panchayats in Thrissur district- Arimpur, Chelakkara, Kadappuram,

Kadavallur, Kuzhur Mulamkunnathukavu Mattathur, Nattika, Nenmanikkara,

Tholoor and Vallachira. The data have been collected from the grama sabha

minutes books for all the years available. Some of the panchayats have not kept

records of all grama sabhas. Moreover, there was no uniformity in the number of

grama sabhas convened by pancliayats; obviously; the number varies among

panchayats. There are variations in the number of grama sabhas called among

different wards in the same panchayat. The details of the development seminars,

task forces and beneficiary committees were collected from the panchayat records.

In order to supplement the secondary data, a primary survey was conducted among

elected members, panchayat officers and activists associated with decentralised

planning in Kerala in 2004. The people surveyed were those who were closely

involved in the process. This was done to get first-hand information from those

who were 'insiders' in the process so that informed details are available. The

survey has a bias since the views of beneficiaries or others who were not close to

the planning programme have not been included. The period of analysis of

participation in grama sabha is divided into two sub-periods - first and second (I

&II). The first sub-period is betwoen October 1995 and September 2000, the

period of the local bodies after the first election and second sub-period is from

October 2000, period after the second election. The period does not correspond

exactly to the ninth and tenth plat. There was an increase in the number of wards

in the sample panchayats from 1 I5 wards in the first sub-period to 143 wards in

the second sub-period. The wards in the same local body are not comparable

because of the altogether new delirnitation of wards.

The number of participants in the grama sabhas and its trends are examined

here by considering average participation, rate of participation and participation of

women and scheduled castes.

Average Participation in Grama Sabha

The average number of participants in the grama sabha gives us some idea

on the size of the assembly. Although averages across panchayats are not

meaningful because of variation in the number of voters, averages of each

panchayat over time is a useful indicator of the trend. In Table 4.1 the average

number of participants is depicted. Averages for the year is worked by taking the

total participants and the number of' grama sabhas in that particular year for each

panchayat. The average participation for all the panchayats in the first-sub period

was 116 members. The highest average was for Nattika (176) followed by

Mattathur (150). The lowest average was for Arimpoor (85). The average

attendance for the first plan grama sabha for the state as a whole was 159 and for

Thrissur district it was142 (Isaac and Franke 2000).

The details of only five pancllayats were available for 1996. But there was

increase in the average number in 1997 for these panchayats. In the case of

Arimpoor panchayat the average declined in 1998 compared to 1997. For

Chelakkara panchayat, the highest average was reached in 1998, thereafter, the

average participation fell. In the case of six panchayats, the highest average for the

first sub-period was in 1997, and for four panchayats it was in 1998, and for one

panchayat it was in 2000. Thus, generally the highest average participation in

numbers was attained in 1997-98 period and there aRer participation shows a

declining trend.

Table 4.1 Average Participation in Grama Sabhas

First Sub-period Second Sub-period

Note: Avg. -Average Source: Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

But, higher averages were recorded in the second sub-period for all

panchayats, except Tholur. Some of the increase in average may be due to increase

in population, but the increase creates doubts regarding the veracity of grama

sabha documents. The increase in average in the second sub-period was sharp in

comparison to the trend in the first period, which was showing a decline. This

result is contrary to the observations and opinions of people that generally, there

was a fall in participation in period two compared to the first period. In 1999, with

the amendment of the KPA (1994). the quorum of the grama sabha was raised to

10 per cent of the voters. If the quorum is below 10 per cent, a fresh grama sabha

has to be called again, for which, the quorum is only 50 members. This stipulation

might have prompted some to show a higher participation in records to avoid

calling the grama sabha again'. Hence, in our analysis, primary focus is given to

the first sub-period for which the data is more reliable.

The Size of Grama Sabha

The participation of people in the grama sabha is recorded in different size

classes in Table 4.2. In the first sub-period, we have details of 81 1 grama sabhas.

There were 27 grama sabhas (3 per cent) with participation below 50 members i.e.,

below quorum in 9 panchayats. Nattika and Mattathur had no such grama sabhas.

But, Kadavalloor had the highest percentage (10.8 per cent) of such grama sabhas.

The model class of participation u as 50-100 with 42.7 per cent. In 28.1 per cent of

grama sabhas, participation was between 100-150 members. In the case of 17.3

per cent of grama sabhas, participation ranged between 150 and 200 members.

Only in 0.7 per cent of grama sabhas, the participation was over 300 persons.

For eight panchayats, the model class of participation was 50-100 voters,

and for the remaining the model class was 100-150 members. The number of

participation in grama sabha exceeded 200 in the case of three panchayats.

In the second sub-period, in 3.6 per cent of grama sabhas, participation was

below 50 persons, which was higher than the previous period. The model class of

participation was 100-150 members. In 1.5 per cent of grama sabhas participation

was over 300. Mattathur panchayat, in both periods, had a few grama sabhas with

participation of over 300 persons.

Table 4.2 Size of Grama Sabhas

Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

Participation Rate

Participation rate is the proportion of voters that participated in the grama

sabhas, which is a more reliable yardstick of participation. Here, the average

participation rate in each year is worked out, which is given in Table 4.3. The

average participation rate for all the panchayats for the first sub-period was 7.5 per

cent. The participation rate was only 5.1 per cent in 1996, which increased to 9 per

cent in 1997, and declined thereafter. In the study made by Isaac and Franke

(2000) the participation rate reported for Thrissur district was 8.4 per cent. But in

our study we do not have the details of all the panchayats.

Table 4.3 Rate of Participation in Grama Sabhas

Note: Avg.- Average Source : Compiled fiom the grama sabha minutes books

Among the panchayats, Nattika had the highest average percentage rate of

12.9 for the fvst period, followed by Tholoor with 11.8. Arimpur and Chelakkara

recorded the lowest rate in the first sub-period with 5.6 per cent each. The highest

participation rate recorded was 20.3 per cent in 1998 by Tholoor panchayat in the

first sub-period followed by Nattika with 15.9 per cent in 1997. The lowest per

cent was 4.2 by Chelakkara panchayat in 1996. Thus, the range of participation

rate was between 4.2 per cent and 20.3 per cent.

For Arimpoor panchayat, the highest rate of participation was reached in

1997 with 7.2 per cent. In the case of Chelakkara, the highest rate was 7.4 per cent

attained in 1998. Kadappuram had the highest participation rate of 9.1 per cent in

1997 and the lowest was 5.8 per cent. Kadavalloor had the highest per cent in

1997 and the lowest per cent of 4.2 in 1998. Kuzhoor had a different pattem with

the highest participation rate achievement of 8.6 per cent in 2000, and a lower rate

of 5.8 per cent in 1996. Mattathur had a relatively stable participation rate of

around 8 per cent. Mulamkunnathkavu showed a steadily declining participation

rate after 1998.The participation rate of Nenmanikkara panchayat was more stable

around 9 per cent.

Nattika and Tholoor panchayats had a relatively better performance in

participation rate, but with fluctuations. Vallachira attained a maximum of 9.1 per

cent in 1998 and then, declined. The participation rate was poor, below 10 per cent

on most occasions. Nattika crossed the 10 per cent mark thrice and Tholoor

crossed the mark twice. Moreover, there were sharp fluctuations in participation

rate.

The participation rate was falling in the first sub-period, on the average,

after 1997, although there was variation among the panchayats. This pattem is in

agreement with the findings of the study by Chaudhari et al. (2004) that there was

a secular decline in participation after the initial years of the campaign.

In the second sub-period, the participation rate recorded was, on the

average 8.7, higher than the average in the previous period. Five panchayats

recorded over 10 per cent of participation rate corresponding to the voters in 2000.

The rates of 2001, 2002 and 2003 were close to 10 per cent of the voters. All

panchayats, except Tholoor, recorded a higher participation rate compared to the

previous period. Tholoor recorded a lower participation rate than the previous

period, which also showed a falling trend. But, as noted earlier, the results of the

second sub-period strengthen the doubt regarding the genuiness of the records.

The average rate of participation in grama sabhas in West Bengal was reported as

12 per cent (Ghatak and Ghatak 2002) and most participants were the supporters

of political parties. Pande and Murthy (2002) showed that the participation rate in

grama sabhas was very poor in Karnataka.

In Table 4.4 the grama sabhas are classified according to the rate of

participation. About 27 per cent of the grama sabhas had participation below 5 per

cent in the first sub-period and in the case of 5 1 per cent of the grama sabhas, the

rate was between 5 and 10 per cent. In the case of 17 per cent of the grama sabhas

participation was between 10 and 15 per cent. Participation rate exceeded 20 per

cent only in the case of 1.2 per cent and was confined to three panchayats.

In the second sub-period the participation rate below 5 per cent was

recorded in 13 per cent of the grama sabhas, which is lower than the first sub-

period. In the 5-10 rate category there were 56 per cent of the grama sabhas, which

is higher than the previous period. The participation rate above 20 per cent was

recorded only in the case of less than one per cent of the grama sabhas. The

participation rate of the majority of grama sabhas was between 5 and 10 per cent

of the voters. Nonetheless, we reiterate the doubtful nature of the grama sabha data

for the second sub-period.

Participation of Women

There was a quantum jump in the representation of women in rural local

bodies after the 73d and 74th constitutional amendments (Sujaya and Jain 2000). It

is to be examined whether this has been reflected in participation in the grama

sabha. Plummer (1999) argued that the participation of women is low due to the

high opportunity cost of participation due to multiple roles played by them. The

participation of women in grama sabhas in Karnataka was 35.7 per cent of the

participants according to Crook and Manor (1998). Women participation in grama

sabhas was low since they were not informed or not encouraged to participate.

Unpleasant situations created by political opponents dissuade women from

participation (Nambiar2001).

One of the acclaimed advantages of the people's campaign was the

mobilisation of women into this process and hence to the public sphere. In order to

examine this, the proportion of women participation in total participation is

examined. Table 4.5 depicts the rates of women participation.

The proportion of women participation in the first sub-period was 37.1 per

cent. The proportion was only 26.2 per cent in 1996, which increased to 40.8 per

cent in 1997, which declined to 38.5 per cent in 1998, and then increased to 40.6

per cent in 2000. The women participation hovers around 40 per cent of total

participation in the first sub-period. In column 7, the average for each panchayat

for the period is given. In column 8, the proportion of women in total population

(1991 census) in each panchayat is given to facilitate comparison. All the

panchayats had a proportion of above 50 per cent for women in total population.

In two panchayats, women outnumber men in terms of participation, over the

period -Vallachira (51 per cent) and Arimpoor (50.5 per cent). In Vallachira

panchayat, in 2000, the proportion of women participation was 59.2 per cent. The

lowest proportion of participation had been recorded in the case of Chelakkara

panchayat, 28.6 per cent. The lowest participation share was also recorded in

Chelakkara panchayat in 1997 (20.1 per cent).

Table 4.5 Proportion of Women Participation

population of panchayais. Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

Second Sub-period I I 1 I I % of Women

The percentage of women in total participation in Thrissur district was 27.5

per cent in 1996 (Isaac and Franlie 2000). But there was an improvement after

that. The overall decline in participation and increase in the share of women

implies that there is a big decline in the participation of men. This is something

that needs to be underlined and probed into.

Among the panchayats, there was variation in average percentage share of

women. Arimpoor, Mulamkunnathukavu and Vallachira had a percentage share of

participation close to the share of women in population. Chelakkara, Kadappuram

and Kadavalloor panchayats had a participation below one third.

In the second sub-period, average women participation was higher (44.9

per cent) than the previous period. The participation recorded exceeded 40 per

cent in all years and in 2004, participation was close to sixty (data for two

panchayats only). Chelakkara panchayat, which had a very low participation share

of women in first sub-period, recorded over 50 per cent share in the second sub-

period. Those panchayats that had shown a lower participation share of women in

the first sub-period recorded a better performance in the second sub-period, the

contrary happened in the case of better performing panchayats.

There is no doubt that the PPC had helped in mobilising women into this

process as reflected in a relatively higher participation of women in grama sabhas.

The results of our study confirm the conclusions made by Chaudhari et a1 (2004)

that woman participation improved after the first year of the campaign. The

participation of women is relatively better than in other states. Women

participation rate was reported as very low in Karnataka (Pande and Murthy 2002)

and Madhya Pradesh (Behar 2003).

Participation of Scheduled Castes

In the Plan Campaign special attention was given to address the issues of

the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. The campaign instilled a sense of

pride in the hitherto marginalised sections like dalits and adivasis (Kunhaman

2000). The participation of scheduled caste people in grama sabhas is shown in

Table 4.6'. As in the case of women participation, the proportion of scheduled

caste participation in total participation is depicted. The last column shows the

proportion of scheduled castes in total population according to the 1991 census

and 2001 census to facilitate comparison.

Table 4.6 Proportion of SC in Grama Sabhas

Note: Avg.- Average; @-Column 8 shows the proportion of SC in total population of the panchayatsin 1991 and2001

Source: Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

The average participation of scheduled castes in the total participation was

17.2 per cent, higher than the over all share of scheduled castes in the total

population (13.5 per cent) in the first sub-period. The participation share of

scheduled caste people was high in 1997 (18.7 per cent) when the overall

participation was high. The range of participation for all the panchayats taken

together was between 15.9 per cent and 18.7 per cent. Isaac and Franke (2000)

concluded that the participation of the scheduled castes in the first plan grama

sabha was less than their share of population for the state as a whole, but in

Thrissur district it was higher. The study made by Chaudhari et a1 (2004)

concluded that the participation oi'dalits was higher than their population share.

Among the panchayats, the highest proportion in the first sub-period was

attained by Nattika with 28.5 per cent, which is also the panchayat having the

highest share of scheduled caste population. The lowest share was recorded in the

case of Kadappuram panchayat, 7.3 per cent. Eight panchayats had a participation

share higher than the population share of the scheduled castes. Kadavallur

panchayat had recorded a scheduled caste participation share of 31.9 per cent in

1997, but had only a share of 17.4 per cent in 2000.

The second sub-period recorded a lower participation share for scheduled

castes at 12.7 per cent. Six panchayats recorded a lower participation share in the

second sub-period in comparison to the first. Highest share of 24.3 per cent was

recorded in the case of Nattika panchayat, which had the highest share in the

previous period too. We have 110 details of participation in the case of two

panchayats - Mattathur and Vallachira.

During the first sub-period, the participation rate of the scheduled caste

population was higher than the~r population share and there was only small

variation in shares in different years. But this result is contrary to that observed in

West Bengal (Ghatak and Ghatak 2002) where the participation of the scheduled

castes was less than their population share. The World Bank study (2005)

concluded that scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are more likely to attend the

grama sabhas. We cannot, however, read much meaning in to the data for the

second sub-period on account of the doubts already raised on data quality.

SECTION - I1

The Characteristics of Participation

In this section, we take up for analysis a different set of characteristics of

the participants such as age composition, level of education and occupation. This

will help us to understand certain new dimensions of participatory space opened

by the decentralisation process. In addition to this, variation in participation with

the purpose of grama sabha is examined as well as the political dimensions of

participation. The participation rate can vary with the political party in control of

panchayats.

The data for this has been collected from the minutes books of grama

sabhas of the panchayats. Only one point in 1998 has been selected for the study,

which is in the second year of the plan campaign, where the participation rate was

relatively good.

The Age of Participants

The participants are grouped into six categories based on age, viz, below 20

(The minimum age of the voter is eighteen); 20-29; 30-39; 40-49; 50-59 and above

60. It can be seen from Table 4.7 that the participation of the younger generation is

relatively poor compared to the middle aged and the old.

The highest level of participation was in the age group of 30-49 (category 3

and 4), which comprised 51.6 per cent of participants whereas their share in

population was only 24.1 per cent. The 20-29 category which constituted 19.6 per

cent of the population had only a share of participation of 14.7 per cent which was

even lower than that of group of the aged i.e., above 60 years. Crook and Manor

(1998) in their study in Karnataka showed that the participation of the age group

30-44 was high compared to other groups. It is important to find out as to why the

youth keep away from the participatory planning process. An answer to this

question is important because it is up to them to sustain the process of

decentralised governance and planning.

Table 4.7 Age-wise Distribution of Participants

(in percentage)

Source: Compiled kom the grama sabha minutes books

The age-wise percentage distribution of population at the state level is

given in Table 4.8 (1991 Censes). Among different grama panchayats, there was

variation in the share of different age groups. But, in no case was the participation

of category two greater than category three. In only one panchayat - Kadavallor -

the category 2 was greater than category 4. Category 5 was less than 4 in all

panchayats. In some Panchayats, the participation of category 5 was higher than

that of category 2.

Table 4.8 The Age-wise Percentage Distribution of People in

Kerala - 199 1 I I I

Source: Statistics for Planning 2001, GoK

A.ge

0-19

20-29 -

30-39

40-49 -

50-59 -

It must also be remembered that, although age wise education level data is

Percentage

40.46

19.58

14.22

9.84

7.09

not available, it can be safely concluded that the younger people are more

educated than the old. Linking rhis with education, it can be presumed that the

young and the educated people are relatively reluctant to participate. This is not a

firm conclusion, since one can argue that only by knowing the education level of

the actual participants and their level of education, we can make firm conclusions.

Yet, it is disturbing that the inference may not be off the mark entirely.

It appears that participacion of the younger generation is low in grama

sabhas. It can be argued that generally only one member from a family may be

participating, and the older person represents the family. This argument holds

good only when the participatioil rate is high. The lack of interest of the younger

generation in political and social issues is not a favourable development.

Education Level and Participation

The level of education is assumed to have a positive effect on participation

since the awareness and social consciousness are supposed to increase with the

level of education. The details of education were not available from one of the

panchayats selected for the study. The participants are classified into six

categories-. Category I -illiterate; category 11- primary (1-7 standards), category 111

- High school; category IV- pre-degree 1 higher secondary; category V - degree;

category VI - post-graduates. Meaningful comparison of participation rate in

relation to education may not be possible, since we do not have data regarding the

distribution of population according to the level of education at grama panchayat

level. But useful inferences can be made from this. The participation rate of the

primary educated category (I-7classes) was the highest (45.5 per cent) compared

to others, followed by the high school educated (34.2 per cent), of the total

participants. The share of graduates was only 3.1 and that of post-graduates only

0.7 per cent. Illiterates constitute 9.4 per cent (see Table 4.9).

Table 4.9 Level of Education of Participants

Source: Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

There is much discrepancy in the proportion of participants in each

category. The proportion of illiterates in total population of the sample panchayats

was 12.2 per cent according to 1991 census, but the participation share in the

panchayats was 9.4 per cent. Participation of illiterates was as high as 19.0 per

cent in Nenmanikkara panchayat against the percentage of illiterates of 11.2 per

cent (1991 Census). In Kuzhur panchayat, the share of illiterates in total

participants was only 2.8 per cent whereas the rate of illiteracy was 9.0 per cent

(1991 Census). In five Panchayats - Mattathw, Nattika, Nenmanikkara, Tholur,

Vallachira- the share of the participation of illiterates was higher than that of their

share in population.

Primary level of education (1-7) was reported for 45.5 per cent of the

participants and 34.2 per cent had high school education. For three panchayats-

Kadavallor, Nenmanikkara and Kuzhw- the majority of the participants had only

primary education. Except Mulamkunnathkavu panchayat, the share of

participation of people with primuy level of education was higher than those with

high school education. The percentage of participation of people with higher

education was very low. In the category of pre-degreehigher secondary education,

the share of participation was only 7 per cent and the share declined with increase

in the level of education. In the degree category, the highest share of participation

was recorded in the case of Nattika (5.4 per cent) and lowest for Arimpoor (1.9 per

cent).

About 90 per cent of the participants were either illiterates or having

education level of SSLC or below. Higher education category constituted only 10

per cent. Crook and Manor (1998:) in their study also reported that the participation

of the educated classes was low. 'The lower participation rate of the educated may

be due to the fact that they can manage their requirements even without attending

the grama sabhas through other ways. Another reason may be their higher

opportunity cost of participation. Although, we may not be able to make precise

conclusions as regards the participation rate and the education level due to the

absence of data, the inference is that as the level of education increases,

participation in grama sabha declines. In the earlier discussion we observed that

the participation of the younger generation was low. The younger generation is

more educated than the old. This adds more strength to our inference.

Occupation of Participants

The participants are broadly classified into five groups - farmers, casual

labourers, government employees, other employees and the unemployed. The

occupational classification recorded in the grama sabha minutes is not in

conformity with the census classification; hence, a meaningful comparison with

population in general is not possible.

Table 4.10 shows the occupation of the participants. Of the participants the

largest share is unemployed- 38.4 per cent. Then comes casual labourers with 29.7

per cent. Traders and other self-employed categories comprise the third position

with 15.6 per cent. Farmers constitute 15.5 per cent. Government employees

constitute less than one per cent.

Table 4.10 Occupation of Participants

Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

The data reveal the fact that the majority of the participants are the poor,

the unemployed and casual labourers, who constitute 68 per cent of the

participants. The result is comparable with the conclusions of Narayana (2004)

that, in Kerala, participation of the poor is higher than the rich in grama sabhas.

One possible reason for the higher participation of the poor is due to the belief that

it is a forum to select the beneficiaries. Another reason may be the low opportunity

cost of participation of the poor. h West Bengal agricultural labourers were the

largest group participating, followed by farmers (Ghatak and Ghatak 2002) and the

affluent sections were not participating since they were not getting any immediate

benefits.

There is much variation in the percentage of participants in various

occupation categories. Farmers were absent in Kadappuram panchayat; whereas in

the Mulamkunnathukavu panchayat, 25.3 per cent of participants were farmers. In

Chelakkara, 63.3 per cent were casual labourers, and in Kadappuram casual

labourers constituted 42 per cenr. Government servants' participation was very

low and the highest was recorded in Chelakkara with 1.95 per cent of the

participants. In Kadappuram, there was no participation of government servants3.

In Arimpoor panchayat, 55 per cent of the participants were unemployed followed

by casual labourers (22.3 per cent).

The range of the 'unemployed' was between 13.8 per cent (Chelakkara)

and 55.4 per cent (Arimpoor). [n the case of casual labourers, the range was

between 21.6 per cent and 63.3 per cent. Thus, there is much variation in the share

of different occupational groups among panchayats. But on the whole, casual

labourers and unemployed constitute the overwhelming proportion of participants.

Other Determinants of Participation

Participation is influenced by many factors - socio-economic, historical,

geographical, political and demographic. The purpose for which the grama sabha

has been called is an important factor influencing participation. The grama sabha

is called for planning, beneficiary selection and other routine activities. Yet

another important factor is the political control of the local body. In Kerala, almost

all the local bodies are ruled either by the LDF, dominated by the Communist

Party of India (Marxist)-(CPI-M), or by the UDF, controlled by the Indian

National Congress (I)-(INC-I). Socio-economic factors like literacy rate,

percentage of workers in the prim:uy sector, work participation rate, percentage of

scheduled caste population in total population etc. might also have a bearing on

participation. The geographical regions might also influence participation. The

geographical area of the state may be broadly classified into coastal, midland and

highland. Demographic factors like density of population, voters in a ward etc also

might influence participation. The management of the grama sabha is another

important factor. The way it is convened, its location and timing, the publicity

given to it and the initiative made by the ward member in moblising people etc are

important influencing factors.

Purpose and Participation

Grama sabhas may be broadly classified into three, based on purpose- a)

planning b) beneficiary selection c) others. It is in the planning grama sabha that

the local priorities are determined. The beneficiary selection grama sabha is part of

the implementation stage of planning, which is usually called after the plan is

approved by the DPC. In the beneficiary selection grama sabha, other normal

activities also take place. If there is an agenda for beneficiary selection, we include

it in beneficiary selection grama sabha. The grama sabhas are also called for other

routine functions. The average participation in grama sabhas is given in Table

4.1 1. The average participation in grama sabhas for beneficiary selection was

higher at 134; whereas for planning, it was only 94, which was even lower than for

grama sabhas convened for other purposes. Higher participation for beneficiary

selection was observed in the case of all panchayats. In five panchayats -

Chelakkara, Kadappuram, Kwhoor, Nattika and Nenmanikkara average

participation in planning grama sabhas was higher than in grama sabhas convened

for other purposes.

The higher participation in grama sabhas for beneficiary selection has got

very significant implication. Purpose is an important determinant of participation.

Many participate in grama sabhas due to the expectation of getting some personal

benefits. In some panchayats, participation for other purposes is higher than

planning. In the planning grama sabha, planning is the only agenda. But in grama

sabhas for other purposes, other decisions are also made. Hence, more interest is

shown in participation for other purposes, than for planning.

Table 4.1 1 Average Participation by Purpose of Grarna Sabha

Note: BS- beneficiary selection Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

In the second period, we get a different picture. Only for two panchayats,

Chelakkara and Vallachira, average participation in beneficiary selection grama

sabha was higher than others.

The Political Dimension of Participation

The political scene in Kerala is bi-polar with two fronts dominating-United

Democratic Front and Left Democratic Front. The People's Plan Campaign

was launched by the LDF. Therefore, LDF led panchayats might have shown more

enthusiasm in implementing the plan and thus attracting more people into the

campaign. The UDF panchayats might have seen it, as a programme of their

political opponents and hence might have been less enthusiastic towards it.

Table 4.12 Rate of Participation in UDF and LDF Panchayats-Percentages

Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books

In our sample, six panchayats were ruled by LDF and the remaining by

UDF. In 2000 election, there was a change in the ruling party in four panchayats

between these two fronts. Table 4.12 shows the participation in panchayats of both

fronts.

The average participation rate of LDF panchayats was higher (9.2 per cent)

than that of UDF panchayats (6.3 per cent) in the first sub-period. The highest rate

of participation for UDF panchayats was 7.7 per cent for Kadappuram for the first

sub-period followed by Kuzhoor (7.1 per cent). The lowest participation rate

revealed was 4.2 per cent for Chelakkara and the highest rate was 9.1 per cent in

1997 for Kadavalloor panchayat

Among LDF panchayats, Nattika had the highest rate of participation in the

first sub-period. The highest partxipation rate recorded was 20.3 per cent for

Tholoor panchayat in 1998, followcd by Nattika panchayat (1 5.9 per cent) in1 997.

The participation rate of Nattika was more consistent than that of Tholoor.

Mulamkunnathukavu panchayat had the lowest average for the period with 6.4 per

cent and it also recorded the lowest participation rate of 4.5 per cent in 2000. LDF

Panchayats, on the average, attained their peak participation rate in 1998 (10.5 per

cent) whereas; UDF panchayats attained the highest rate in 1997 (7.6 per cent).

Some of the LDF panchayats had a lower participation rate than some of the UDF

panchayats.

In the second sub-period, the rate of participation recorded by panchayats

of both fronts increased, in almost equal terms. There was some change in the

composition of panchayats in both f?onts in the second sub-period.

There appears to be no correlation between the mobilisation of people in

the grama sabhas and electoral outcomes. Nattika panchayat (LDF) had the

highest participation rate, but in the 2000 election the LDF lost power there,

whereas, in the Tholoor panchayat (LDF), where there was a higher participation

rate, the LDF retained control in the next election. Mulamkunnathukavu, which

had the lowest participation rate among LDF panchayats, saw the LDF retain

power in the next election. Kadappuram and Kuzhoor were the panchayats that

had higher participation rates anlong UDF panchayats and both witnessed the

UDF retain their control in the next election. Ariipoor and Chelakkara, both UDF

controlled panchayats, had the lowest participation rates, of which the UDF could

retain power in the Chelakkara panchayat, but Arimpoor panchayat was lost to

the LDF. Thus, mobilisation of people into the grama sabha does not appear to be

a relevant variable in determining electoral outcome.

Ordinary least square regression analysis for the rate of participation in

1997 (dependent variable) was done taking literacy rate, employment in primary

sector, work participation rate, SC population, density of population, area of the

panchayat, political front in administration, non-coastal region as independent

variables. However, the results did not exhibit any statistically significant

relationship4.

SECTION - 111

Assessment of Trend and Quality of Participation in Grama Sabha

The quality of participation is equally important as quantity. The grama

sabha is supposed to undertake meaningful dialogue on developmental priorities

(GoK 2001). Therefore, the assessment of the quality of deliberations is important

and for that a survey was conducted among 300 individuals. The 300 respondents

consisted of panchayat members (loo), officers in the panchayat offices (100) and

activists (100) involved in the plan campaign. The 100 panchayat members as well

as officers were from the sample panchayats. The activists were from different

parts of the district who were involved in the panchayat planning process as key

resource persons W s ) , district resource persons (DRPs), local resource persons

(LRPs), task force I working group members, and expert committee

membersltechnical advisory committee members. Questions of the survey were

framed to bring out their perceptions regarding trend and quality of participation in

different stages of planning.

The trend in participation in grama sabhas was assessed for the first sub-

period by asking whether participation was increasing, decreasing or remaining

constant during the period. For the second sub-period the respondents were to

report their opinion regarding trend in participation in comparison to the previous

period. The results are given in Table 4.13.

In the general category, 98 per cent of the respondents reported that

participation was increasing in the first sub-period. Regarding women's

participation, 98 per cent of responses were that there was a decrease in

participation trend but in the case of scheduled caste participation, 96 per cent

reported that the trend was increasing. The empirical data collected do not agree

with the perceptions revealed in the survey. The participation was showing a

falling trend even in the first period

In the second sub-period, compared to the first, participation declined

according to 85 per cent of the respondents, but 9 per cent reported that the trend

was almost same and 6 per cent opined that there was an increase in overall

participation. Increase in participation was reported in the case of women by 17

per cent of respondents and 40 per cent had the opinion that the participation trend

remained constant.

Table 4.13 Trend of Participation

Note: 1. increasing 2. decreasing 3. constant Source: Primary Survey 2004

Majority of the respondelits agreed that there was a decline in the

participation trend of scheduled castes in the second sub-period compared to the

first.

Thus, the overall assessment of respondents was that there was a decline in

the participation trend in grama sabhas in the second sub-period compared to the

first. The primary survey confirms our doubts regarding the reliability of the data

on participation reported in the minutes books of grama sabhas.

Perceptions of Rate of Participation

We used our primary survey to get some idea of the perception levels on

trends of participation. A family 011 the average consists of three voters. Normally

participation from a family is limited to one. Then, 113~ participation of voters is

an excellent level having the representation of all the families. For assessing this,

ten per cent participation of voters in a grama sabha was considered as the

'average' level. Participation above 20 per cent of voters was 'very good' and a

participation rate between 15 to 20 per cent was considered 'good'. A participation

rate below 5 per cent was treated as 'very low' and a rate between 5 per cent to 10

per cent was treated as 'low'.

Table 4.14 depicts the perceptions on rate of participation of the

respondents. The table has two parts, A and B. Part A depicts the perceptions for

the first sub-period and part B shows the same for the second sub-period.

As regards participation of the general category, women and scheduled

castes, the majority reported that the participation rate was 'average' in the first

sub-period. But for the second sub-period, the response of 'average' rate had

declined. Regarding the participation of the general category of voters, 47 per cent

reported that the participation rate was 'low' and in the case of women, 35 per cent

reported that participation rate as 'low'. A majority agreed on the point that the

participation rate of scheduled castes was 'average'. In the first sub-period, there

was no response for rate of participation reported as 'low', but in the second sub-

period, there were many such reports.

Table 4.14 Percevtion of Rate of Participation

Second Sub-period: Percentage reported as:

Source: PrimiSurvey 2004

Thus, the overall perception is that, there was a decline in participation in

the grama sabhas in the second sub-period compared to the first period.

Quality of Involvement in the Grama Sabha

Mere attendance is not enough; active participation requires involvement in

discussion and decision-making in prioritisation, beneficiary selection and social

auditing. It is very difficult to quantify this. Hence, we have attempted to

understand the quality of invol\rement in various functions of grama sabha. The

results are presented in Table 4.15.

Table 4.15 Quality of Involvement in Grama Sabha

Source: Primary Survey 2004

The results present a picture of general deterioration in the quality of

participation. The proportion of our respondents marking 'high' for involvement

in discussion was 53 per cent for the first sub-period. The proportion of

respondents who considered involvement as 'low' was nil in the first sub-period.

The proportion of respondents marking 'low' increased to 30 per cent in the

second sub-period. The same pattern of deterioration can be seen in the case of

quality of discussion, prioritising local needs, beneficiary selection and social

audit. The proportion of respondents marking 'low' increased substantially for the

second sub-period.

There is another interesting dimension on quality of participation emerging

from Table 4.15. According to our respondents, quality of participation was

generally better when involvement in discussion and beneficiary selection were

considered. The ranking given by the respondents is generally lower for quality of

discussion, prioritisation and social audit. This is on expected lines because

increasing the quality of discussion, prioritisation and social auditing is more

demanding.

The Reasons of Low Participation

The respondents were asked to report the reasons for low participation

according to their perceptions. The reason cited by most members in a particular

category is ranked first and the second highest response is ranked as second and so

on. The reasons cited by them by each category are presented in Table 4.16. All

categories of respondents opined that the grama sabha is seen as a forum for

beneficiary selection. As a corollary to this, most participants expect some benefit

from participation. There were divergent views among the three categories of

respondents as regards the third important reason. The ward members cited the

third reason related to the first and second, as once a benefit is received, helshe is

less likely to get the benefit the next time. So hetshe may not report for the next

meeting. Similarly, if a collective want such as a road is met, then those

beneficiaries are less likely to come for the next meeting. Activists opined that the

third major reason was lack of information regarding the convening of the grama

sabha. The ward members may not give enough publicity for grama sabha, so that

many voters are unaware of it. Many ward members may also like to have less

members of his choice to avoid many uncomfortable situations. The fall in the

number of projects with individud beneficiary oriented distributive projects have

contributed to the fall in participation, according to the officers. The activists were

of the opinion that the inconvenient timing, lack of interest of the ward members

etc were other important reasons. According to activists, political bias in decision-

making restrains many voters from participation. The ward members or the

officers did not raise such an issue.

Table 4.16 Ranking of Reasons of Low Participation

Reasons Rank Members ( Officials I Activists

Grama sabha is seen as a fomn of 1 1 1

Source- Primary Survey 2004

Moreover, there is an opportunity cost for participation. The opportunity

cost of employed persons is high Therefore, their participation is low. Another

reason is the feeling of the people that the scene is dominated by the political

activists and that the opinions of '2thers are not counted. Dissatisfaction with the

grama sabha, since many of the issues raised there are not addressed, makes

people disinterested in participation.

Conclusion

Grama sabha is the important space in the planning process, which

provides opportunities for participation of all the voters. The number of

participants, their socio-economic characteristics and their involvement in the

decision-making process are important factors influencing the outcome. Studies on

the participation of people in g rma sabhas in different states in India show a

dismal picture. The participation of the selected grama panchayats in Thrissur

district is examined, dividing the period in to two sub-periods - 1995-2000 and

after 2000. The average participation of the voters increased in 1997, which is the

first year of the People's Plan Campaign compared to the previous year. There was

a decline in average participation after 1997.The average participation rate of the

voters in the first sub-period was only 7.5 per cent and the highest rate recorded

was 9 per cent in 1997.A noteworthy feature of grama sabha participation in

Kerala was the proportionately higher level of participation of the scheduled

castes. Another feature is the increased participation of women, which was around

40 per cent of the total and in some of the panchayats it was over 50 per cent.

The education level of the participants showed that around 90 per cent of

the participants are either illitcaates or having education below SSLC. The

educated class is less keen in attending the grama sabhas. The younger generation

is also less interested as compared to higher age groups in local planning. The

average participation in grama sabhas convened for beneficiary selection is higher

than those for planning or other purposes. The political dimension of participation

is important and we could find that the participation rate in the LDF panchayats

was higher than in UDF panchayats. The primary survey showed that there was

deterioration in the 'quantity' as well as in the 'quality' of participation in the

second sub-period, although data show a higher participation, which we suspect is

due to data manipulation. There was deterioration in the quality of discussion,

prioritising local needs and beneficiary selection. Some of the reasons cited for

low participation are: a) grama sabha is seen as a forum for beneficiary selection;

b) participation is with the expectation of benefit; c) fall in projects with individual

beneficiaries; d) political domination in grama sabha; e) lack of information

regarding grama sabha and inconvcnient timing; f) absence of the initiative of the

ward member in mobilising the people. But, there are divergent views as regards

the relative importance of the reasons among the panchayat members, officers and

activists.

Notes

' This is a secret that almost everybody knows. Manipulation of grama sabha records has become quite widespread. This general observation is hue in the case of most panchayats selected for our study as well. The focus group discussions also confirmed this proposition.

2 The participation of scheduled tribes is not available 'om the minutes books; hence the study does not consider their participation. The total number of ST population in sample panchayats was only 381 (1991Census). Of this 315 was in Matlathur panchayat.

The officers of the village panchayat shall attend the meeting of the grama sabha as may be required by the president (section3A KPA 1994). But the participation of the officers is very poor.

The regression analysis was constrained by some important data limitations. For instance, we do not have data on apparently important independent variables at the ward level. But there is considerable variability in participation across wards. The limitation of the analysis points towards the need to have more systematic efforts to unravel the underlying relationships.