Contents

Participants in the preparation of the book 2

Introduction 3

Contents 6

Part II: Photos appendix

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Part I: Tree species 8

1 Styrax tonkinensis 8

2 Dendrocalamus membranaceus 18

3 Peltophorum dasyrrahachis var. tonkinensis 27

4 Rhamnoneuron balansae 32

5 Melaleuca cajuputi 36

6 Rhizophora apiculata 41

7 Bruguiera parviflora 52

8 Manglietia glauca 59

9 Erythrophloeum fordii 67

10 Chukrasia tabularis 77

11 Michelia mediocris 84

12 Pinus massoniana 91

13 Dipterocarpus alatus 97

14 Hopea odorata 104

15 Paulownia fortunei 111

16 Tarrietia javanica 118

17 Gmelina arborea 124

18 Canarium album 130

19 Cassia siamea 134

20 Cunninghamia lanceolata 140

21 Machilus odorratissima 146

22 Lithocarpus ducampii 151

23 Cinnamomum obtusifolium 156

24 Anisoptera costata 162

25 Pterocarpus macrocarpus 168

26 Toona surenii 174

27 Cinnamomum cassia 179

28 Ilicium verum 185

29 Litsea glutinosa 189

30 Vernicia montana 192

31 Camellia oleifera 196

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Forest Science Institute of Vietnam (FSIV)

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

FSIV JICA

Use of Indigenous Tree Species in

Reforestation in Vietnam

Agricultural Publishing House

Participants in preparation of the book

Editorial board

1. Prof. Dr. Do Dinh Sam

2. Dr. Nguyen Hoang Nghia

Preparation on species

Dr. Nguyen Ba Chat: Styrax tonkinensis, Litsea glutinosa, Michelia mediocris, Chukrasia tabularis, Erythrophloeum fordii, Peltophorum dasyrrhachis var. Tonkinensis. Gmelina arborea, Cassia siamea, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Manglietia glauca, Cinnamomum obtusifolium.

Mr. Pham Ngoc Co: Melaleuca cajuputi.

Dr. Bui Doan: Dipterocarpus alatus

Dr. Bao Huy: Toona surenii

M.Sc. Nguyen Quang Khai: Rhamnoneuron balansae.

Mrs. Ha Thi Mung: Pterocarpus macrocarpus

Dr. Ngo Dinh Que and Mr. Nguyen Duc Minh: Cinnamomum cassia.

Mr. Nguyen Tu Uong: Dendrocalamus membranaceus

Mr. Hoang Van Thoi: Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera parviflora

Dr. Tran Quang Viet: Illicium verum, Paulownia fortunei, Camellia oleifera, Pinus massoniana, Canarium album, Vernicia montana.

Dr. Nguyen Dinh Hung: Supplementation to wood characteristics and uses of 20 tree species.

Photos: Nguyen Ba Chat, Pham Ngoc Co, Bui Doan, Nguyen Quang Khai, Nguyen Hoang Nghia, Ngo Dinh Que, Tran Quang Viet, Cau Hai Silvicultural Research Centre, Eastern South Vietnam Forest Scientific and Production Centre.

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Introduction

The Five Million ha Reforestation Project by the year 2010 is an important task that the Forest sector together with the entire people are making great effort to carry out. Besides the economic objectives the objective of ecological environment protection, restoration of forest eco-systems of Vietnam, biodiversity conservation and development of indigenous species is of special significance. Many indigenous tree species have been used in reforestation and the number of species that are under investigation for wide planting is not few but the information is generally not up-to-date to help managers and researchers to have proper and timely orientation.

In the year 2000, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) agreed to provide the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam a financial support for a research subject “Evaluation of the use of indigenous tree species in reforestation in Vietnam”, fiscal year March 2000-March 2002. Objectives of the project are:

· Evaluation of present conditions of some indigenous tree species in reforestation.

· Evaluation of potentiality of using indigenous tree species in reforestation.

· Establishing forest plantation models with some potential species.

In the past two years the project has gathered a contingent of experienced researchers and some regional research centres to deploy the content of the project such as surveying and evaluating some indigenous tree species on the field in reforestation at various localities: North-West and North-East of North Vietnam, Mid region of North Vietnam, Central Vietnam, the Central Highlands and Eastern South Vietnam through collection of information as follows:

· Planted species and site conditions (vegetation, soil, parent rock, etc.)

· Forest planting techniques having been used (land preparation, planting technique, planting density, level of intensive management, tending or thinning if having been done).

· Mean height of the plantation in the surveyed areas (m).

· Mean breast height diameter of the plantation (cm).

· Phenological conditions, insect pest and diseases.

· Taking photographs of trees, flowers, leaves, fruit in the plantation etc.

Through many years of research and data synthesis, the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam has recommended over 100 tree species for forest planting programmes serving all the three forest categories i.e. production forest, protection forest and special-use forest. Through the process of survey and study in the project framework, based on document already available and data newly collected, over 30 indigenous tree species have been selected and work has been assigned to the staff to write specialized report for each and every species. Researchers of the FSIV and the Central Highlands University have participated in writing reports. Early April 2002 the FSIV organized a seminar to consult opinions of scientists, managers and the financial support organization JICA, Department of Science, Technology and Products Quality (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), Forest Science and Technology Association, Forest Inventory and Planning Institute as well as FSIV researchers.

Final product of the project is a book containing evaluation reports on 31 indigenous tree species. The reports strictly adhere to the order:

· Name of species

· Other names

· Scientific name

· Plant family.

1. Morphological description

2. Ecological characteristics (including natural distribution, climate, soil, phenology)

3. Use

4. Evaluation of forest plantation

5. Recommendations (on planting stock, site conditions, planting techniques etc.)

· Main references.

Special attention is paid to the use and value of the species; evaluation of forest plantation and making main recommendations. Some species of which planting procedure or technical guidance is already available then the reports of the project do not repeat that information but only lay emphasis on the key matters. Some exotic species such as Pinus massoniana, Cunninghamia lanceolata but their natural distribution range is close to Vietnam and they have been planted from long time then they are considered also as “so called” indigenous species.

The above-mentioned indigenous species are evaluated at three levels:

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1. Species that have been used in large production, on upto thousands of hectares or at least hundreds of hectares with adequate procedures, technical guidance such as Styrax tonkinensis, Manglietia glauca, Cinnamomum cassia, Pinus massoniana, Melaleuca cajuputi, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera parviflora, Vernicia montana, Camellia olifera, Illicium verum, Litsea glutinosa, Cunninghamia lanceoluta, Cassia siamea, Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata.

2. Species that have been used in production on small scale but the forest plantation models are sufficient for evaluation such as Chukrasia tabularis, Peltophorum dasyrrhachis var. tonkinensis, Mechelia mediocris, Rhamnoneuron balansae.

3. Species that have been and are being under investigation with small experimental models such as Machilus odorratissima, Lithocarpus ducampii, Erythrophloeum fordii, Anisoptera costata, Gmelina arborea, Cinnamomum obtusifolium, Paulownia fortunei, Canarium album, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Toona surenii.

For convenient consultation, the tree species are classified in 3 groups:

1. Species supplying wood for paper raw material, composite board, domestic utensils: Styrax tonkinensis, Dendrocalamus membranaceus, Peltophorum dasyrrhachis var. tonkinensis, Rhamnoneuron balansae, Melaleuca cajuputi, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera parviflora.

2. Species supplying large timber and veneer: Manglietia glauca, Erythrophloeum fordii, Chukrasia tabularis, Michelia medicris, Pinus massoniana, Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata, Paulownia fortunei, Tarrietia javanica, Gmelina orborea, Canarium album, Cassia siamea, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Machilus odorratissima, Lithocarpus ducampii, Cinnamomum obtusifolium, Anisoptera costata, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Toona surenii.

3. Species yielding special forest products: Illicium verum, Cinnamomum cassia, Litsea glutonosa, Vernicia montana, Camellia oleifera.

The FSIV sincerely expresses its thank to JICA for helping the project implementation and publication of the book. Thank is also to researchers who enthusiastically participated in the project implementation and preparation of the book. Forest trees have long life span and are much affected by the environment and then mistakes are unavoidable in their evaluation. Facing great problems raised by production, the book is the accumulation of main research results in the first step on 31 indigenous tree species aiming at providing new information on the potentialities of the interested species. We hope to receive opinions from readers.

We are honoured to introduce the book to readers.

Hanoi July 2002

Forest Science Institute of Vietnam

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STYRAX TONKINENSIS Vietnamese name: Bo de Scientific name: Styrax tonkinensis Pierre. Family: Styracaceae 1/ Morphological description: The tree is 18-20m high, 20-25cm in diameter, bole round, bark slightly cracked, pale brown in colour. Branches slender, upward in direction. In young forest stand with high density, the height of the crown represents 2/3 of tree height. Leaves single 4.5-10cm long, 2.6-5cm wide, alternate, upper surface: green, lustrous, under surface pale brown in colour. Inflorescence: apical racemose, corolla: overlapping, sepals; stamen 2/3 of corolla height; filament: free on corolla tube. Fruit ovoid, grey pubescence, stellate, calyx persistent, wrapping 1/3 of the fruit, one-seeded, splitted in 3 valves, green when young, pale brown when ripe. 2/ Ecological characteristics Styrax tonkinensis is distributed in natural secondary forest in North Vietnam provinces: Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Cao Bang, Ha Giang, Lai Chau, Son La, Hoa Binh, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, between 19o-23o N latitude and 103o and 107o E. longitude. It is usually found at 60-1,000m elevation. S. tonkinensis is naturally distributed in region with average annual rainfall: 1,500-2,000mm without dry season (monthly rainfall < 50mm) or only some dry months. In nature suitable temperature for S.tonkinensis is 15o-26oC. It is tolerant to temperature range -4oC to +45oC. S. tonkinensis grows on yellow or reddish yellow soils generated from metamorphic rock and alluvial rock. S. tonkinensis is light-demanding and is a pioneer species and usually occupies upper storey of the forest. No seedlings exist under forest canopy. The seedlings usually appear in areas previously practised with slash-and-burn cultivation or after gregarious flowering of bamboo, forest fire. S. tonkinensis grows in patches nearly pure, mixed with few light demanding species such as Trema virgata, Mallotus cochinchinensis or Neohouzeaua dulloa. S. tonkinensis is a truly deciduous species. Annually leaves shedding takes place from October to February the next year. In forest stand under 2-3 years of age the leaves are not totally shedded. Fruiting: March-April. Fruits ripe in August-September. S.tonkinensis natural regeneration is very strong in open places. The seed remains viable long in the ground and regeneration starts when the shade is removed. 3/ Use and value: S.tonkinensis wood is soft, light, bright in colour, without heartwood. The wood is used for match, chopsticks, paper raw material. S.tonkinensis plantations are established to supply paper raw material for the Bai Bang Paper Mill and serve other purposes. S.tonkinensis bole secretes an aromatic resin called benzoin used in medicine, perfume, varnish production. Annual rings are prominent, usually 4-7mm in width and sometimes upto 10mm, vessels single and short, scattered doubled vessels are rarely met, vessel diameter is small, number of vessels per mm2 is great. Rays small and narrow to average. Parenchyma scattered and developed into narrow strips and together with the rays making a net-work with terminal parenchyma. Wood fibres are tracheids, 1.2-1.5cm long and have thin wall. Wood grain straight. Wood soft and light, specific density 420kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.36. Grain saturation point 24%. Length wise pressure strength 261kg/cm2. Impact strength 5.1kg/cm. Wood meeting the standards for matches, stationery and pulp wood. The wood must not be used for high strength requirement. Wood is prone to decay and preservation measures must be taken for wood as raw material. 4/ Evaluation of the S.tonkinensis plantation Technical standards for S.tonkinensis are already available regarding forest planting TCVN 3130-79, soil and climate 3131-79, thinning QTN 22-82, resin tapping QTN 3-65, seed TCVN 3129-79. S.tonkinensis is one of the species early selected for forest planting to supply raw material for paper industry. Therefore system of techniques has been developed rather completely. The area of S.tonkinensis plantation is rather large with many age classes. Area of S.tonkinensis plantation already established is 64,409 ha of which 61,771 ha is pure plantation, 2,972 ha is mixed plantation. Total timber stocking: 2,010,150m3 of which pure plantation: 1,981,627m3, mixed plantation 28,523m3. Area of S.tonkinensis plantation upto 1999 in various provinces is: Ha Giang 5,850 pure plantation, 1,198ha mixed plantation; Lao Cai: 1,876 ha pure plantation, 1,733 ha mixed plantation; Phu Tho 15,372 ha pure plantation, 965 ha mixed plantation; Tuyen Quang 9,030ha pure plantation; Yen Bai 28,717 ha pure plantation, 1,681 ha mixed forest; Bac Can 1,373 ha pure plantation; Hoa Binh 664 ha pure plantation. Table 1: Area and productivity of S.tonkinensis plantation in various provinces (inventory in 1999)

Technical standards early developed and promulgated (1979) have been applied in all provinces with S. tonkinensis plantation. Highest annual increment however reached only 8.32 m3/ha (9-year old). Greatest timber stocking is 102.56 m3/ha With suitable site conditions and growth potential, S. tonkinensis plantation in various soil classes has rather high timber stocking with popular planting techniques. Table 2: Growth and yield of S. tonkinensis plantation in various soil classes (Forest Inventory Handbook)

Age class (3 year old) Province Index 1 2 3 4 5

M (m3) 653,685 100,364 4,326 Yen Bai S (ha) 14,394 12.805 14.70 48

m3/ha 51.05 68.27 90.13 Tuyen M (m3) 82,097 301,696 148,450 15,633 Quang S (ha) 755 2,182 4,271 1,624 208

m3/ha 37.65 70.64 91.97 75.16 M (m3) 379,160 32,178 3,282 1,650

Phu Tho S (ha) 8,218 6,672 435 32 15 m3/ha 59.53 73.97 102.56 110

Ha M (m3) 128,859 30,576 352 Giang S (ha) 2,715 2,723 408 4

m3/ha 47.32 74.94 88

Age N/ha Soil class D (cm)

H (m)

M (m3)

ZM (m3)

Thinning (m3)

6 719 I 18.8 16.3 139.2 21.9 55.8

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Usually in production S. tonkinensis is rarely planted in soil class IV. Inventory document shows that mean timber stocking of pure S. tonkinensis plantation is very low as compared with potentialities of site and planted species. Timber stocking of S. tonkinensis plantation is low as compared with the potentialities and main factor affecting productivity is not the techniques. In reality in the process of the plantation management losses in area and number of trees have happened in the age and soil classes. This really results in losses in timber stocking and productivity of S. tonkinensis plantation. This is demonstrated when evaluation is made on the planted indigenous tree species in the Mid region of North Vietnam. Nine-ten year old S. tonkinensis plantations in Tan An, Chiem Hoa, Tuyen Quang presently have a density of 1,100-1,200 trees/ha, timber stocking 149,85 m3/ha (Table 3). Table 3: Growth of S. tonkinensis in the surveyed areas

S. tonkinensis plantation in soil classes I and II has good growth. Thinning timely and leaving proper number of trees result in the yield of S. tonkinensis as shown in Table 2. In production practice however thinning was not timely done at proper intensity, required density was not ensured and yield was usually low. Pure planting system and mixed planting system both give nearly similar timber stocking. With approximately the same timber stocking, mixed plantation is more capable of soil degradation control. Regretfully that data of mixed S. tonkinensis plantations have not been collected so that one can know which species can grow well with S. tonkinensis for more precise evaluation, serving forest planting with this species. Second rotation of S. tonkinensis has been investigated from 1971 to 1974 and conclusion is: “It is possible to establish S. tonkinensis plantation, 2nd rotation with no remarkable lessened yield as compared with the 1st rotation”. To ensure the stable yield of the next rotation of S. tonkinensis plantation, in the first rotation the soil class must not be lowered (Nguyen Cong Doi 1974). Subsequent rotations of S. tonkinensis have not been studied. Intensive management of S. tonkinensis has been mentioned but final confirmation has not been reached. The area of S. tonkinensis plantation achieved with considerable volume of wood supplied to various demands are notable success of the silvicultural technique system. 5/ Recommendation: Results of forest planting with S. tonkinensis have been achieved due to application of the following techniques: - Seed: Seed is collected from trees 5 years of age and over. Annually from 25 August seed sample must be collected to test the ripeness of the seed. Seed is only collected if 40-50% of the seed sample is up to the standard. Soil and climate suitable for S. tonkinensis planting:

· Average annual temperature 21-23oC · Average annual rainfall is 1,700mm and over. Number of months of rainfall less than 50mm must not more than 3. · Soil: various yellow, red feralite soil types of low hills with thick weathering layer, rather heavy texture, generated on the parent

rocks: Gneiss, mica schist, philit, porphyry, old alluvium. Soils are classified into 6 classes but S. tonkinensis is planted only from class III upwards. Techniques

· Vegetation treatment for planting: Clearing, burning and removing all left over plant residue. When the hill slope is over 25-30o, a forest band 10m in width must be left over on hill crest. In soil class I, planting density is 1,600-2,000 trees/ha Soil class II: 2,000-2,500 trees/ha Soil class III, seed of soil improvement species must be sown, planting density: 2,500-3,300 trees/ha Forest planting can be done by seed sowing in holes, 20x20x25cm in size. Sowing is done in October, November, December and January. The plantation is tended in three successive years.

· Thinning and nursing the plantation: S. tonkinensis plantation canopy has closed or closure is going on, not exceeding 6 months, forest cover is 0.7 or over. Thinning is done in dry season, regular thinning and selective thinning. Thinning is not done with 3-4 trees next to one another. First thinning is done when the plantation is 20-26 months old. Second thinning at 32-38 months of age.

Table 4: Thinning table with S. tonkinensis

Pure S. tonkinensis plantation has supplied over 2 million m3 of wood for paper raw material. This is a species of short management rotation with simple planting technique but in practice important steps have not been fully carried out: Nursing, thinning, ensuring

9 576 I 23.2 20.3 193.0 15.8 45.4 12 507 I 26.4 23.1 235.2 13.2 6 1,075 II 15.8 13.1 190.3 18.6 48.2 9 753 II 19.6 17.1 150.8 9.7 65 12 616 II 22.3 19.9 176.5 8 6 1,009 III 13.4 11.8 86.3 16.5 41.1 9 752 III 17.1 15.2 122.0 8.9 51.1 6 1,194 IV 11.2 9.1 61.1 17.1 24.6 9 946 IV 17.1 12 80.3 4.5 20.1

Surveyed areas Age Density (trees/ha)

D1.3 (cm)

H (m)

V tree

(m3)

V (m3/ha)

Luu Thinh, Tran Yen, Yen Bai

9 950 15 12.5 0.0982 89.27

Ban Vanh, Ban Yen, Yen Bai 10 1,200 15.1 15 0.1252 150.24 Minh Sang, Son Duong, Tuyen Quang

10 757 16.8 15.2 0.1198 148.50

Tan An, Chiem Hoa, Tuyen Quang

9 750 18.4 14.93 0.1998 149.85

Viet Quang, Bac Quang, Ha Giang

6 1,200 7.9 7.7 0.0209 25.08

Chan Mong, Doan Hung, Phu Tho

5 1,200 8.07 8.45 0.0239 28.0

Soil Class

Soil class I, planting density 2,000 trees/ha

Soil class II, planting density 2,500 trees/ha

Soil class III, planting density 3,300 trees/ha

Thinning intensity

(%)

n/ha after

thinning

Mean D after

thinning (cm)

Thinning intensity

(%)

n/ha after thinning

Mean D after

thinning (cm)

Thinning intensity

(%)

n/ha after thinning

Mean D after

thinning (cm)

1st thinning

50-55 900-

1000 6.5-7.5 50-55 1200-

1250 5.5-6.5 50-55 1500-

1650 5-6

2nd thinning

25-35 650-700 9.5-10.5 35-40 700-750 8.5-9.5 50 750-800 7-7.5

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the required tree density in various soil classes. Attention must be paid to soil conservation in the first rotation to maintain forest yield in subsequent rotations. In the process of forest tending and nursing the layer of regenerated broad-leaved species under the canopy must be left over. After the first rotation, S. tonkinensis must be planted mixed in rows with Tephrosia candida for soil restoration. S. tonkinensis can be planted in mixing with Manglietia glauca in narrow bands or patches or Acacia mangium in bands (3-5 rows in a band) in contour line. S. tonkinensis plantation for seed supply has been established but it still plays no role in practice. Although some progress has been made in tree improvement, intensive management technique, thinning and nursing but the advanced techniques have not been fully applied in production. This is one of the reasons leading to the decreased timber stocking of S. tonkinensis plantation. The available technical system must be used because the technical measures developed are well-based scientifically, aimed at stabilization and improvement of the productivity of S. tonkinensis plantation in the rotations. Land classification for S. tonkinensis plantation The Forest Science Intitute of Vietnam has established standards for soil classification serving S. tonkinensis planting. The standards have been promulgated by the State as TCVN 3131-79.

Degradation degree of forest soil

Characteristics for degradation

diagnosis

Class I Remained forest soil nature

and slightly degradation

Class II Slightly degraded forest

soil

Class III Moderately

degraded forest soil

Class IV Slightly heavily degraded

forest soil

Class V Heavily degraded forest soil

Class VI Too heavily

degraded forest soil

A- Characteristics of soil profile for diagnosis of forest soil degradation

Horizon A: Over 15cm deep; 0-10cm layer contains over 4% humus. Porosity 55%, numerous roots, granular structure, rapid water permeability, 3mm/ minute. Water retention less than 1g/cm3. Distinct transitional layer between A and B Horizon B little compact, dry, easily dug Moisture: Sufficient moisture all the year round

Horizon A: Over 10cm; 0-10cm layer contents 3.5-4% humus. Porosity 50-55%, numerous roots granular structure rapid water permeability over 3mm/ minute. Water retention 1g/cm3 transitional layer AB Horizon B similar to class I Moisture: Sufficient moisture all the year round

Horizon A :over 10cm deep; 0-10cm layer: humus 3-3.5%, porosity 50%, granular and lump structure. . Water permeability 2mm/minute. Transitional layer AB little distinct Horizon B compact when dry, digging with little difficulty Moisture: Suficient moisture from 1 to 2 months a year

Horizon A over 5cm deep; 0-10cm layer: humus 2-3%. Soil compact porosity 40-50%, many grass, roots, few tree roots poor structure; lump and granular. Water permeability: 2mm/ minute transitional layer AB not distinct Horizon B compact, hardly dug when dry red streaks Moisture: Sufficient moisture over 2 months a year

Horizon A: thin, less than 5cm or not clear; 0-10cm layer: humus 1-2% compact soil porosity 40% usually no structure hardly water permeable. Water retention 1-2g/cm3 transitional layer AB not distinct Horizon B compact, digging with great difficulty when dry, conglome-ration parent rock fragments impregnated with iron Moisture: Sufficient moisture over 2-3 months a year

Horizon A: usually absent 0-10cm layer: humus 1% B horizon usually exposed Horizon B: very compact and hard. digging with great difficulty when dry parent rock fragments impregnated with iron lateralization at low topography. Moisture: Sufficient moisture 3-5 months a year

B. Main vegetation indications

-Timber forest with little exploitation -Timber forest mixed with bamboos over 4cm in diameter. Dendrocalamus patellaris + Neohouzeaua dulloa forest over 4cm in diameter +Other bamboos over 6cm in diameter -Timber forest newly exploited to depletion but not yet with slash-and-burn cultivation

-Small timber forest depleted by long term exploitation -Secondary timber forest restored after slash-and-burn cultivation. S. tonkinensis , Trema virgata, Canarium sp., Endospermum sp. Erythrophloeum fordii breast high diameter below 20cm. -Pure Neohouzeaua dulloa forest 3-4cm in diameter -Small diameter Neohouzeaua dulloa forest, good vigour, after large diameter Neohouzeaua dulloa over exploitation

-Savanna with small tree (5-6 m high) mixed with bushes after land fallowing -Savanna with small diameter (2-3cm) Neohouzeaua dulloa with average vigour -Savanna with small diameter Neohouzeaua dulloa mixed with Sacharum arundimaceum, Miscanthus japonicus, good vigour -Savanna with Sacharum arundimaceum, Miscanthus japonicus, good vigour

Savanna with bushes (<5m high) mixed with Saccharum arundimaceum, Miscanthus japonicus, vigour average -Savanna with small diameter (<2cm) N. dulloa poor vigour mixed with Saccharum arundimaceum, Miscanthus japonicus, Imperata cylindrica -Savanna with Imperata cylindrica and perennial high grasses, average vigour

-Savanna with xerophyte bushes (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Melastomacandidum, average vigour -Savanna with Miscanthus japonicus, Imperata cylindrica, Xerephyte bushes, poor vigour -Savanna with low grasses, seasonal perishing good vigour

Savanna with spense Xerophyte bushes poor and very poor vigour. Savanna with sparse Eriachne pallescens and low grasses; seasonal perishing; poor vigour -Bare land no vegetation whatsoever

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References

1. Forest planting procedure. Procedure of thinning S. tonkinensis plantation. Ministry of Forestry, 1983

2. Doan Bong and collaborators, 1975: Research on using integrated silvicultural techniques in establishment of S. tonkinensis

plantation with high and stable productivity in the Mid-region of North Vietnam.

3. Hoang Xuan Ty, 1975: Effect of pure S. tonkinensis plantation system on forest soil. Research results at Cau Hai, Phu Tho

province, 1985.

4. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1975: Results of research on mixed planting of S. tonkinensis with other species. Research results at Cau

Hai, Phu Tho province, 1985

5. Nguyen Cong Doi, 1975: Research on measure for continued S. tonkinensis regeneration and its tending on the area after

exploitation of this species. Research results at Cau Hai, Phu Tho province, 1985

6. Vu Dinh Phuong, 1975: Research on increment of S. tonkinensis tree and plantation as a base for forest thinning and

management. Research results at Cau Hai, Phu Tho province, 1985

7. Table of growth of S. tonkinensis plantations. Forest Survey Handbook, 1995.

8. Data of forest inventory of Vietnam 1999. Hanoi 2001.

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Soil depth (cm) Over 100cm

I II III IV V V

From 50cm to 100cm

II III III IV V VI

From 20cm to 50cm

III III IV V VI VI

Less than 20cm

VI VI VI VI

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Dendrocalamus membranaceus Vietnamese name: Luong Other names: Luong Thanh Hoa, May sang, May sang nui, May sang num, May men. Scientific name: Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro. Family: Poaceae, sub family Bambusoidae. 1/ Morphological description D. membranaceus is a large bamboo, thornless with small leaves, growing in clump with widely separated culms, sympodial rhizome, culm has short and curved top. Medium sized culm: 14m high, curved top 1m long, diameter 10cm, internode 30cm; culm wall: 1cm thick, fresh culm 37kg in weight, slight tapering, straight, regularly round at 2/3 of the culm from the base, node: not conspicuous, 2-3 nodes from the base have roots. Branches appear on 1/3 of the culm length at the top section shallow groove on the culm. In open place branches grow from nodes near the base. The branch bunch has only 1 big, long branch and 2-5 smaller branches, bud and roots can come out from the base of main branch. Leaf blade: lanceolate, 18cm long, 1.5 wide margin: sharp serrate, pointed tip, obtuse base. Leaf dark green and soft when young; pale green with small ferruginous spots when mature. Sheath campanulate, tip 10cm wide, base 30cm, height 37cm, upper half reddish yellow when young, lower half greenish yellow, outer surface with brownish purple blackish hairs, auricle developed , brown hair numerous. Ocrea deep serrate. Sheath lanceolate, pubescence in both surfaces, slightly curved outwards, sheath caducous; when small branches appear at the top of young culm, almost all sheaths shed. Shoot at young stage (still low) is brownish purple in colour and pinkish purple or reddish purple when growing higher, further it is orange purple or pinkish red; when coming out into the light the shoot is yellowish green or greyish green. Inflorencence apical racemose, at the nodes of the rachis are spikelets grouped in globular form. Each spikelet is acute oval, 10mm long on the average. Upto now no seed of this species can be collected (no seeding after flowering). 2/ Ecological characteristics: · Physical conditions: Main distribution range of D. membranaceus has a warm and moist climate with two seasons in a year: a season with intense sunshine, hot, much rain, usually from April- May to October, November the rainfall represents 70-80% of total annual rainfall ; cold season, little rain usually from November, December to March April the next year, rainfall represents only 20-30% total annual rainfall. Mean annual temperature about 23-24oC maximum temperature sometimes upto 42oC. Air humidity 87%. Annual rainfall 1,600-2,000mm. Annual evaporation about 677mm. Topography: hills, gentle slopes (<30o), elevation 800m a.s.l.; on flat terrain , hill foot or gentle hill side D. membranaceus grows better. D. membranaceus grows on many soil types especially on feralite soil generated on porphyry, limestone, mica schist , phyllit or old alluvium; soil layer 50-150cm deep, texture usually highly loamy clay to average loamy clay, usually yellow or reddish yellow in colour, pH (H2O) = 4.6-7; poor content of soluble P2O5 and K2O, low content of organic matter. · Population characteristic, reproduction, growth and development. There has not been found D. membranaceus forest in nature. Actually there can be found patches of D. membranaceus planted in secondary forest, pure D. membranaceus or D. membranaceus mixed with timber species plantation in large area and D. membranaceus scattered plantings in home gardens. In early stage of the plantation when forest canopy is not yet closed there can be mixed planting of agricultural crops such as groundnut , maize, cassava. Natural regeneration of tree species is rather abundant such as Erythrophloeum fordii, Sapium discolor, Archidendron clypearia, Trema angustifolia but only Erythrophloeum fordii remains in long time with D. membranaceus . Flowering has only been observed in special clumps and then the culms died and seed of D. membranaceus could not also have been collected. Thus it is not yet possible to raise D. membranaceus plantation with seed. Vegetative reproduction of D. membranaceus is by rhizome, aerial stem, branchlet and branch. Young culm after taking full shape with branches and leaves, buds at the base of the culm begin developing to produce next generation of shoots. Growth of a shoot can be divided into 3 main stages: - Stage 1: The shoot develops under the ground from about September-October to about April-May the next year - Stage 2: The shoot protrudes above the ground and height growth is fast from about April-May to July-August.

This time is called season of shoot production . - Stage 3: Young culm develops completely with branch, leaves and roots, from about July-August to October-

November. After this stage the young culm can grow independently. Thus best planting material is obtain from 1-year old culm.

One-two year old culm is pale green in colour, lustrous with some white powder, the nodes have a ring of fine, white hair, inner culm wall is white. Three-four year old culm is at middle age, dark green in colour; 5-year old culm and older one is old culm and is subjected to exploitation, the older the culm its colour becomes darker and there appear mosses, inner culm wall is reddish, vessels apparent. Life span of D. membranaceus culm is about 8-10 years. The relation between culms in a clumps is both nutrients supply and mutual support. A standard clumps contains about 20-50 culms (15-20 culms after exploitation, 30-40 culms in a clump when felling starts), ratio of age classes is approximately 1, 5-8 shoots are produced annually . · Distribution range D. membranaceus can be found growing in nature in scattered patches along Ma river, Son La province. Thanh Hoa province is the cradle of D. membranaceus (thus this species is called “Thanh Hoa” D. membranaceus ) but all are plantations. Presently D. membranaceus is much planted in North of Central Vietnam and is introduced to many North and South Vietnam provinces. The movement of D. membranaceus planting has spread out all over the Mid-Region of North Vietnam, some bamboo species commonly planted previously are replaced. Review has not been done about the D. membranaceus planting materials introduced to South Vietnam provinces; some clumps planted in Eastern South Vietnam and Quang Tri province are considered as having normal growth.

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3/ Uses: Cellulose content of D. membranaceus is 54% (highest among the bamboo species analysed). Lignin 22.4%, pentosan 18.8%, fibre length 2.944mm, width 17.84m, cell wall thickness 8.5m. With its chemical composition and fibre size, D. membranaceus used as paper raw material will give high effienciency and high grade paper. Specific density of D. membranaceus at moisture content 15% is 625kg/m3 equivalent to timber group 7 but as having special arrangement and structure of long fibre cells and bunches of vessels (2/6 vascular bundles/cm2), pressure strength along the grain (at moisture content 15% is 497 kg/cm2 and pulling strength along the grain (at moisture content 15%) is 3384 kg/cm2, far better than wood of many tree species. That is why D. membranaceus culms are very good as support poles , beams in construction, communication and transport and as mine props. Block board produced from D. membranaceus is fine and durable and is much desired and is a valuable export product. D. membranaceus shoots are big and palatable food. They are cooked when fresh or are died. In the 1970’s, there was an enterprise in Thanh Hoa province producing tinned D. membranaceus shoot for export . 4/ Evaluation of D. membranaceus plantation For successful planting of D. membranaceus the following steps are indispensable :

� Selection of region Topography, soil and climate must agree with biological characteristics of D. membranaceus. Effect of climate on D. membranaceus growth can be referred to data of survey by Nguyen Ngoc Binh.

Annual rainfall in Lang Chanh is 154.7mm higher than that in Phu Dien; Average annual temperature is 2% higher, evaporation is 126.8 mm lower, number of cloudy days is higher. As regards topography order of priority is as follows: + Plat terrain or hill foot + Low hill and mountain + Gentle hill side slope. Effect of soil on growth of D. membranaceus can also be referred to survey data in Lang Chanh by Nguyen Ngoc Binh

In Lang Chanh, growth of D. membranaceus is from good to poor with order of soil types as follows: - Reddish brown feralit on porphyry rock. - Yellowish red feralit on metamorphic mica schist adjacent to porphyry. - Soil generated from limestone - Reddish yellow feralit on phyllit - Yellowish brown feralit on old alluvium of upstream region of Am river. D. membranaceus has high yield and good quality with the above first three soil types. It must be emphasized that with the climate in Lang Chanh and on good soil types combined with rational technical measures of planting, tending, exploitation, D. membranaceus grows very well, attaining over 13cm in diameter and 25m in length but on thin soil layer, stony and low soil fertility, D. membranaceus still grows but develops poorly, clump is small with small and low culms. · Planting system: D. membranaceus can be planted in scattered clumps in house garden and around hill foot, convenient for tending. It can be planted in concentrated, pure plantation or mixed with tree species (in band, patches). Concentrated plantation of D. membranaceus have some advantages: - Ensuring light, air moisture, soil moisture condition for development. - Avoiding broken shoots and exposed culm base by storm and wind. - Convenient tending and management. Luu Pham Hoanh has carried out experiment on planting D. membranaceus on soil after slash-and-burn cultivation, soil of clear cutting secondary forest and planting in rows. Data of measurement are as follows:

The above results of the experiment fully reflects the soil degradation after slash-and-burn cultivation. Thus slash-and-burn cultivation should not be done 1-2 years before planting D. membranaceus as done previously at

Locality

Height (m)

Length of internode at breast height (cm)

Diameter at the base (cm)

Wall thickness of the culm at the base (cm)

Lang Chanh 21-23 25-28 8.5-10 2.3-2.5 Phu Dien 18-20 24-26 8.0-9.0 2.0-2.2

Soil type

Diameter at the base (cm)

Height of the culm (m)

Length of the internode, breast height (cm)

Culm wall thickness at the base (cm)

Feralit soil on porphyry rock

11.5-12.5 22-23 26-29 2.5-3.5

Feralit soil on phyllit rock

8.5-10.0 21-23 25-28 2.3-2.5

Size of the culm Size of the internode Fresh weight System Diameter

(cm) Height (m)

Length Culm wall thickness

(tone/ ha)

After slash-and-burn cultivation

6.0 8.0 23.17 0.79 6.4

Secondary forest + clear cutting

7.8 12.1 27.13 0.68 17.7

+ planting in rows 7.1 11.0 29.49 0.58 10.4

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some places. Planting after clear-cutting of forest or planting in rows is all possible depending on concrete conditions. · Planting technique: Proper planting stock propagation technique, planting density, planting hole, planting season and tending in the first years are basic requirements to ensure high survival and good performance. Luu Pham Hoanh has experimented the planting with culm base, branchlet, branch, culm cutting and results obtained are as follows:

� Note: N : Average number of culms/clump D: Average diameter of the culms (cm) H: Average height of the culms (m)

Based on the above data and remarks made in practice it is shown that in the first one or two years planting stock as branchlet, culm cutting and branch give shoots smaller than those from culm base but the difference is not clear-cut and later on the vigour and size of the shoots are not different from different types of planting stock. More attention must be paid to the technique of producing planting stock. Presently layering of the branch to have ball-cuttings is widely practised. Advantages of ball-cutting layering method are: - Maximum use of the number of the branches on the culm. - Age of the branches to produce ball cuttings is from 3 to 10 months of age. - Ball cuttings can be produced all the year round (but best time is from February to August). - After its branches are taken as ball-cuttings, the culm can be still used as usual. - The culm still normally produces shoots. · Exploitation of D. membranaceus Five-six years after planting, D. membranaceus plantation can be subjected to exploitation; after 9-10 years, exploitation is stable. Exploitation system is “Selective cutting of culms in the clump according to age”. In special case with the flowering clump, clear-cutting is done. Rational cutting intensity, cutting cycle, post harvesting treatment of the plantation bring about high economic efficiency. Regulation by the procedure: “With one year cycle, cutting intensity must not exceed 30% of the number of culms in a clump; 2-year cycle, cutting intensity is less than 40% of the culms in a clump”. To us the following formulae can also be applied: + 3-year cycle: In critical area, cutting the culms 4 years of age and over: In other production areas, cutting the culms 3 years of age and over. + 2-year cycle In production areas, cutting the culms 4 years of age and over. · Pest insect and disease control, tending of D. membranaceus plantation. D. membranaceus plantation is usually attacked by shoot damaging insect and suffers from fox-tail disease. Recently in Thanh Hoa province there appeared the phenomenon of abnormal development of D. membranaceus culms called “purple strips disease”. To ensure good growth and development of D. membranaceus there must be strict management, good nursing (hygiene practice, regulation of the density of culms, loosing the soil and fertilizer application”. · Present conditions of production: The people of Thanh Hoa have planted D. membranaceus from a very long time and are much experienced with this species. In forest inventory in 1999 the area of D. membranaceus plantation in Thanh Hoa was 16,973 ha with a stocking of 58,706,00 culms. Up to now Hoa Binh, Phu Tho provinces have also planted hundreds of hectares with this species. The planting of D. membranaceus has experienced many ups and downs previously but this is a species that has been rather all sidedly studied and many research results have been welcome and practised by production. On 25/01/2000, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development decided to promulgate the branch-level standard 04-TCN 21-2000 “Technical procedure of D. membranaceus planting and exploitation”. At present D. membranaceus is one of the main species in the Five Million ha Reforestation Project. The seminar on “ Determination on forest plantation species and priority species selection in forest region” has determined D. membranaceus as a main plantation species in the Mid-Region of North Vietnam, North of Central Vietnam and North West of North Vietnam. Research on D. membranaceus planting for shoots production has been carried out in Cau Hai Silvicultural Research Centre, Phu Tho province but is still on small scale and much restricted. From 26 to 28, September, 2001 a demonstration course on D. membranaceus planting and harvesting techniques was

Types of planting First year Second year stock N D H N D H Culm base 2.4 2.4 3.3 2.0 4.6 5.7 Branchlet 2.2 2.3 3.4 2.3 3.7 5.7 Branch 2.1 2.1 3.1 1.8 3.4 4.3 Culm cutting with dormant bud

2.3 2.6 4.2 2.4 4.7 5.8

Types of planting stock

Third year Forth year Fresh weight (tone/ha)

N D H N D H Culm base 2.1 5.3 6.8 2.2 6.7 10.0 7.5 Branchlet 1.3 6.0 6.6 2.0 6.3 10.4 5.6 Branch 1.7 4.8 6.9 2.3 5.2 10.4 6.2 Culm cutting with dormant bud 2.7 6.2 7.5 2.6 7.1 11.0 10.4

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organized for 7 provinces of North Vietnam (Quang Ninh, Bac Can, Yen Bai, Bac Giang, Lang Son, Thai Nguyen and Tuyen Quang) in Tuyen Quang province. 5/ Recommendation To ensure good success in D. membranaceus planting, apart from the application of technical procedure that has been promulgated, soils selected must only be from class I to class III in the following table:

Research on tissue culture to produce planting stock with modern method remains a dream of scientists. Research on control of “ purple strips disease” is being an urgent demand of production. Besides, mixed plantation system has also advanced and still puts forth many questions that must be considered in long term. In summary, D. membranaceus is a species of many values, planted for the culms and shoots. Technique for management of D. membranaceus has been developed and the “Procedure for D. membranaceus planting and exploitation” has just been promulgated for application in production aimed at extending the planting regions and pushing ahead the planting. There remain however many problems that require investment for solution. Surely D. membranaceus is worth a priority species in theFive Million ha Reforestation Project. References

1. Nguyen Ngoc Binh, 1964: Preliminary study on soil of D. membranaceus plantation. 2. Nguyen Ngoc Binh, 1996: Forest soil of Vietnam 3. Ministry of Forestry: Forestry review issues 4. Ngo Quang De (main author): Cultivation of bamboos 5. Le Quang Lien, 1990: Research on application of technical advances in cultivation of D. membranaceus of

Thanh Hoa origin and perfection of procedure for intensive management of D. membranaceus plantations in Mid-Region of North Vietnam as raw material for kraft paper production.

6. Pham Van Tich, 1963: Experiences in planting D. membranaceus 7. Forestry College, 1992: Plants and special product forest plants 8. Forest Science Institute of Vietnam: - Structure of forest plantation species serving forest development in forest regions in the whole country - Annual Reviews of scientific research

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Vegation Group of parent rocks

Depleted secondary forest

Natural bamboo forest

High grass land drought resistant bushes

Low grass land drought resistant

Basalt,porphyry alkaline magma rock

I I II III

Phylit, mica schist, gneiss, claystone,limon

I

II

III

IV

Granite,rhyolite II III IV V Sand stone, quartz III IV V VI

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Peltophorum dasyrhachis Vietnamese name: Lim xet Other names: Hoang linh Bac Bo, Lim vang, Xet vay Scientific name: Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis (Pierre) Gagnep Family: Caesalpinaceae

1/ Morphological description Large-sized timber species, height upto 25-30m diameter upto 50-60cm. Bark with many rings around the stem, peeled when mature, pale brown in colour. Bole straight with small buttress. Leaves bipinnately compound, 7-16 pairs of secondary perticles, each with 5-12 pairs of leaflet, ovoid-elliptic, 1cm long, 4-9mm wide. Young leaves ferruginous, stipule canducous. Inflorescence apical racemose. Flowers with bracts, caducous, petals yellow. Pedicel 2-3 times longer than the bud. Fruit flat, 9-13 cm long, 2.3 cm wide, brown in colour. Seed arranged in 45o angle in the fruit. Seed with hard coat. 2/ Ecological characteristics P. dasyrhachis is distributed all over North Vietnam and is met below 700m a.s.l elevation. In South Vietnam this species is distributed below 1,000m a.s.l elevation. It is usually found in secondary forests in Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, Yen Bai, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An provinces and southernmost in the province of Kien Giang. P. dasyrhachis is distributed in regions with annual rainfall 700-2500mm, 1-3 dry months, mean annual temperature 20-25oC, average temperature of the coldest month is not lower than 15oC. It grows on many reddish yellow feralit soils on mica schist, gneiss, reddish basalt, sedimentary soil. P. dasyrhachis is a light demanding species. It usually occupies the upper storey of secondary forest, regenerated after slash-and-burn cultivation and in large openings in the forest and at forest margin. Regeneration is in patches, good vigour. It is usually found mixed with other broad-leaved species in evergreen broad-leaved forest such as Canarium sp., Lithocarpus sp., Cinnamomum sp., Erythrophloeum fordii, Gironniera subaeqaulis, Ormosia tonkinensis, Symphocos dung. Flowering season March-April, fruit ripening July-August. Each kilogram seed contains 9,500-11,000 seed. Germination rate 75-85%. 3/ Uses: Wood: Distinct sapwood and heartwood pink in colour, fine grain, durable, specific density d =0.7. Wood is used for making domestic utensils and in construction. Easy planting and growing, developed tap-root system, little damaged by cattle and can be used for protection forest, shade trees, ornamental trees. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 4-8mm wide. Double and single vessels scattered, short, medium diameter, number of vessels per mm2 few, in the vessel there is usually a substance brown or white in colour. Rays small and narrow, usually with alternate-layered structure. Paratracheal parenchyma: fusiform, aliform, aliform-confluent. Average thickness of wood fibre 1.05mm, fibre wall: medium thickness. Wood: medium hard and special density of dry wood is 740 kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.47, pressure strength along the grain 580kg/cm2, static bending strength 1,030 kg/cm2, splitting resistance 12kg/cm. Impact strength 0.88. Wood of P. dasyrhachis is suitable for furniture and structure of medium strength requirement mainly in construction and communication and transport. 4/ Evaluation of P. dasyrhachis plantation P. dasyrhachis has not been popularly planted. It is being investigated for experimental planting. In recent years it has been selected by many units to establish models of protection forest. But the plantations are only 3-4 years of age, reliable technical parameters are not yet available. -Model of planting P. dasyrhachis in bands in Nghia Dan, Nghe An prov.: In 1984 P. dasyrhachis was planted in Nghia Dan Forest Enterprise on poor forest soil where valuable timber species had been exhaustedly exploited. The soil was reddish yellow feralit on claystone, purple in colour, surface soil layer was 30cm deep. Height of vegetation cover was 10m, planting bands were cleared 30m wide, left-over bands 10m wide. In left over bands all trees 10m high and over were cut. In the planting bands all the vegetation was cut and removed. Planting density was 1,100 trees/ha (rows spacing was 3m, trees spacing was 3m). P. dasyrhachis was planted with ball-seedlings, 6-months old, mean height of seedlings was 45cm. Planting area was 2.5ha Planting was done in August, 1984. Survival 1 year after planting was 90%. General remarks: Trees grow rather well, differentiation in diameter is rather clear, 60% of the trees have medium diameter, 30% of the trees have height under branches 50% of tree height and over, bole straight. As regards, forest planting for timber production, the ratio of tree with height under branches and straight bole as mentioned above, this species is not upto the standard as a forest plantation species for large timber management. At 20 years of age P. dasyrhachis stand does not develop dark green foliage, growth becomes poor. -Model of forest enrichment at Cau Hai, Phu Tho province. The experimental model was established by research subject KN03 in 1992. The planting site was a bush vegetation 3m high, planting bands cleared were 2m wide. Planting was done in rows with 6 month old seedlings. Survival was 90%. In the first 3 years P. dasyrhachis grew rather well, annual increment was 2.3cm in diameter and 2.0m in height. But from the third year onwards growth slowed down. Trees in the left over bands grew fast, surpassing the height of P. dasyrhachis trees planted in the planting bands. Crowns of trees in the left-over bands suppressed P. dasyrhachis trees in the planting bands. At 6, 7 years of age, growth of P. dasyrhachis became much poorer. Clearly, P. dasyrhachis is a light demanding species, being shaded its growth is poor. This shows that P. dasyrhachis should not be used for forest enrichment by planting in rows where the vegetation cover develops too fast.

Table 1: Growth of P. dasyrhachis planted at some places

Growth Mean increment D Localities Age Density D (cm) H (m) DD (cm) DH (m) Note Nghia Dan 10 1,100 15.2 14.3 1.3 1.2 Planting in bands

on poor forest soil Nghe An 16 1,100 20.08 18.6 1.25 1.16

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The above table shows that pure planting of P. dasyrhachis in bands in Nghia Dan (Nghe An), Cuc Phuong (Ninh Binh), Cau Hai (Phu Tho) all has mean diameter and height increments over 1cm/year and 1m/year respectively. In mixed planting models of P. dasyrhachis with acacia, mean annual increment of diameter and height of the former all decrease because acacia grows very fast, at age 2 on soil class II it is 4.9m high, at age 3 its height is 7.7m, at age 4, the height is 10.2m. With very fast growth rate of acacia, at age 4 its height is doubled that of P. dasyrhachis. P. dasyrhachis is a light demanding species, when the crown is shadded, increment decreases. Besides, a weak point of P. dasyrhachis is early branching. The bole section below branches is short. In forest planting for timber supply, stem form and the length of bole section under branches constitute important norms for selection. Although P. dasyrhachis yields a lot of seed, is easy planting but there have not been trial planting areas with sufficient time and convincing economic indices. Thus P. dasyrhachis was included in the list of forest plantation species approved by Ministry of Forestry in 1986 (No. 680 QD/LN) but it has not been selected by production for forest planting in many areas. Whether P. dasyrhachis is worth being selected to establish production forest or not, to the author’s mind, there must be all sided consideration so that reliable recommendations can be made. P. dasyrhachis has been used in some protection forest models but the plantations are still young (4 year old) and growth is usually poor. 5/ Recommendations P. dasyrhachis has expressed itself some weak points in stem form in forest planting large timber supply. But it is a species of wide ecological range, abundance of seed, easy planting and can be suitable for protection forest establishment. Research results and experiences already available can be used for P. dasyrhachis planting. -Seed: From 10 years of age P. dasyrhachis already has flowers. Fruit should be collected only from trees over 20 years of age and over. In July-August the fruits are collected when they are ripe. They are dried and beaten. The coat of fruit is very coriaceous. After being taken from the fruit the seed is dried and stored in earthen ware pot and high germination rate can still be obtained, 70-75%, after 1-2 years in storage. Seed treatment is by immersion in boiling water and then the seed is kept warm. The seed is sown in pot when it begins sprouting. -Seedling standard: 5-6 month old, 30-50cm high, Do =0.2-0.3 cm. -Soil : P. dasyrhachis is planted in soil that remains forest soil nature, soil after slash-and-burn cultivation. It can also be planted on bare land and denuded hill but growth is poorer. -Planting region: Planting can be done in many ecological regions, planting in bands, in rows, planting for forest enrichment . Usually rows spacing is 3m. Trees spacing is 3m. Tending in 3 years. In brief, P. dasyrhachis, the same as other forest tree species that have been selected as forest plantation species, has not been subjected to systematic experimentation so that accurate conclusions can be reached. There must be continued research so to have a scientific base when introducing the species in production, contributing to environment improvement and effective environment protection. References:

1. Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1994: Some endangered species in Vietnam, Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi

1999.

2. Trieu Van Hung, 1994: Biological characteristics of forest enrichment species: Canarium album, P.

dasyrhachis, Cinnamomum sp., Michelia sp., Scientific report. Forestry College, 1994

3. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1995: Application of technical advances in establishing models of natural forest intensive

management in the forest economic regions. Scientific report. Forest Science Institute of Vietnam, 1995

4. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1987: Techniques of P. dasyrhachis planting. Forest Science Information, Forest Research

Institute , 1987. Back to main page Next>>

Cau Hai 5 1.73 1.29 *Nguyen Hoang Nghia

Cau Hai 8 1,100 8.9 8.1 1.1 1.0 Planting in bands 8 1,100 6.2 6.7 0.8 0.83 Rows 3m Doan Hung 8 1,660 2.46 2.27 0.61 0.56 Mixed planting,

acacia: remained 4 1,660 4.80 4.15 0.95 0.83 Mixed planting,

acacia: thinned Cuc Phuong 5 1,100 5.31 6.59 1.3 1.65 Pure planting

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RHAMNONEURON BALANSAE Vietnamese name: Do giay Other names: Do, Vo do Scientific name: Rhamnoneuron balansae Gilg Family: Thymeleaceae 1/ Morphological description: R. balansae is a wooden bush species, average height 3.5- 4.0m, usually multi-stemed due to regenerated shoots. Average diameter of 4 year old tree from shoot is 3.5- 4 cm. Bark smooth with fine cracks along the stem, pale or greyish brown in colour. Bark of 3-4 year old tree is 3.0-3.5 mm thick on the average, inner bark ivory white with soft and coriacuous fibres. Cellulose content is 45-50% on the average depending on tree age. Ratio of air dried and fresh weight of bark is 1/3.5-1/4.0. R. balansae has single leaves, alternate, leaf blade ovule, tip rounded, base obtuse or lanceolate, margin entire, 8-10 cm long, 2.5-5.5cm wide, leaf blade thickness 0.38-0.42mm (± 0.02-0.03), venules 14-18 pairs, opposite through midrib. Petiole small, red in colour, 4-5mm long. Bud pale green, tomentose, silvery in colour. Inflorescence racemose, apical, numerous clusters, each with 3-4 flowers. Flower bud globose, bract white or pinkish, purplish, thick tomentum. Calyx adnate, cup-shape tappering at both ends, 4 short lobes. Stamens arranged in two rows. Anther 2-celled lengthwise splitting, upper ovary 1-celled, 1 ovule. Fruit: No splitting when ripe, apical clusters each with 3-4 fruit, closely adnate at a short pedicel. Fruit 1.0-1.2cm long cross section in the middle of the fruit is square shaped due to four small ridges, width 3-4 mm. Each fruit has one rhomboid seed, 0.5-0.8 cm long; 3-4mm wide, tightly wrapped in a porous, soft but coriaceous coat. Thus the seed can hardly come out of this coat and absorb water. Typical feature of the fruit and seed is small, light with some basic indices as follows: · Fruit purity: 79.7% · Number of fruit per 100g: 3,245 fruit · Ratio of fruit containg seed: 80-90% · Weight of 1,000 seed: 8.5g

· Average number of seed per kg: 117,000-120,000 2/ Ecological characteristics: In Vietnam R. balansae is distributed from 21o06 to 22o09 N-latitude at 50-400m a.s.l. R. balansae is distributed and most concentrately planted in an arched area of mid-land low hills from North East of North Vietnam through Mid region of North Vietnam, westernmost to part of low area of North West of North Vietnam. R. balansae prefers tropical monsoon moist climate, high mean annual rainfall (1,600-3,800mm), average air humidity rather high (82-86%), total hours of sunshine 1,520-1,620. R. balansae grows well in soil types generated from metamorphic rocks such as mica schist, crystal schist, gneiss and acidic alluvial rock, reddish yellow or yellowish red feralit, thick soil layer, texture from loam to medium clay, pH from acidic to slightly acidic. R. balansae grows mixed with other species in rehabilitating broad leaved forest as Livistona sabribus forest mixed with Ormosia balansae, Engelhardia chryrolepis, Canarium album, Prunus arborea or it grows in pure patches in home garden. Besides R. balansae is also planted in mixed rows or bands with a number species yielding paper raw material such as Styrax tonkinensis, Manglietia glauca and attains good growth. R. balansae is capable of regeneration from seed at forest margin or suitable open places around the base of mother tree. Specially its regeneration from shoots is very strong at almost all ages. Taking advantage of these biological characteristics one can do the planting with stumps and practise management with many coppice rotations in many years. Flowering of R. balansae is from October to December, fruit is ripe in large number in late March-early April in short period of time and then all fall. Thus, time of fruit collecting must be strictly monitored, the best time is usually in 3rd day of 3rd month of lunar year. 3/ Uses Bark of R. balansae has cellulose content from 40 to 50% (depending on tree age), fibre length 6-7mm, width 10 m, the length is 600 times the width thus the fibre has high mechanical strength. Pulpwood of R. balansae has a cellulose content 92-93%, copper index is low, 1.13%. Pulpwood to produce paper of high quality must have a cellulose content ³ 90% and copper content £ 1.5%. Thus bark of R. balansae is very suitable for production of high quality paper (durability upto 500 years). In experiences of the people in many regions of North Vietnam, bark of R. balansae is used to produce tissue paper, paper for writing chinese characters, soft and coriaceous paper such as core of stencil, paper articles for worship, table paper, printing paper for folk paintings (Dong Ho paintings). More specially, honour certificates issued by feudal dynasties from XV century in Vietnam were written on paper made of R. balansae bark and they are now stored in many communal houses, pagodas or in national archives. Besides leaves, flower and roots of R. balansae are also used as medicine by the people in mountainous regions. Wood of the stem is used to produce paper pulp or firewood. At present many private and cooperative production units in Bac Ninh and Bac Giang still maintain and develop paper production from R. balansae bark with traditional handicraft method (Phong Khe-Dong Khe, Bac Ninh). Practically demand for paper keeps increasing not only in quantity, quality but also in diversified categories. Apart from paper categories of common use there is still urgent demand for paper of high quality used for records, restoration of documents, national cultural and historical printed matters that must be kept for long time. With its mechanical physical properties and basic indices of R. balansae bark that have been studied and tested, it is shown that R. balansae pulp are entirely suitable for high grade paper production. 4/ Evaluation of R. balansae plantation From a very long time the people in many regions of North Vietnam have exploited R. balansae bark in natural forest to make paper for common use. The exploitation has been most concentrated in the provinces of Mid-region of North

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Vietnam, North East of North Vietnam and part of North West of North Vietnam. Besides, R. balansae planting has also been extended by seed sowing in home gardens, home forests, around hill foot or at hill sides, 1-2 year after slash-and-burn cultivation by people in the mountainous region on small scale in scattered plots (Dai Tu-Thai Nguyen, Chiem Hoa-Tuyen Quang; Yen Binh, Ngoi Lao- Yen Bai, Thanh Son-Phu Tho and Kim Boi-Hoa Binh). In 1982-1985 period concentrated planting of R. balansae was done in Ngoi Lao district, Yen Bai province on hundreds of hectares. From 1986 to 1995, ecology and sowing technique of R. balansae was studied and model of R. balansae plantation has been established on tens of hectares in Tu Quan-Tuyen Quang and in Cau Hai Silvicultural Research Centre, Doan Hung, Phu Tho. The research results obtained and the existing forest plantation models will serve as a base for expanding R. ba ansae in production. Thus it can be said that at present the raw material for production of paper from R. balansae in the traditional way is mainly exploited from natural forest. As regards raw material supply, forest plantations are still few. Raw material supply has not been planned and is not stable. Today demand for high grade paper is urgent to serve the archives and restoration of national documents. R. balansae bark is suitable for production of high grade paper but the processing technology especially the pulp moulding, still remains a problem. Spiral structure and mechanical strength of the fibres cause difficulties for pulp moulding by machine. Thus research for suitable pulp moulding technology to replace old traditional pulp moulding method and technique on small scale and with low productivity together with supplementary research on genetics, breeding for high productivity, planning and expanding the planting regions aimed at creating long term and stable raw material sources, meeting practical requirements are highly significant and necessary. Back to main page Next>>

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MELALEUCA CAJUPUTI

Vietnamese name: Tram Scientific name: Melaleuca cajuputi Powell Family: Myrtaceae 1/ Morphological description: M. cajuputi in South Vietnam is usually 15-20m high, diameter at the base 30-40cm. Some M. cajuputi trees in U Minh have their base diameter upto 60cm, bole straight, bark porous upto 2cm, thick, early peeled off. M. cajuputi is planted in concentrated plantation or is regenerated at high density, crown is not very large. Some scattered trees have big crown, regularly rounded like an umbrella and people in some places in South Vietnam call “umbrella M. cajuputi”. 2/ Ecological characteristics: M. cajuputi can grow in almost pure population or is planted in area of acid sulphate soil, water-submerged in rainy season in the Mekong river delta. Further, northwards M. cajuputi finds few opportunities to develop. M. cajuputi can be found present in Thua Thien-Hue or Quang Binh, Quang Tri but most of the trees are in bush form with spiral stem and very poor growth. Suitable temperature for M. cajuputi is 25oC, rainfall 1800-2000mm/year. M. cajuputi is a light demanding species with strong regeneration thereby easy planting and convenient for cultivation. The areas of acid sulphate soil, water-submerged in part of the year, unsuitable for agricultural crops are all capable of M. cajuputi planting. This species is tolerant of acid sulphate soil and water logging. In places where acid sulphate is not acute, pH about 4-4.5, clay soil or peat, water-submersion time is short, 2-3 months, M. cajuputi grows and develops faster. M. cajuputi forest lies in the wetland ecosystem but it differs from coastal water-submerged mangrove forest. M. cajuputi forest undergoes seasonal water-submersion, time of water-submersion can be upto 3-6 months, water depth depends on topographical conditions, 2m depth at some places. M. cajuputi was formed on acid sulphate soil next to mangrove forest where the site is no longer affected by the tidal regime, the land is higher due to sedimentary deposit and depression basins are formed further from the sea-shore. M. cajuputi is main species in this forest type. Many pure and large stands are formed with rather rich flora consisting of 136 species (P.T. Ngan, 1987) as compared with 51 species of mangrove forest. Depending on different site conditions, there formed communities of different species composition from trees, bushes, grasses, climbers, to epiphytes. Formerly M. cajuputi occupied a rather large area, concentrated in the Mekong river delta, about over 250,000 ha The remaining trace is green log sections of M. cajuputi burried under the ground, usually found in canal digging. Later on due to land reclamation by generations of immigrants, area of M. cajuputi forest also diminished. Records show that in 1943 the remained area of M. cajuputi was 175,000 ha mainly concentrated in U Minh and Dong Thap (Maurand, 1946). In the war M. cajuputi forest was destroyed by toxic chemicals and bombing. Ca Mau province alone lost 23,000 ha of M. cajuputi and mangrove forests, most were natural forests of high timber stocking. Million of cubic meters of wood was lost, living environment of many animal, aquatic species and of man was destroyed. After liberation (1975), economic activities in the M. cajuputi forest areas brought about drastic changes here in two directions: positive and negative and many problems arose that needed consideration for solution. Due to pressure of food security and mechanical population growth, the conversion of M. cajuputi and acid sulphate soil to rice cultivation was rather seething in late 1970’s and early 1980’s lots of State forest enterprises were established, aeroplane was used at some places for rice sowing. Result was low rice productivity or entire failure due to soil turning into acid sulphate soil, ecological equilibrium was broken, many State forest enterprises were disbanded or turned into State forest enterprise for M. cajuputi planting, causing great losses in material resources, natural resources and environment that nothing can be paid for. In recent years together with advancement of techniques and science, the planting of M. cajuputi by traditional extensive method has been gradually rejected and replaced by intensive management for high productivity, bringing benefits to the people engaged in M. cajuputi planting in the Mekong river delta and increasing the products for society. Distribution: Many documents have shown that M. cajuputi now growing in South of Indochina peninsula is an immigrant from Australian continent. Its seed is disseminated by birds, mammals and man. In the Mekong river delta M. cajuputi is distributed in all areas of acid sulphate soil with seasonal water submersion. M. cajuputi forest lies next to mangrove forest when the site here is no longer affected by tidal regime, the land is higher due to sedimentary deposit and more far off from the see shore and in combination with water logging in rainy season, M. cajuputi is the main tree species in this site. M. cajuputi is distributed all over the provinces of the Mekong river delta but most concentration is in the two provinces Ca Mau and Kien Giang. With M. cajuputi in Vietnam fruit bearing is from December to June the next year, fruit collection is best in February to March. Seed of M. cajuputi is very small thus the drying of fruit and splitting to get the seed must be done with utmost care. 3/ Uses: -Wood : Product of prime importance of M. cajuputi is wood. Wood characteristics are as follows: Specific density 0.9-1, pale red or pinkish grey. After drying in the sun and kiln-drying, specific density remains 0.75-0.85. Grain short and fine, rays numerous and slender, vessels from average to rather few forming undulating lines on upright section, grain constitutes series of rays rather conspicuous (according to “Les bois de l’Indochine p.75, photograph 56 by Lecomte). According to E. Richards wood of this species is not durable when exposed to the sun, high moisture, easily causes rotting, easily attacked by insects. On the contrary, being burried under the ground in anaerobic conditions, M. cajuputi wood is not damaged. Based on this characteristic M. cajuputi wood is mainly used as foundation post. Stem of M. cajuputi is large and can be sawn to make domestic utensils but the wood suffers warping. Sawing is easy but planing is difficult. Stem can be used for bridge pillar, house column. M. cajuputi wood can be used to make charcoal, heat

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energy ranks third after coal and Rhizophora apiculata charcoal. -Bark: A characteristic of M. cajuputi bark; is that it is composed of many thin laminae. The bark is reddish grey with many grains, 8-20 mm long and can be easily peeled into large sheets. According to L. Pierre, the people in Malaysia usually use the bark of M. cajuputi for roofing and in the Mekong river delta the people use the bark of this species for boat sealing. In Europe people have found out other uses of M. cajuputi bark. In 1919 Paul Roussan observed heat insulation property of this bark and carried out experiment on this. This is understandable because between two laminae there is a thin air layer. As there are many laminae lying on one another thus a good heat insulation cushion is formed and the bark is used for heat and electricity insulation. Compared with other heat insulation substances, M. cajuputi bark is lighter, better resistance to chemical corrosion and fire. It has better pressure strength and is not torn, little moisture absorption and is water-proof. Heat conductivity index of M. cajuputi is found to be 0.0359 far lower than that of silk (about 0.0454). Application of these findings one has created products beneficial for the national economy. -Essential oil of M. cajuputi: Rhymphius was a naturalist first mentioned M. cajuputi essential oil. According to the author, the aromatic properties of M. cajuputi oil has long been known to the people in Java and Malay. The essential oil was used to make scent or leaves are used to drive away insects. M. cajuputi essential oil has been used as an element in pharmaceutical materials in China from long time ago. It was used also in Great Britain and France in the XIX century and was displayed not only in pharmaceutical material shop but also in perfumeries. Characteristics of commercial essential oil of M. cajuputi has been rather exhaustedly studied. They depend on each Melaleuca species and its provenances as well as on its growing environment and harvesting time. M. cajuputi is an active, transparent liquid green with bluish hue in colour, strong camphor smell, acuter, aromatic, slightly bitter, specific density 0.926. It remains a liquid at –13oC, strongly dissolved in alcohol. Its oil is a carbid, boiling at 175oC (according to Bertrand 1893). M. cajuputi essential oil is a diffusing stimulant, highly disinfecting, better than myrtle and eucalyptol. It is used against rheumatism, belly ache and diseases of respiratory system. -Other products of M. cajuputi. Leaves sun-dried and kiln-dried used as a hot drink with sugar. Flowering of M. cajuputi lasts all the year round in the Mekong river delta. The flowers are most desired by honey bees and provide an invaluable source of honey. 4/ Evaluation of M. cajuputi plantation Generally speaking growth rate of M. cajuputi decreases as the soil gets more strongly affected with acid sulphate. Monitoring the data of growth in three regions clearly proves this fact:

Table of comparison of D1.3 (cm) at regions of different pH values

In recent years many Melaleuca species have been introduced into Vietnam. The price of their seed is rather higher than that of local M. cajuputi seed. Thus the sowing and planting of these Melaleuca species must be very careful, with maximum thrift of seed use to raise efficiency of the seed lots, lessening production cost and raising productivity of the plantation. Usually the exotic Melaleuca species are sown and planted in polythen tubes as with eucalypts and Casuarina, pines... Higher intensive management is required in planting these Melaleuca species to achieve desired results. Various land preparation measures to plant Melaleuca species are taken depending on site conditions. Where seed source is easily available, water and soil pH indices are high, the raising of Melaleuca species plantations is more easily successful. There are two systems of planting with Melaleuca species: direct seed sowing and planting with bare-rooted seedlings. Best time for seed sowing is in mid rainy season because at this time the water is more lucid and fresher. Planting with bare-rooted seedling is best done in July-August. Attention must be paid to seedling standard: straight stem, 0.8-1.0m high, diameter at the base 0.8-1.0cm, with tap root, branching does not yet takes place, and free of disease and insect attack. In order to have good growth of M. cajuputi, quick harvesting and high productivity there must be intensive management. Of the intensive management measures, land preparation plays an important role. The raising of bunds to create canals for acid sulphate release at the same time raising the depth of the cultivated soil layer and bringing about many other effects is of great significance in Melaleuca planting. This has been widely applied by the people in the Mekong river delta. Besides the use of fertilizers and manure has brought about marked increase of the plantation productivity. Melaleuca species are prone to forest fire in dry season thus system of canals must be completed before forest planting. Further attention must be paid to the fact that Melaleuca species are tolerant of water-logging but they do not in any way prefers acid sulphate or water logging. The tolerance of Melaleuca species is limited. For fire control here and there people raise bunds to retain water for fish rearing and the land under Melaleuca is water logged all the year round or planting Melaleuca is done in the land with too strong acid sulphate. This causes great ill-effects on growth of Melaleuca plantation and on the development of the eco-system of Melaleuca plantation. Back to main page Next>>

Soil Age

Very strong acid sulphate soil: pH : 2.5

Strong acid sulphate soil: pH : 3-3.5

Medium acid sulphate soil: pH : 4-4.5

5 1.5 3.5 4.0 10 3.5 5.0 9.0 15 5.7 7.0 13.0 20 7.2 9.5 17.0

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RHIZOPHORA APICULATA

Vietnamese name: Duoc Other name: Duoc doi. Scientific name: Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Family: Rhizophoraceae R. apiculata is a fast growing species, tolerant of water logged land affected by tidal regime in coastal areas of tropical countries. Due to the newly formed sedimentary deposit soil in coastal area frequently affected by tropical sea waves, R. apiculata has developed a system of support roots, rather perfect to maintain itself stable. R. apiculata holds a very important position in the collection of planted species for forest rehabilitation in coastal areas. It supplies timber for construction, firewood to serve the daily life of the local people, stabilizes the sedimentary deposit areas, acts against wind and storm and protects the coastal dykes. In recent years the rehabilitation, protection and development of mangrove forest has received great attention of the countries in the world. Annually tens of thousand hectares of mangrove forest (mainly R. apiculata) in the coastal areas in the world is newly planted though investment programmes of governments, international organizations, bringing great benefits to the people living in the coastal areas. 1/ Morphological description R. apiculata has been described by many Vietnamese authors such as Pham Hoang Ho, Nguyen Hoang Tri (1996), Nguyen Ngoc Binh (1998), Le Cong Khanh (1998), Phan Nguyen Hong (1997), Dang Trung Tan (1999). R. apiculata is a tree species, 20-35m high, diameter at breast height is 30-45cm sometimes upto 70cm (Hong, 1997). At some places where the land is high, poor in nutrients and not affected by tidal regime, the trees usually have smaller size and increment is slower. Roots are typical of plant species growing in areas of tidal regime, frequently affected by sea waves, soil structure is not yet stable. Tap roots poorly develop, mainly is system of support roots (8-12 roots). Besides the function of helping the tree to stand firm, support roots also play a role of water and nutrient uptake to maintain the tree. Respiratory or aerial roots are also usually noticed on R. apiculata. These roots grow directly on the tree stem where water submersion rarely happens and assume a respiratory function. R. apiculata has round and straight stem, thick bark, greyish to blackish brown with many square cracks. It has a characteristic of high branching and when young the crown is umbrella-shaped (1-5 year old) from 6 year old onwards it is cylindrical, branches are usually small and natural pruning is good. Leaves single, alternate in pairs, leaf blade oblong, tip pointed, base cuneate, veins conspicuous on underneath surface, dark green on upper surface and pale green on lower surface, petiole 1.5-2 cm long. Inflorescence: cluster umbrella shaped, each with 2 flowers, axillary, flower without petiole, pale red. Fruit pear-shaped, 20-25cm long, 1-2 cm in diameter, swelling at the base. Fruit ripe when a collar ring appears (between fruit and sprout), 1.5-2cm long, pale red in colour, and collection can be done for planting. Flowering usually takes place in April-May, ripening in July-Oct. In late stage the fruit is prone to insect attack. 2/ Ecological characteristics R. apiculata is rather widely distributed in tropical coastal regions with hot and moist climate such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesk, Thailand, the Phillipines, Papua New Guinea, Quensland. In Vietnam R. apiculata is distributed from coastal region of Central Vietnam to Ca Mau and Kien Giang provinces but largest and most concentrated areas are in Ca Mau, Ben Tre and Can gio (Ho Chi Minh City) with about 60,000-70,000 ha. R. apiculata can be distributed in concentrated population, forming pure forest type, mainly met in Ca Mau, Can Gio, Ben Tre... It can be mixed with other mangrove forest species to form very rich plant communities such as mixed communities R. apiculata- Avicennia sp., R. apiculata- Bruguira eriopelata, R. apiculata- Nipa frutescens, R. apiculata-Ceriops sp.... R. apiculata is distributed in coastal region of tropical and substropical countries, suitable to low lying land, airy, rich in organic matter, soil texture mainly clay, humus and a little sand, usually near estuaries. Sometimes it is distributed in areas of 40m a.s.l elevation (Christensen, 1983). R. apiculata prefers hot and moist climate, intense sunshine, annual rainfall 1,500-2,500mm. Salinity of the water and soil varies between 5-60% but most suitable is about 25-30%. According to Fiel (1984) R. apiculata regulates the salt by impeding the salt at the roots, secreting salt through salt secretion glands in leaves and young branches. Effect to topographical conditions: average tidal water submersion 100-300 days/year is suitable for the growth of R. apiculata; tidal water submersion over 300 days/year and less than 100 days/year are not suitable for R. apiculata growth. 3/ Uses: The role of R. apiculata forest is known as a source of timber and firewood supply. Wood has high specific density and the derived charcoal gives great quantity of heat (1kg coal gives 6,675 calories), much desired by the people for cooking and is a valuable export commodity to Japan, South Korea, Taiwan... The wood is also sawn for flooring material, furniture making. Bark of R. apiculata contains much tannin and is used for fishing net dyeing, leather tanning, printing technology. R. apiculata supplies nutrients and maintains material and energy cycle for the whole ecosystem; protects the sea-shore; serves soil erosion control, stabilizing coastal sedimentary deposit areas; wind, storm and high waves control; protection of aquaculture and agricultural production. R. apiculata provides living environment for many animal species such as mammals, reptiles, lizards, birds and many aquatic species of high economic value such as shrimps, crabs, fish of all kinds and banthonic creatures. R. apiculata supplies oxygen and regulates the climate, creating clean environment serving tourism and scientific research. 4/ Evaluation of R. apiculata plantation: Many authors in the world studied on growth and biomass of R. apiculata forest: Barry Clough (1996), Ong (1985), Putz & Chan (1986). In Vietnam R. apiculata forest grows rather fast and has large biomass and has been studied by

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many authors. · On increment Diameter increment 0.75 cm/year, height increment 0.85m/year in Ngoc Hien, Ca Mau (Hong, Tri, 1983); in Can Gio: diameter increment 0.46-0.81cm/year, height increment 0.76m/year (Nam, 1996); diameter increment 0.43-0.78cm/year (5 year old) in Ca Mau and Bac Lieu (Tan, 2000). With pure R. apiculata forest period from 1 to 5-year old is the stage of strong development of the crown: numerous branches and leaves to receive the sun-light and create biomass. At this stage at some sites of low tidal water level the trees tend to develop minor stems. However the phenomenon of competition for nutrients and light almost does not happen at this stage. At the stage of 6 to 12 year old, the trees develop strongly in diameter and height therefore occurs the phenomenon of drastic competition for nutrients and light. Natural thinning is very strong. The number of dead trees at 7-8 years of age and 10-11 years of age represents 30% and 25% respectively. At the stage of 13 to 20 years old the trees develop strongly in diameter, competition is mainly for nutrients. At this stage natural thinning is weaker. Number of dead trees represents about 10-15% and 5% at ages 15 and 17-18 respectively. · On the biomass Nguyen Hoang Tri (1986) has studied total biomass of three forest types and the results obtained are as follows: -Mature R. apiculata forest: 276,829 kg/ha. -Natural regeneration forest, 7-8 year old: 14,004kg/ha. - R. apiculata plantation, 6-8 year old : 33,846 kg/ha. According to Vien Ngoc Nam & collaborators (1996) total biomass and biomass increment according to age of R. apiculata in Can Gio-Ho Chi Minh City are as follows:

According to Dang Trung Tan & collaborators, total biomass and biomass increment of R. apiculata in Ca Mau and Bac Lieu are as follows:

Research results are different between various authors perhaps due to research sites differ so do the methods of sampling and data collecting. However, helpful information on growth and biomass of pure R. apiculata plantations have been obtained. Plantation models: At present there is in the world and Vietnam the contradiction between planting of mangrove as well as R. apiculata forest and aqua-culture in the coastal region. Due to the attractiveness of the shrimp, many R. apiculata areas have been destroyed for extensive shrimp farming. To harmonize the benefits of shrimp farming and forest planting, there applied many models of combined shrimp farming and forest planting. * Model of combined pisci-silviculture in the entire area. This model is suitable for the area of average tidal water submersion, soil texture mainly clay, content of organic matter is not too high, acid sulphate generating layer is deep-lying. This model is carried out mainly in Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Soc Trang, Tra Vinh and Ben Tre provinces. · The area is usually 5-10 ha directly managed by farmers. Management of water into or out of the pond is very easy, convenient for forest tending and protection. · 60-70% of the area is for forest plantation, 30-40% is for canals (including banks). · Canal system for shrimp farming: - Outer canal digging is by machine or hand labour, width of canal 4-8m, depth 1-1.5m. Outer bank makes an enclosed pond. - Inner canal is usually smaller, dug by hand labour, 2.5-3.0m wide, 1.0-1.2m deep, in lengthwise direction of the pond, canal spacing 20-40m. - For regulating the water, there constructed 2 culverts, 1 for water intake the other for water outlet. The culverts are 3-5m long, 1.0-1.5m wide and 1.5m deep. · Tending and management of R. apiculata forest - R. apiculata is planted in bands mixed with the canals. - Planting density 10,000 trees/ha. - In the first three years forest tending is mainly water regulation, supplementary planting to ensure the density; 1-

2 years later when the forest canopy is closed, hygiene activities are carried out such as branch pruning and thinning of minor stems.

- First forest thinning is done in the 8th –10th years; thinning is done mainly with trees under the canopy, suppressed trees, trees attacked by disease and insects or regular thinning. Thinning intensity is 30-50%.

- Second forest thinning is done in the 14th –16th years, mainly cutting the trees under the canopy, suppressed trees, trees attacked by disease and insects. Thinning intensity 20-30%.

- Forest exploitation is carried out in the 20th –21st years, mainly clear cutting or having about 100 left over trees

Age Total biomass (tone/ha) Biomass increment (tone/ha/year) 4 16.24 5.93 8 89.01 12.44 12 118.21 10.57 15 138.98 9.07 21 139.98 6.98

Age Total biomass (tone/ha) Biomass increment (tone/ha/year) 4 41,895.8 8 110,736.7 19,558.2 12 170,124.8 12,744.5 15 212,261.3 9,452.9 21 252,091.2 7,146.2

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as seed trees. · Combined shrimp farming: supplementing shrimp stocking: 5-10 shrimps/m2 - Rearing duration: about 3-4 months - Cropping: 2 crops/year - At the end of each crop shrimp pond must be improved after harvesting by dredging the canals. · Remarks: - This model is less expensive, requires no high farming techniques and can be widely applied. - The environment is little disturbed, limiting the pollution process, material and energy cycle in the ecosystem is

not interrupted. - Increment of R. apiculata is rather fast. Favourable conditions are created for forest tending and intensive

management. - The amount of fallen plant materials such as branches, flowers, leaves is large annually, promoting the anaerobic

decomposition, causing ill-effects on the health of shrimps. - Shrimp productivity is not high and the cropping period is prolonged. * Model of combined pisci-silviculture in separated areas. This model is suitable for areas of average or high tidal water submersion level; soil texture is mainly clay; acid sulphate generating layer is deep-lying. This model is applied in some regions of Ca Mau and Tra Vinh provinces. · The area is generally 5-20ha, directly managed by formers. · Convenient for water intake and outlet of the shrimp square. Due to the separation between forest and area for

aqua-culture, conditions are created for intensive or semi-intensive management of shrimp farming. The treatment of R. apiculata forest is not limited, convenient for forest management and protection.

· Area of forest plantation 60-70%. Area of canals (including banks) for shrimp farming 30-40%. · System of canals for shrimp farming: - Outer canal is dug by machine or hand labour, 4-8m wide, 1-1.5m deep, outer bank makes a closed square. - Inner canal is usually smaller, dug by hand labour, 2.5-3m wide, 1.0-1.2m deep. Or digging the earth for raised

ground for house construction or making a garden and a fish pond is created with larger water body. Area of the pond is usually 1.5-5.0 ha divided into 3: pond for settling, pond for bringing up, pond for rearing.

- For water regulation 2 culverts must be constructed, 1 for water intake and the other for water outlet. The culverts are 3-5m long, 1.0-1.5m wide, 1.5m deep.

· Tending and managing R. apiculata forest. - R. apiculata plantation occupies all the area planned without depending on the bank of canal for shrimp farming. - Planting density: 10,000 trees/ha. - In the first three years, forest tending is mainly water regulating, supplementary planting to ensure the required

density, in the next 1-2 years, hygiene activities are carried out such as branch pruning and thinning minor stems after canopy closure.

- First forest thinning is in the 8th –10th years, mainly cutting the trees under the canopy, suppressed trees, trees attacked by disease and insects or regular thinning is practised. Thinning intensity 30-50%.

- Second forest thinning is in the 14th-16th years, mainly cutting trees under the canopy, suppressed trees, trees attacked by disease and insects. Thinning intensity about 20-30%.

- Forest exploitation is better done in the 20th-22nd years, mainly clear-cutting or leaving about 100 trees to be mother trees.

· Shrimp farming: shrimp stocking: about 15-25 shrimps/m2. - Using feed stuff sold on the market or feed processed by farmers themselves with low-grade fish. - May be fan for water ventilation must be used. - Rearing time: about 3 months. - Cropping season: 2 crops/year. - At the end of each season dredging must be done in the pond in combination with liming and drying the pond

bottom. · Remarks: - This model is expensive and requires high farming technique. Wide application depends on investment

capability and technical know- how of the people. - The environment is disturbed, causing pollution due to using feeding stuff and chemicals. Material and energy

cycle in the ecosystem is interrupted. - Fallen plant materials such as leaves, branches, flowers do not much affect the shrimp rearing process. - High productivity and the rearing time is short but with high risk. - Forest is well protected and develops well. * Model of combined pisci-cilviculture-agriculture. This model is suitable for average and high level of tidal water submersion where soil texture is mainly clay, rather high content of organic matter, acid sulphate generating layer is deep-lying. The model is applied in Ca Mau, Bac Lieu and Soc Trang provinces. · In general the area is usually 3-5 ha, mainly under direct management of the people who have the right to forest

management, aqua-culture and agricultural production. · Area of forest plantation 60-70%, area of canal (including banks) for shrimp farming 30-40%. · Canal system for shrimp farming: - Outer canal is dug by machine or hand labour 4-8m wide, 1-1.5 m deep. Outer bank makes a closed square. - Mnner canal is usually smaller, dug by hand labour, 2.5-3.0m wide, 1.1-1.2m deep, in the direction of the length

of the pond, canals spacing 20-40m. - 2 culverts are constructed for water regulation, 1 for water intake the other for water outlet, 3-5m long, 1.0-1.5m

wide, 1.5m deep. · Tending and management of R. apiculata forest. - R. apiculata is planted in bands mixed with the canals. - Planting density: 10,000 trees/ha. - In the first three years forest tending is mainly water regulation, supplementary planting to ensure the required

Page 3 of 5

density. - Forest thinning intensity 30-50%. - Forest exploitation is mainly clear-cutting with left over trees as mother trees. · Combined shrimp farming: supplementary shrimp stocking, about 5-10 shrimps/m2. - Rearing time: about 3-4 months. - Cropping time: 2 crops/year. - Supplementation of feeding stuff. - At the end of each crop, improvement of the pond must be done after shrimp harvesting by dredging the canal

bottom. · Planting of food crops and fruit trees on the banks. - Food crops: sweet potatoes, vegetable, beans, cassava... - Fruit trees: Achras zapota, Tamarindus · Remarks: This model is less expensive, requires no high farming technique and can be widely applied. - The environment is little disturbed, limiting the pollution process, avoiding soil erosion and acid sulphate

formation. - Creating conditions for forest tending and intensive management. - Fallen plant materials such as leaves, branches, flowers... cause ill-effects on the living environment of shrimp. - Increasing the farming produce per unit area. Depending on area scale, site conditions, investment capital and

technical knowledge, one can choose for oneself a suitable model among those mentioned above. 5/ Recommendation - Selection of planting stock for forest planting. · Selection of mother tree. Mother tree is from 12 to 20 years of age, good growth and development, free from disease and insect attack and defects, high branching, proportionate crown. It is best to collect seed from seed stand or converted seed stand. · Collection and storage technique: R. apiculata fruit are ripe in July-November but fruit collecting is best done in July-September, the fruit remain wholesome, no rooting, 20-25m long, mean weight 0.25g/fruit. Effort is made to plant just after fruit collection if not the fruit must be kept in the running water, under shade. In dry condition watering must be done twice a day. However the fruit should not be kept longer than 15 days. - Planting technique: · Planting season July-September. · Planting density 10,000 trees/ha. · Planting, tending, exploitation technique. + Insert the end of the fruit into the mud, 5-8cm deep (about 1/3 the length of the fruit). + In the first year, forest tending is mainly water regulation, supplementary planting to ensure the density, limiting the damage caused to the fruit by various animal creatures biting the sprouts. + Forest exploitation is best done in the 20th-22nd years, mainly clear-cutting or clear cutting with left-over trees to be mother trees. Main site types for R. apiculata forest planting

References

1. Nguyen Ngoc Binh, 1999: Planting of mangrove forest. Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi, 1999

2. Bali & Lombok, 1997: Handbook of Mangroves in Indonesia. The Development of Sustainable Mangrove

Management Project.

3. Phan Nguyen Hong, 1997: The role of mangrove forest in Vietnam. Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi,

1987.

4. Nguyen Boi Quynh, 1999: Study on the rehabilitation of mangrove forest after disbanding shrimp farming squares in sedimentary deposit areas, western coast of Ca Mau province. National seminar “Management and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and the Environment in Water Submersion Areas at the Estuaries”.

Hanoi, 1-3/11/1999.

Site conditions Permanent tidal water

submersion

Low tidal water submersion

Medium tidal water

submersion

High tidal water submersion

Area of irregular tidal

water submersion

Soil class Ia Ib Ia Id Ia Water

submersion days

Every day 300-340 100-300 < 100 Very few

Soil nature Aquerous mud Mud Compact mud, soft clay

Hard clay Compact and hard soil

Growth capability of R.

apiculata

Unsuitable Little suitable Suitable Little suitable Unsuitable

Page 4 of 5

5. Dang Trung Tan, 1999: Handbook of the vegetation of mangrove forest in Ca Mau. Ca Mau Provincial Science

Technology and Environment Department & Minh Hai Mangrove Forest Research Centre.

6. Dang Trung Tan, 2000: Physiological and ecological characteristics of R. apiculata. Minh Hai Mangrove

Forest Research Centre-Forest Science Institute of Vietnam. Back to main page Next>>

Page 5 of 5

BRUGUIERA PARVIFLORA Vietnamese name: Vet tach Scientific name: Bruguiera parviflora Rox &Arn ex Giff Family : Rhizophoraceae, Genus: Bruguiera B. parviflora is a light demanding species, fast growth, tolerant of tidal water submersion in tropical coastal regions. B. parviflora holds an important position in the collection of planted species for forest rehabilitation in costal regions. It supplies timber for construction, firewood for daily life of local people. However with diminishing forest area and quality as other mangrove species, the rehabilitation of B. parviflora forest is met with great challenges. The reason is that knowledge of the value of B. parviflora of the people is not high, preference of R. apiculata planting and for a long time State organizations have not paid attention to this species, resulting in serious deterioration in quality, quantity and germplasm of this species. 1/ Morphological description B. parviflora has been described by many authors in Vietnam such as Nguyen Hoang Tri (1996), Phan Nguyen Hong (1997), Dang Trung Tan (1999). B. parviflora is a tree species 15-25m high, breast high diameter 30-45cm. In some land areas of higher level, poor in nutrients and without tidal water submersion, it usually has smaller size and slower growth. The roots are typical of plant species growing in areas affected by tidal regime but little affected by sea waves, soil structure is rather stable. Roots are mainly knee roots protruding 2-5cm above the ground. Besides maintaining the tree stable against the wind and storm the roots have also the function of water and nutrient uptake for tree growth. Stem straight but not very rounded, small buttress at the base in north east-south west direction. Bark thick, reddish brown in colour with many nodule like spots the function of which is unknown. But to some authors these are respiratory and salt secretion organs. The tree has a characteristic of high branching with foliage umbrella-shaped in young age and paramid-shaped from 6 years of age onwards. Branches are usually small with good natural pruning. Leaves single, opposite in pair, leaf blade ovule, tip pointed, base cuneate, stipulate caducous, 5-7cm long; upper surface of the leaf green, lower surface pale green, petiole 1.5-2cm long. Inflorescence parasole-shaped, each cluster 2-5 flowers, pedicel 1-1.5cm long, yellow in colour, calyx, cylindrical, greenish yellow, 8-serrated, anther arrow-shaped, stamens pale yellow, lower ovary. Fruit cylindrical, 1-12cm long, diameter 0.4-0.6cm, ripe fruit can be collected for planting. Flowering is usually in April-May, ripe in August-October. 2/ Ecological characteristics B. parviflora is distributed rather widely in tropical coastal regions with hot and moist climate such as in Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia. In Vietnam B. parviflora is distributed from coastal area of North and Central Vietnam to coastal area of South Vietnam. B. parviflora can be distributed in concentrated population in large area forming pure forest type. It can combine with other mangrove species to form very rich plant communities such as mixed communities: R. apiculata- B. parviflora, B. parviflora-B. eriopetala, Ceriops- B. parviflora. B. parviflorais is distributed in coastal area of tropical and subtropical countries suitable for low lying areas, airy, rich in organic matter, soil texture is mainly clay, humus and a little sand, usually near the estuaries. B. parviflora prefers hot and moist climate, intense sunlight, annual rainfall 1,500-2,000mm. Salinity of the water varies from 5% to 40% but most suitable is about 2-30%. Effect of topography: Average tidal water submersion is suitable for growth of this species. Low tidal water submersion such as in alluvial sedimentary deposit coastal areas, depressed inland areas with water submersion over 300 days/year and high tidal water submersion less than 100 days/year are little suitable for growth of B. parviflora. 3/ Uses: B. parviflora is known as a source of timber supply for construction and firewood. Charcoal made from B. parviflora gives great heat (1kg of charcoal gives 4,560 calories) and is used by the people in cooking. The wood is also sawn for flooring material and furniture making. Bark contains much tannin used for fishing-net dyeing and leather tanning industry. B. parviflora provides habitat for many aquatic species of high economic value such as shrimp, crab, benthonic creatures, fish of all kinds. It supplies food for some animal species living in mangrove forest. It protects the sea-shore, acts against soil erosion, winds, storms and high sea waves; sheltering areas of aqua-culture and agricultural production. It supplies oxygen and regulates the climate, creating clean environment, serving tourism and scientific research. 4/ Evaluation of B. parviflora plantation In the world many authors have studied on growth and biomass of B. parviflora forest such as Barry Clough (1986), Ory (1985), Putz & Chan (1986). In Vietnam B. parviflora grows rather fast and has large biomass but few authors studied on this species. · On increment Diameter increment is 0.63cm/year, height increment 1.02m/year and in Tam Giang (Ngoc Hien, Ca mau), mean increment is 10.1m3/ha/year. Reference of B. parviflora increment can be made through data in the following table:

Age Density (trees/ha)

D1.3 (cm) Stocking (m3/yr.)

Zd (cm/yr) Zh (m/yr) Zm (m3/yr) Zm (m3/yr)

6 12,900 4.08 8.0 68.6 0.68 1.3 11.4 10 7,300 6.14 10.2 105.5 0.55 0.93 10.5 14 2,900 9.48 12.0 118.0 0.67 0.85 8.4

Mean 0.63 1.02 10.1

Page 1 of 3

Source: Data of survey on forest stocking 11/2001 (Thoi and collaborators) With pure B. parviflora forest, from 1 to 4 year old is the stage of fast height growth. However the phenomenon of competition for nutrients and light little appears in this stage. 5-10 year old is the stage of fast growth in diameter and height thus there appears strong competition for nutrients and light. Natural pruning and thinning are very strong. Dead trees represent about 40% at 6-7 years of age and about 30-35% at 10 years of age. In the 11-20 year-old stage the trees strongly develop in diameter, competition for nutrients and light still happens. In this stage natural thinning is weaker than in the previous stage. Dead trees represent about 10-15% at age 13 and about 5% at age 17. * Model of combined pisci-silviculture with pure B. parviflora This model is suitable for average tidal water submersion, soil texture is mainly clay, content of organic matter is not too high, acid sulphate generating layer is deep lying. This model is met in forest-fishing State enterprises: Tam Giang I, Dam Roi, Kien Vang-Ca Mau province, the same as model of R. apiculata planting. · The area in general is 5-10 ha, directly managed by farmers. Easy management of inlet and outlet of water for

shrimp squares, convenient for forest management and protection. · Area of forest plantation represents 60-70%, area of canal (including banks) for shrimp rearing 30-40%. · Canal system for shrimp farming. - Boundary canal is dug by machine or hand labour, 4-8m wide, 1-1.5m deep. Boundary bank makes a closed

pond. - Inner canal is usually smaller, dug by hand labour, 2.5-3.0m wide in direction of the length of the pond, distance

between two canal: 20-40m. - 2 culverts are constructed for water regulation, 1 for intake the other for outlet. Size of the culvert: 3-5m long,

1.0-1.5m wide, 1.5m deep. · Tending and management of B. parviflora plantation - Planting is done in bands alternative to canals. - Planting density 10,000 trees/ha. - In the first three years forest tending is mainly water regulation, supplementary planting to ensure the required

density, 1 or 2 years after forest canopy enclosure, hygiene activities are taken such as pruning, minor stem thinning.

- First forest thinning is in the 6th-7th years, mainly cutting trees under the canopy and suppressed trees, trees attacked by disease and insect. Regular thinning can also be done. Thinning intensity: 30-50%.

- Second forest thinning is in 10th-12th years mainly cutting the trees under the canopy, suppressed trees, trees attacked by disease and insect. Thinning intensity 20-30%.

- Exploitation is best done in the 15th-16th years, mainly clear-cutting or having about 100 left over trees to be mother trees.

· Combined shrimp farming: - Supplementary shrimp stocking: 5-10 shimps/m2 - Cropping time: about 3-4 months. - Cropping intensity: 2 crops/year. - At the end of each crop, improvement of the pond must be done after harvesting by dredging the canals. Remarks: · This model is less expensive, requires no high farming technique and can be widely applied · The environment is little disturbed, limiting the pollution process. · Increment of the forest is rather high. · Fallen plant materials such as leaves, branches, flowers: every year are few, causing no ill-effects on the health of

shrimps. · Shrimp productivity is not high, cropping time prolonged. · When the water is retained in 5-7 days, tree roots are submerged, leaves turn yellow, and if the water is not

timely drained away, the trees may die. * Pisci-silviculture model with mixed plantation of B. parviflora and R. apiculata This model is suitable for average or high tidal water submersion, soil texture is mainly clay, acid sulphate generating layer is deep-lying. This model is carried out in some regions in Ca Mau. B. parviflora forest is mainly regenerated forest with R. apiculata planting in patches. · Generally the area is usually 5-10ha, also directly managed by farmers and convenient for water intake and outlet

of shrimp pond. · Area of forest plantation: 60-70%, area of canal (including banks) for shrimp farming 30-40%. · Canal system for shrimp farming is as in the above model. · Forest tending and management. - B. parviflora forest mainly consists of regenerated trees with very high initial density. Mixed planting of

R.apiculata is done in places absent of B. parviflora regeneration, planting density is 10,000 trees/ha. - In the first three years, forest tending is mainly water regulation, supplementary planting to ensure the required

density, hygiene activities are taken 1-2 years after canopy closure such as pruning, minor stems thinning. - First forest thinning is in 8th-9th years, mainly cutting trees under the canopy, suppressed trees, trees attacked by

disease and insect. Second forest thinning is in the 12th-14th years mainly cutting trees under the canopy suppresed trees, trees attacked by disease and insect.

- Forest exploitation is best done in the 16th-18th years mainly clear cutting or having 100 left-over trees to be mother trees.

- Shrimp farming: Technique of shrimp stocking is as the above model Remarks: · The same as the above model, this model is less expensive, requires no high farming technique and can be widely

applied.

value

Page 2 of 3

· The environment is more stable than the above model. · Fallen plant materials such as leaves, branches, flowers... are of greater quantities thus causing ill effects on the

health of the shrimps. · Of the above mentioned models, depending on the regeneration of B. parviflora and the area of open places,

topographical conditions, one can choose for oneself a suitable model. 5/ Recommendation · Mother trees selection Mother trees are 12-15 year old, good growth and development, free from disease and insect attack, no defects, high branching, well propertined crown. · Seed collection and storage techniques Fruit ripe in July–October but best time to collect the fruit is August, fruit for planting must be wholesome, no rooting, 10-12cm long, mean weight 160-180 fruit /kg. Planting should be done just after fruit collection otherwise they must be kept in running water, under shade. Storage of fruit must not be longer than 10 days. · Forest planting technique. · Planting season August-September. · Planting density 10,000-20,000 trees/ha · Planting, tending, exploitation techniques. - Insert the end of the fruit into the mud 3-4 cm deep (about 1/3 the length of the fruit) - In the firest year, forest tending is mainly water regulation, supplementary planting to ensure the required

density, limiting the damage caused to the fruit by animal creatures biting the sprouts. - Forest exploitation is better done in the 16th-18th years, mainly clear cutting with left over trees as mother trees. · Main site types of B. parviflora forest planting

1. Nguyen Ngoc Binh, 1999: Planting of mangrove forest. Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi.

2. Bali & Lombok, 1997: Handbook of mangroves in Indonesia. The Development of Sustainable Mangrove

Management Project

3. Phan Nguyen Hong, 1997: The role of mangrove forest in Vietnam. Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi

4. Dang Trung Tan, 1999: Handbook of mangrove vegetation in Ca Mau. Science, Technology and Environment

Department of Ca Mau province & Minh Hai Mangrove Forest Research Centre. Back to main page Next>>

Site conditions Permanent tidal water

submersion

Low tidal water submersion

Average tidal water submersion

High tidal water submersion

Irregular tidal water

submersion Soil class Ia Ib Ic Id Ie

Submersion days

Every day 300-340 100-300 <100 very few

Soil nature Aqueous mud Mud Compact mud soft clay

Hard clay Hard and compact soil

Growth capability

Unsuitable Unsuitable Suitable Little suitable Unsuitable

Page 3 of 3

MANGLIETIA GLAUCA Vietnamese name: Mo Scientific name: Manglietia glauca Bl (M. conifera Dandy) Family: Magnoliaceae 1/ Morphological description: M. glauca is a large sized tree species, 25-30m in height, breast high diameter upto 50-60cm. Stem rounded, straight. Bark silvery grey, inner bark white, slightly fragrant. Stem single, branches small. Bole section under branches is 2/3 of tree height. Leaves single, alternate, leaf blade oval, veins conspicuous on both sides, petiole slender. Flower bisexual, solitary, apical, white in colour and big. Fruit etaeria, cone-shaped. Seed red endosperm, endosperm removed seed coat is black, fragrant. Seed much oily. 2/ Ecological characteristics M. glauca is frequently met in secondary forest in Yen Bai, Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh. It is a broad leaved evergreen species and is usually found together with Michelia sp., Pasania sp., Eugenia brachyata, Gironniera subaequalis, Aglaia gigantea. M. glauca is suitable to region of annual rainfall 1,400-2,000mm, Dry period (rainfall < 50mm/month) does not exceed 2 months. It is suitable to average annual temperature 21-24oC, absolute high temperature 42oC, absolute low temperature –1oC. M. glauca is little tolerant of intense sunlight and frost, especially in young stage (Ngo Quang De, 1992). Younger than 18 months of age, M. glauca requires shading. M. glauca grows best in light intensity 1/3 highest natural direct solar radiation. Intense sunshine in summer and autumn is not favourable for M. glauca growth. Mild sunshine in winter and diffused sunlight in spring are suitable for M. glauca growth (Nguyen Huu Thuoc, Nguyen Lien, 1965). In older age M. glauca requires more light. Cowns of trees in natural forest in left-over band overshading the band of planted M. glauca (5 year old distance between two bands is 2.5m) resulting in poor growth, wilting leaves, slender stem of M. glauca as compared with M. glauca trees without being shaded (Lam Cong Dinh, 1965). M. glauca prefers good soil, deep soil layer, moist soil, well drained, high humus content, soil texture from light clay to clay generated on mica schist, porphyry. M. glauca is usually green all the year round. Flowering is in March-April. Fruit ripe in August-September. 3/ Uses M. glauca wood is whitish or pale yellow, soft, light, specific density 0.48. The wood is fine, little cracked and little attacked by borers and termites. It is usually used for furniture making, veneer and plywood production, pencil making, paper raw material and mine crops. Sapwood and heartwood are distinct, sapwood whitish, pale yellow; heart wood bright yellow. Clear cut annual rings, 4-6mm wide, Single and double vessels, short, scattered. Number of vessels per 1mm2: average, vessel diameter from small to medium, inside the vessel there is usually tylosis. Rays small and narrow. Apotracheal parenchyma is in narrow strips. Average wood fibre 1.2mm long with thin wall. Wood soft and light. Specific density of dry wood 480kg/m3, volume shrinkage coefficient 0.43. Saturation point of wood grain 25%. Pressure strength along the grain 612kg/cm2, static bending strength 1,230kg/cm2, splitting strength 11.5kg/cm, Bending rupture coefficient 1.13. M. glauca wood can be used to make barrel for liquid, furniture, stationery. It is possible also to use M. glauca wood for structure of collision and vibration endurance. 4/ Evaluation of M. glauca plantation There have been many studies on M. glauca and procedure for M. glauca forest plantation (QTN-86), procedure for M. glauca forest thinning (QTN24-82), procedure for M. glauca coppice plantation management have been promulgated. Procedure for M. glauca forest planting has been applied in all provinces engaged in M. glauca forest planting. In the application process however some of its details have not been fully observed. · Main points of the planting, thinning and coppice management techniques - Areas for M. glauca planting: Average annual temperature 22-24oC, average annual rainfall over 1,600mm. With

regions affected by hot wind, average annual rainfall must attain 2,000mm. - Soil for M. glauca planting: where the vegetation types are: depleted forest, newly clear-cutting forest,

Neohouzeaua dulloa forest, forest of N. dulloa mixed with bushes, with weathering soil on mica schist, sand stone.

- Seedling standard: ball-seedlings for both planting seasons. + Seedlings planted in spring season: 4-6 month old, Do= 3-4 mm, H= 30-50cm. + Seedlings planted in autumn: 6-12 month old, Do=6-10mm, H=60-100cm. - Vegetation treatment: < 20o slope, clear cutting, plant materials fully removed. > 20o slope, clear cutting in

bands. Planting density 2,500-3,300 trees/ha. - Tending in three successive years. First year tending twice. Second year 2-3 tending times. Third, fourth years-

once a year. - Thinning: not later than one year after canopy enclosure, cover > 0.7

Table 1: Thinning table of M. glauca managed for paper raw material (Procedure for thinning of M. glauca

plantation)

Soil class Planting density

Thinning Thinning age (year)

Thinning intensity (%)

Number of trees after thinning (trees/ha)

Mean D (cm) after thinning

2,500 First 4-5 50 1,250 7-9 Average Second 8-9 33 838 11-13

3,300 First 4-5 50 1,650 7-9 Second 8-9 50 825 11-13

Page 1 of 4

Forest for coppice management: at the time of clear cutting D1.3 > 15cm, H/ha > 800 trees. Clear cutting is completed before rainy season. 6 months after coppicing, 2 shoots are selected and left over in each stump. Tending of coppice forest in 2 years, thrice a year.

Table 2: Thinning of forest managed for large timber supply (Procedure for thinning of M. glauca plantation)

· Present situation in M. glauca forest planting. Up to December 1999, various provinces have planted 47,374 ha of M. glauca plantation of which 38,434 ha is pure plantation and 8,940 ha of M. glauca mixed with other species. The area of M. glauca plantation in 16 provinces is as follows: Bac Can 5,368 ha of pure plantation, 1,203 ha of mixed plantation; Cao Bang 68 ha; Ha Giang 5,065 ha of pure plantation, 1,370 ha of mixed plantation; Lang Son 1,231 ha of pure plantation, 192 ha of mixed plantation; Lao Cai 10,680 ha of pure plantation, 2,355 ha of mixed plantation; Phu Tho 892 ha of pure plantation, 75 ha of mixed plantation, Quang Ninh 168 ha of pure plantation, 846 ha of mixed plantation; Thai Nguyen 3,046 ha of pure plantation, 3,109 ha of mixed plantation; Tuyen Quang 9,572 ha of pure plantation, 1,814 ha of mixed plantation; Yen Bai 2,295 ha of pure plantation 4,420 ha of mixed plantation; Bac Giang 169 ha of pure plantation; Lai Chau 209 ha of pure plantation; Son La 467 ha of pure plantation; Thanh Hoa 143 ha of pure plantation; Nghe An 804 ha of pure plantation, 409 ha of mixed plantation and Ha Tinh 639 ha of pure plantation (Forest Inventory, 1999). M. glauca plantation is mainly pure plantation. The region planned by the State for M. glauca forest planting in large areas to supply paper raw material consists of Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai, Lao Cai. Most of the provinces have fully observed the two technical steps: seedling standard and soil conditions. From 1995 there was some adjustment of the planting objective (planting of protection forest) thus the system of mixed plantation was supplemented. In the end of 1999, M. glauca plantation in the provinces had a timber stocking of 1,073,004m3 divided into age classes as follows:

2,500 First 5-6 50 1,250 6-8 Poor Second 9-10 33 833 9-11

3,300 First 5-6 50 1,650 5-8 Second 9-10 50 825 9-11

Soil class Planting density

Thinning Thinning age (year)

Thinning intensity (%)

Number of trees after thinning (trees/ha)

Mean D (cm) after thinning

2,500 First 3-4 50 1,250 8-10 Good Second 7-8 60 500 14-16

Third 12-14 97 167 20-23 3,3000 First 3-4 50 1,650 8-10 Second 7-8 70 495 14-16 Third 12-14 66 158 20-23 Average of

good > First 4-5 50 1,250 7-9

35o slope 2,500 Second 8-9 50 625 12-14 Third 13-15 67 210 17-20

3,300 First 4-5 50 1,650 7-9 Second 8-9 550 12-14 Third 13-15 220 17-20

System Unit I II (10years) III (15 years)

IV (20years)

V (25years)

Pure plantation Area (ha) 23,511 8,779 6,343 1,891 198 Stocking(m3) 469,347 431,163 152,138 15,298 M/ha (m3) 53.46 67.97 80.45 77.26 Lao Cai M/ha (m3) 68.21 98.86 128.8 TuyenQuang M/ha (m3) 50.63 66.30 56.87 68.93 + SonDuong 500 trees/ha 75.2 +Chiem Hoa 800 trees/ha 160.2 Ha Giang 53.34 80.92 105.3 +Bac Quang 2000 rees/ha 42 Phu Tho 38.68 44.68 70 100 +Doan Hung 700 trees/ha 40.67 +Thanh Son 400 trees/ha 34.88 Yen Bai 53.80 66.95 44.5 ThaiNguyen 47.19 27.25 Mixed plantation (common)

Area (ha) 8,834 308 88 4

Stocking(m3) 4,780 280

Page 2 of 4

* Note: * Data by the author M. glauca plantation for large timber production must be thinned 4 times, final density is 150-200 trees/ha. In management for paper raw material, mine props, thinning once, final density 1,200-1,600 trees/ha. Age of main exploitation: 9 years and over (Vu Dinh Phuong, 1985). Forest inventory in 1999 showed that productivity of M. glauca plantation was low. Mean timber stocking at ages 10, 15, 20, 25 is 53.46m3/ha; 67.18m3/ha; 80.45m3/ha; 77.26m3/ha respectively. Mean timber stocking of M. glauca plantation according to age class in Lao Cai is higher than that is other provinces. Site and growth potentialities of M. glauca in planted region are very great. Research on growth and yield of M. glauca plantation proves that.

Table 4: Growth and yield of M. glauca plantation at various soil classes (Vu Tien Hinh, 2001)

* Note: There are in this table 4 soil classes. Soil classes of M. glauca plantation are divided according to dominant height of the stand ho. hg height of trees with mean cross section, dg mean diameter according to cross action ZM.

Regular annual increment of timber stocking (m3/ha). In comparison with growth and yield table of M. glauca plantations in North Vietnam provinces it is found that with lowest soil class (may correspond with the lowest class of the soil classes to be planted with M. glauca), site and growth potentialities of M. glauca plantation does attain 157.5m3/ha at 17 years of age. Document of forest inventory in 1999 shows mean timber stocking of M. glauca plantation at age 20 in the Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Yen Bai, Lao Cai is all lower than growth and yield potentialities of lowest soil class (class IV). This shows that in M. glauca forest planting, many technical steps were not ensured thus only 70-80% of the potential productivity was obtained. Productivity data of M. glauca plantation (Table 4) are data from sampling plots of M. glauca plantation in the region with normal soil and technical conditions (pure M. glauca plantations, even-age, planted with ball-seedlings in the raw material area of Bai Bang paper mil. Initial planting density 2,200-2,500 trees/ha). In the process of forest maintenance, usually no thinning was done or thinning only once, maintenance cut was not uniform. Density of the stand was diminished as compared with initial one (Vu Tien Hinh, 2001). 5/ Recommendation M. glauca has high growth and yield potentialities meeting the planting requirement for paper raw material supply, mine props and wood for domestic uses. M. glauca wood is much desired by the people in the planting region. But practically, M. glauca plantation does not yet bring about desired results (low productivity). Attention must be paid to M. glauca planting for supply of mine props, paper raw material, composite board so that desired productivity and soil conservation are ensured M. glauca is planted with density of 2,500 trees/ha in all soil classes. Planting is done with ball seedlings. Available technical advances should be applied such as: M. glauca germplasm that has been selected, forest thinning and maintenance techniques, coppice plantation management. To abide by the steps of seedling production, land preparation, planting, years of tending, times of tending as required by the technical procedure (QTN-86) promulgated. Thinning twice with soil classes I, II. First thinning at age 6 for soil class I, at age 7 for soil class II. Second thinning at age 11 for soil class I and at age 13 for soil class II. One thinning for soil classes III, IV at age 8 and 9. The very important thing is maintaining the regulated density and no loss in planted area. There must be however application of technical advances such as using the selected seed sources and application of technical measures for intensive management, proper choice of planting site then M. glauca plantation will attain higher productivity. Main references

1. Procedure for M. glauca planting; management of M. glauca coppice plantation; thinning of M. glauca

plantation, 1986.

M/ha (m3) 15.52 70

Age (year) N/ha Soil class hg (m) dg (cm) M (m3) part Nd

ZM (m3) M (m3) synthesis

5 2,500 I 5.1 6.8 32.8 15.8 32.8 6 1,500 I 6.7 9.0 43.3 23.2 56 5 2,500 II 4.1 5.8 20.4 9.7 20.4 7 1,500 II 6.7 9.1 43.9 22.3 57.1 5 2,500 III 3.3 4.7 11.3 11.3 8 1,550 III 6.4 8.9 42.1 19.5 53.9 5 2,500 IV 2.3 3.9 3.0 9 1,650 IV 5.6 8.7 38.4 16.2 47.6 10 1,510 I 12.3 14.5 171.2 38.4 184.4 11 1,050 I 18.3 16.8 175.3 39.9 223.9 10 1,500 II 10.3 12.6 112.6 26.1 125.8 13 1,060 II 11.4 13.5 140.2 27.6 153.4 10 1,550 IV 8.5 10.9 74.9 17.7 86.6 15 1,050 I 17.1 20.3 295.8 27.8 744.5 17 1,050 I 18.2 21.4 343.6 22.6 392.3 15 1,060 II 15.2 17.6 205.1 20.7 250.1 17 1.060 II 16.3 18.5 241.4 17.3 286.4 15 1,550 III 12.6 14.1 169.6 17.9 181.4 17 1,550 III 13.7 14.9 201.7 15.3 213.4 15 1,650 IV 10.6 12.4 122.0 14.3 122.0 17 1,650 IV 11.8 13.1 148.4 12.8 157.5

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2. Nguyen Huu Thuoc and collaborators, 1964: Light requirement of M. glauca at young stage. Results of

Scientific and Technological Research 1960-1965 of Cau Hai Silviculture Centre.

3. Tran Nguyen Giang, 1989: Direction in management and use of M. glauca for rehabilitation of secondary

forest. Forest Scientific and Technical Information No. 1-2/1989

4. Nguyen Van Diep, 1976: Thinning technique for pure M. glauca plantation. Results of Scientific Research

1960-1985 of the Cau hai Silviculture Centre

5. Vu Dinh Phuong and collaborators, 1985: Increment law of some survey factors of M. glauca trees and pure M. glauca stand as a base for forest thinning and management. Results of Scientific Research 1976-1985.

Agriculture Publishing House, 1989

6. Le Dinh Kha and collaborators, 1985: Selection of fast growing M. glauca trees of fine stem form for the Mid-

Region. Results of Scientific Research 1976-1985. Agriculture Publishing House, 1989

7. Nguyen Ba Chat, Nguyen Danh Minh, 2000: Evaluation of forest plantations with indigenous tree species in

North Vietnam provinces.

8. Vu Tien Hinh, 2001: Construction of growth and yield tables for three tree species: Cunninghamia sinensis, Pinus massoniana and M. glauca in Nothern and North Eastern provinces of North Vietnam. Scientific Report;

Branch level research subject, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2001. Back to main page Next>>

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ERYTHROPHLOEUM FORDII Vietnamese name: Lim xanh Scientific name: Erythrophloeum fordii Oliv. Family: Leguminosae 1/ Morphological description According to Ganep (1908) the genus Erythrophloeum has 3 species: E. fordii Oliv, E. cambodianum Ganep , E. succirubrum Ganep. Vietnam has the species E. fordii Oliv. E. fordii is a large sized tree species, height upto 37-45m, diameter 200-250cm. When young the bark is silvery grey in colour with pale brown streaks, when old the bark is dark brown, square cracking, peeled in scales, many conspicuous lenticels. Base of the stem has small buttress. Foliage developed, thick and green all the year round. Branches twisted with many knots. Leaves undergo three stages: + 1-2 months of age: single, alternate (3-5 leaves) + On 3-5 month old tree: pinnate. + Tree over 6 months of age: leaves bippinnate with 3-5 pairs of secondary petiole, each with 3-17 leaflets, alternate, ovoid, base rounded, tip pointed. Upper surface dark green, lower surface pale green, veins conspicuous. Inflorescence apical racemose, 20-30cm long, flowers small, white. Calyx, long, cylindrical 5 lobed, even. Corrolla 5 separate petals. Stamens 10, eneven, anthers inside facing, cracked. Style short, stigmata not conspicuous. Flower opening in March-April. Fruit a pod, oblong-elliptic 15-30cm long, 3-4cm wide 6-12 seed. Seed large, flat, square-shaped, pointed tip, obtuse angle. 100 seed weigh about 100-110gr. Seed coat hard, black, overlapping. Fruit ripe in December to January the next year. 2/ Ecological characteristics E. fordii is distributed from 10o47 N latitude (Ham Tan, Binh Thuan) to 23oN latitude and 102o-108o E. longitude, but distribution is concentrated between 17 and 23oN latitude. Provinces of natural distribution of E. fordii: Quang Ninh, Lang Son, Bac Giang, Phu Tho, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang, Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Ninh Binh, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Quang Nam, Da Nang. E. fordii is dicovered in Ham Thuan Bac (Binh Thuan). E. fordii is found in some provinces of South China including eastern Tai Wan (Chinese tree flora, 1976). E. fordii is distributed from 300-400m a.s.l down-wards but upto 800-900m elevation E. fordii is still met (Bu Mun, Thanh Hoa- Tran Ngu Phuong 1976). - Rainfall regime: E. fordii is naturally distributed in regions of total annual rainfall of 1,488-3,840mm with two dry

months. Average annual humidity 80-86%. - Thermal regime: Average annual temperature from 22o7C to 24o8C. Maximum temperature 42o3C, absolute

lowest temperature 1o4C. - Light requirement of E. fordii varies with ages. + 4-5 month old: E. fordii is shade tolerant, normal growth under 25-75% shading, best growth is under 50% shading. In conditions of full light or shading 100% E. fordii seedlings grow poorly. + From 5 year old upwards E. fordii grows normally in full light condition. Mature E. fordii trees usually occupy upper storey of the forest. E. fordii grows and develops normally in many soil types from different parent rocks such as sandstone, mica schist, gneiss, porphyry, eruptive rock. Soil texture from sandy soil, light clay, medium clay to heavy clay. E. fordii grows well in site of moist, deep soil layer but can grow also in site of thin soil layer, moisture is not high such as in Huu Lung (Lang Son province) and Nhu Xuan (Thanh Hoa province). Soil under E. fordii is rather acidic, abundant Al+++, Ca++ and Mg++ base saturation is low. Most of soils under E. fordii forest has thick A1 horizon, yellowish red or reddish yellow soil, high moisture, acidity from medium to high. Humus content, total N are high; Mg, Ca contents are not high, low base saturation. E. fordii usually grows mixed with many other broad leaved tree species. Forest is multi–storeyed. Vegetation is rather rich, species composition depends on ecological region and succession stages. · North-Eastern of North Vietnam (Quang Ninh, Lang Son, Bac Giang, Thai Nguyen): In forest stand with E.

fordii there found also Castanopsis tribuloides, Eugenia sp., Ormosia balansae, Liquidambar formosana, Canarium album. Species composition: 1.1 E. fordii, 2 Vatica tonkinensis, 1.4 Castanopsis sp., 1.4 Engeldhartia sp., 1.1 Canarium sp., 1.7 other species. E. fordii trees represent 10-33% of the trees in the forest stand.

· Mid-land region of North Vietnam (Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai, Hoa Binh). Species composition: 0.6 E. fordii; 3.3 Gironniera subaequalis; 1 Canarium sp., 0.9 Eugenia brachyata; 1 Euphoria fragifera; 0.7 Pasania sp., 2.5 other species.

· The North of Central Vietnam: Species composition E. fordii 1.5; Canarium sp. 1.5; Eugenia brachyata 1.7; Gironniera subaequalis 1.3; Castanopsis 3.

In broad-leaved, evergreen forest type at lower belt, the ratio of E. fordii trees in various stands represent usually below 15% of all the trees at various age classes. In E. fordii stands there are usually E. fordii seedlings at different height classes. But the number and quality of these seedlings differ in different forest types. Secondary E. fordii forest has highest number of regenerated seedlings than other forest types. Poor forest has the number of regenerated E. fordii seedlings greater than that in regenerated forest but the possibility of differentiation is higher. Regenerated E. fordii trees over 3m in height are those having high prospect to join main forest storey. Data in Table 1 show various forest types with ecological conditions suitable for E. fordii regeneration

Height Total Forest types Species < 1m 1m< H<3m > 3m number of

trees Ratio (%)

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Natural regeneration of E. fordii is governed by ecological characteristics of the species and physical conditions. In Huong Son (Ha Tinh province) E. fordii has high stocking in various forest types but “regeneration is met only with low frequency and small tree number in forest stages III A2 and IIIA3. There is no correlation between regenerated E. fordii and mother trees in various forest types (Tran Xuan Thiep, 1996). Results of survey on regeneration of E. fordii in another region (Ham Thuan) also prove this. Table 2: Frequency and mean density of regenerated trees in Huong Son forest

In a sampling plot of natural forest in Huong Son (Ha Tinh) with tree density of 490 trees/ha. E. fordii represents 7.3% of species composition but there is no regenerated E. fordii. This shows that with forest stands having E. fordii in upper storey E. fordii regeneration does not necessarily exist. Natural regeneration plays an important role in the process of secondary succession. In each region of E. fordii distribution there is a different succession process that is governed by physical conditions and impact of man. · Succession of E. fordii- Liquidambar formosana In Quang Ninh and Lang Son provinces, E. fordii forest was exploited and slash-and-burn cultivation was practised and then there usually occurred Liquidambar formosana forest. Slash-and-burn cultivation continued and the site turned into savannas of trees, bushes and grasses. In unburnt savannas of grasses, soil gradually improved with bush species such as Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Halieteres angutofolia. Liquidambar formosana gradually took place with dominant height of 8-12m. In the storey of medium-sized trees there are Dillenia heterocephala, Aponosa mircalix, Phylarthus emblica. When L. formosana was grown-up, forest cover increased, forest environment was improved, light demanding grasses and bush species perished, E. fordii occurred under L. formosana canopy. This succession stage took 15-20 years. It took about 10-15 years for E. fordii to attain 5-7m high. · Succession of E. fordii-Carallia sp. In forest types with E. fordii in species composition, depending on the species mixture and degree of impact, succession direction varies. In region of low rainfall, number of dry months greater than 3, when the natural forest is destroyed, light demanding species together with Carallia are restored and in the stage when these species are 10-15 year-old, E. fordii appears. E. fordii together with Carallia occupy the dominant storey. In reverse direction, the dominion E. fordii–Carallia will be replaced by bush vegetation and grasses. In nature succession processes always take place but the downward succession by impact of man is 10-15 time quicker than upward succession. Through manipulated succession process stands of desired structure are formed. The management and investment degree are highly significant to the forest quality in the future. Forest maintenance and rehabilitation based on secondary succession law, if being adequately invested and well managed, desired effectiveness will be quickly attained. The process of natural regeneration of E. fordii indicates the possible establishment of forest stands containing E. fordii but this is not simple. Due to impact of man and physical conditions, especially where the soil is degraded, altered ecological conditions are not suitable for E. fordii rehabilitation. This shows that in order to rehabilitate E. fordii forests for definite objectives, there are no other ways than taking active measures by man. Some trial plantings of E. fordii show that in nature E. fordii grows slowly but in planting its growth potential is highly promising. 3/ Uses Wood of E. fordii is durable with good strength and is used in strong construction works. E. fordii is planted as forest for timber supply, protection forest, for soil restoration and improvement. Hundreds of years ago E. fordii was considered one of the species yielding precious timber, hard and strong with fine veins and good durability. E. fordii wood is classified in a group of four iron woods (Markhamia stipulata, E. fordii, Madhuca pasquieri,Vatica tonkinensis). Communal houses and pagodas in Vietnam were all constructed with pillars and beams of E. fordii wood. This wood has distinct sapwood and heartwood. Sapwood is pale yellow, heart wood is brownish yellow to reddish brown. Annual rings are conspicuous, 3-6 mm wide. Vessels simple and double, scattered, vessel diameter is average, number of vessels per 1mm2 is few. Inside the vessel there is usually tylosis or a substance reddish brown and white in

Rehabilitated E. fordii 103 57 24 184 3.54 other species 3,457 1,217 515 5,189 E. fordii E. fordii 342 137 74 553 19.56 secondary other species 2,342 347 138 2,827 Mixed species E. fordii 153 39 17 209 8.24 medium other species 1,987 463 85 2,535 Mixed species E. fordii 112 32 9 153 5.85 rich other species 2,135 356 123 2,614 Mixed species E. fordii 143 32 12 187 8.11 poor other species 1,752 527 35 2,304

IV III13 III A3 III A2 III A1 Species % trees/ha % trees/ha % trees/ha % trees/ha Vatica tonkinensis 12.8 931 7.2 833 5.3 599 4.5 388 Passania sp. 8.5 620 5.5 674 4.6 519 2.1 181 Cinnamomum sp. 2.6 190 1.1 135 0.5 57 0.1 9 Castanopsis indica 2.9 211 1.8 220 1.3 148 1.2 103 E. fordii 1.2 87 0.7 86 Garcinia sp. 1.3 95 0.8 98 0.3 34 Dialium cochinchinensis

2.9 211 0.5 61 0.3 34

Madhuca pasquieri 0.3 22 0.5 61 Michelia sp. 3.1 227 1.1 135 0.8 90 0.8 69

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colour. Rays are small and narrow usually with alternate strata.Parenchyma fasiform, aliform confluent, linked with adjacent vessels in tangential or slanting direction. Wood fibre has too great wall thickness resulting in very narrow hollow core, almost solid. Wood is hard and heavy, specific density of dry wood 930kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.48. Wood grain saturation point 20%. Pressure strength along the grain 765kg/cm2, static bending strength 1710kg/cm2. Splitting strength 19.5kg/cm. Bending impact coefficient 0.45. E. fordii wood is upto the standards satisfying the demand of structure of high strength, mainly in construction and communication and transport where long durability is required. 4/ Evaluation of E. fordii plantation Before 1945, E. fordii was planted as trial in some places. In 1960 some experiments of E. fordii planting was carried out but final review and all-sided evaluation have not been made. In research on forest vegetation, Thai Van Trung made a remark “ In north Vietnam there are some patches of planted E. fordii as experiments in Bai Thuong, Nhu Xuan-Thanh Hoa province; Trai Lat, Tan Ky- Nghe An province; Linh Cam-Ha Tinh province; Trung Mon-Tuyen Quang province... These planted E. fordii trees are not very good-looking forking when the trees are still low, branches numerous and crooked and twisted, usually with fungal attack at injuries, damage spreading results in hollow core of the stem. Thus upto now the experiment in using E. fordii for supplementary planting under forest canopy and E. fordii planting in open places were all not satisfactorily successful...” In 1961 trial planting of E. fordii was done in Cau Hai (Phu Tho province) with the systems: - Planting of E. fordii in cut bands, 20, 30, 40m wide; left over bands 20m wide. Tephrosia candida was sown

early at planting as support species. - Direct sowing of E. fordii in clear-cutting site after burning and removal of plant residue. Maintenance of

rehabilitated vegetation. - Planting of E. fordii in layer of rehabilitated pioneer species: pioneer trees are 3-4m high; rows are opened 1.5m

wide, 4m apart from one another, trees spacing: 2m (by direct sowing). Tran Nguyen Giang (1985) remarked: “ Good results are clear with formulae 1, 2, support trees grow together with planted trees. The formula 3 gives poorest result, planted trees under the canopy suffer from shading. Trees planted in bands have best quality. E. fordii is a tree species without main trunk, branches develop early. Left-over bands diminish the light coming on planted bands and this restricts the development of lateral branches, the bole section under branches attains 5-7m high and 10m in some cases, no insect and fungal attack. E. fordii planted in clear-cutting site although being provided with shade trees in young stage but without support trees in upper storey, pure E. fordii plantation results and weak points are clearly shown: short stems, crooked and twisted with insect and fungal attack, similar to E. fordii plantation raised by the French else where”.

- In 1974 trial of forest planting with E. fordii in rows was carried out in Huu Lung (Lang Son) in poor forest soil under bamboo vegetation. Planted E. fordii proved promising. E. fordii has been planted here and there in some places but technical measures were utterly unspecified. Due to aims of planting and soil conditions differed greatly, it was hard to apply general technical norms for all. Thus there must be systemization, evaluation and supplementation to perfect the technical measures for planting, rehabilitating and developing this valuable tree species of Vietnam.

· Technical details that must be paid attention to in E. fordii planting Document on E. fordii (Forest Research Institute, 1983) shows that “E. fordii can be used for pure forest planting or enrichment planting in depleted poor secondary forest to create a mixed forest with one species available in the locality. With improved soil, sowing is done at a density of 2,500 holes/ha. With poor soil, 3,000 holes/ha. With secondary forest, enrichment planting (direct sowing is done at open places”. Planting technique for some forest tree species 1994 “With poor forest soil with bushes, rows are opened 2-3m wide, left over bands 5-10m. Trees spacing 3m, row spacing 7-12m. Planting density 280-500 trees/ha”. Draft guidance on E. fordii planting for 327 Project, 1999: “E. fordii is planted for mixed plantation in rows, bands, agroforestry system. Planting in rows: E. fordii is in the rows, left over rows are other tree species of natural forest, mixed with E. fordii. Planting done with man-made vegetation cover : E. fordii mixed with Cinnamomum obtusifolium, Canarium album. Trees spacing in the rows 3m, rows spacing 5-7m. Alternate rows of E. fordii and Cinnamomum or Canarium album can be planted. Presently at the places where the French has planted E. fordii: Phu Quy -Nghe An; Nhu Xuan-Thanh Hoa, Trung Mon-Tuyen Quang; Trai Lat, Tan Ky-Nghe An; Linh Cam-Ha Tinh, there remain only some scattered trees. No technical records remain. Table 3: Growth of E. fordii planted at Cau Hai (Phu Tho province)

Age D1.3 (cm) ZD (cm) DD (cm) H (m) DH (m) ZH (m) V (m3) 2 0.9 0.5 1.7 0.9 4 2.2 0.6 0.55 4 1.2 1 6 3.35 0.6 0.55 5.3 0.6 0.88 0.00726 8 4.9 0.8 0.61 8 2 1 0.00415 10 6.7 0.9 0.67 10.9 1.3 1.09 0.00919 12 8.4 0.9 0.7 14 1.0 1.16 0.01197 14 10.75 1.2 0.76 16.3 1.1 1.16 0.03826 16 12.9 1.2 0.8 17.9 0.8 1.11 0.06795 18 14.8 0.9 0.82 20.7 1.4 1.15 0.11162 20 17 1.2 0.85 22.1 0.7 1.1 0.17572 22 19.85 1.4 0.9 22.7 0.3 1.03 0.27583 24 23.35 1.4 0.9 25.5 0.4 0.97 0.40398

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In 1961-1963 Cau Hai Silvicultural Experimentation Station (Phu Tho province) carried out experimental planting of E. fordii. In evaluating growth process it was found that planted E. fordii promised well. From 10 years of age onwards diameter and height growth of E. fordii is faster than in young stage. This agrees with the growth of the species. ZD : annual increment DD: mean increment V : tree volume At 20 years of age, planted E. fordii at Cau Hai attains timber stock 121.2m3/ha (density 300 trees/ha). Mean annual increment 5.05 m3/ha. With species of slow growth wood of high value, forest planting with common technique then annual increment still attains 5m3/ha is highly significant. Practically regular increment of E. fordii at 24 years of age still attains 1.4cm/yr in diameter. This increment rate of E. fordii can not be considered as slow. From 8 years of age D1.3 and H increments of E. fordii are approximately or over 1cm/yr and 1m/yr respectively. Compared with E. fordii in nature, increment of planted E. fordii is 50-70% higher. Based on the knowledge of ecological characteristics, regeneration, increment of E. fordii in nature, recommendation can be made to successfully develop technical measures for rehabilitating and developing natural and man-made forest stands with E. fordii in the species composition. 35 year old E. fordii plantation planted at Cau Hai Silviculture Centre, Phu Tho province in 1961 now has mean tree height of 15m; mean D1.3: 39.5cm (initial density 1,100 trees/ha, through many cuttings, now remains 100 trees/ha) (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1999). Area of planted E. fordii now remains in some places: Tam Dao nearly 1ha; Dan Chu-Hoa Binh province: 2ha (nearly 200 trees); Cau Hai-Phu Tho province 1 ha (100 trees). The other E. fordii trees were planted here and there without application of any technical systems: in arboretum or planted in programme 327, but in small areas. According to forest inventory document in 1999, Phu Tho had 6 ha, age class 6, timber stocking 55m3/ha and 111 ha of mixed forest of acacia and E. fordii. Thanh Hoa had 48 ha of which 25 ha at age class 6, timber stocking 76 m3/ha and 12 ha of mixed forest of E. fordii and Khaya senegalensis. Quang Nam has 9 ha, age class 1. Da Nang had 42 ha, age class 1. The total area of planted E. fordii was 309 ha at different age classes. E. fordii can be planted in areas where the soil remains forest soil nature from Quang Ninh to Quang Nam, below 300m a.s.l; in poor forest soil; soil covered by bushes, generated on sand stone, philit, the deeper soil layer the better. E. fordii can be planted in poor soil. Depending on the aims of planting: shelter belt, soil improvement, timber production, suitable soil class and system of technical measures are chosen. Based on areas of planted E. fordii , remarks can be made: - Natural regeneration of E. fordii is very strong. Technique of conservation for natural succession can be applied

for E. fordii forest rehabilitation. - Techniques for seedlings production, planting and tending in early stage of E. fordii have been determined. - Presently there are not yet any convincing models for E. fordii planting for large –timber production as well as

for protection forest. - Areas of planted E. fordii in various regions are all small providing no orientation in technical measures and

management. 5/ Recommendation For successful conservation and forest planting with E. fordii in Vietnam it is necessary to protect the existing natural stands and plantations of this species for selection of mother trees up to the standard serving the supply of seed of high quality. E. fordii can be planted widely in various soil types still with forest soil nature from North Eastern of North Vietnam and North of former Central Vietnam. The aim of E. fordii planting must be determined for each region: + Designing E. fordii plantation model for production of high quality timber. + Designing E. fordii plantation models for environment and water source protection (these models must prove to be sustainable, effective and of high productivity). + Model establishment is allowed on scale at least 10-15 ha. References:

1. Le Mong Chan, Dong Sy Hien, Le Nguyen, 1967: Forest tree species in Vietnam. Education Publishing House Hanoi

2. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1994: E. fordii planting technique forest planting with some tree species, Agriculture Publishing House.

3. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1995: Growth of E. fordii planted at Cau Hai-Phu Tho. Scientific Information. Forest Science Institute of Vietnam.

4. Nguyen Ba Chat: E. fordii, a precious timber species of Vietnam . Centre for forest tree genetics-SAREC. 5. Tran Nguyen Giang, 1985: 25 years of silvicultural research. Cau Hai-Phu Tho 6. Phung Ngoc Lan, 1985: Research on some ecological characteristics of E. fordii. Research results. Forestry

College, 1985. 7. Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1999: Some threatened tree species of Vietnam. Agriculture Publishing House, Ha

Noi. 8. Nguyen Huu Thuoc, Nguyen Lien, Dang Xuan Duong, 1963: Preliminary study on light requirement of E.

fordii below 1 year of age. Forestry review N.8-1963 9. Thai Van Trung, 1971: Forest vegetation of Vietnam. Science Publishing House, 1978 10. Tran Ngu Phuong, 1970: Preliminary research on forests in North Vietnam. Science and technique Publishing

House. Back to main page Next>>

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CHUKRASIA TABULARIS Vietnamese name: Lat hoa Other names: Lat long, Lat chun, Lat da dong Scientific name: Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss Family: Meliaceae 1/ Morphological description: C. tabularis is a large sized tree species upto 35-40m high, diameter at breast height upto 210cm. Tree base has buttress, bole straight. In the forest, C. tabularis is high branching, outside the forest it is low-branching. Bark thick, cracking along the stem with deep grooves, pale brown in colour, lenticels numerous and conspicuous. Inner bark bright red, slightly sour odour. Leaves bipinnate, when the tree is still young, leaves are false compound bipinnate. Petiole cylindrical, 30-50cm long, leaf base widened. Each bipinnate leaf has 7-20 pairs of leaflets, petiolules 5-10mm long. Leaflets alternate sometimes nearly opposite, leaf blade 9-12cm long, 5-6cm wide. Leaf lanceolate, oblong, narrow at the tip, rounded at the base, 2 margins slanted, axil pubescent. When young, leaves are pale purple in colour. Inflorescence apical racemose, upright, many branchlets, fine pubescence. Perianth oblong, rounded, 14-16m long, pedicel short 6-10mm, petals 5, stellate when open, petal nearly rectangular, pale yellow, 15-20mm long, 5-7 mm wide, tip nearly round. In bud stage flower is cylindrical. Stamens 10, glabrous, ovary faces downward anthers 10, elliptic, inner facing, connate at the tube margin. Pistils rounded, pale green, rising to anther level. Ovary 3-4 locular, each locule 25-30 ovules, arranged in two rows. Fruit oblong, 2-2.5cm in diameter, 3-3.5cm long, Fruit pale brown when young, 3-4 celled, splitted into 3-4 valves. Seed arranged in two rows. Seed small, flat, elliptic, thin wing, slanted tip. Seed 10-12 cm long, 4mm wide without endosperm. 2/ Ecological characteristics C. tabularis is found in natural forest in provinces: Son La, Hoa Binh, Lai Chau, Phu Tho, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai, Thai Nguyen, Nghe An, Thanh Hoa, Gia Lai, Dong Nai, Bac Giang at elevation from 20m to 1450m a.s.l. C. tabularis is naturally distributed in Srilanca, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Quangzung, Quangtzi (China) (1o-25o N latitude, 73o-123o E. longitude). The distribution range of C. tabularis usually has the rainfall from 1185.5mm/yr (Song Ma - Son La province) to 1941.5mm/yr (Dinh Hoa-Thai Nguyen prov.) 1-2 dry months in a year. Temperature: Mean 14-27oC, relative humidity 78-85%, absolute lowest humidity below 20% happens in December-January. C. tabularis is a light demanding species, tolerant of slight shading in young stage; full light requirement when grown-up. C. tabularis usually occupies upper storey of the forest. Soil types in the distribution range of C. tabularis are yellowish red feralit on claystone and metamorphic rock; reddish yellow feralit on acidic magma; brownish red humus soil on neutral and acidic magma; red humus soil on limestone; yellowish red humus soil on claystone and metamorphic rock. C. tabularis grows normally where soil acidity is 4.5-5.5 (pHH2O), humus content 3-5% in surface soil layer; N: 0.1-0.3%; soluble P and K: rather poor. In natural forest C. tabularis usually grows together with Aglaia, Artocarpus, Cinnamomum, Dillenia, Elaeocarpus, Erythrophloeum, Garcinia, Gironniera, Knema, Litsea, Markhamia, Pasania, Vatica... C. tabularis usually grows scattered in broad-leaved forest and sheds its leaves in winter, Leaf shedding begins on 20/November and on 25/December all leaves are shedded. From 15/December leaf flushing begins. Flowering begin on 1/May. Fruit ripe from November to January the next year. 3/ Uses: Wood with distinct sapwood and heartwood, sapwood pale pink, heartwood brownish pink. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 4-6mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, scattered, number of vessels per mm2: average; vessel diameter is over 1mm on the average; inside the vessel there is usually a brown and white substance. Rays small and narrow, terminal soft tissue is in narrow strip. Wood fibre is 1mm long on the average. Wood is medium in hardness and weight. Specific density of dry wood: 680kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.38. Pressure strength along the grain 540 kg/cm2, static bending strength 1.050kg/cm2, splitting strength 11kg/cm. Collision bending strength 0.9. Wood of C. tabularis is upto the standards satisfying the requirements for high-grade furniture making including surface board and structure requiring high strength. C. tabularis wood can be used for sliced veneer. C. tabularis is used for forest plantation supplying timber and protection forest and is a tree species widely planted. 4/ Evaluation of C. tabularis plantation Although the area of pure C. tabularis is upto 9.044 ha and there are many areas of mixed plantation of C. tabularis with other species but there is not yet its planting technique. C. tabularis has been much planted in Northwest area (5,249 ha), North of Central Vietnam (3,629 ha), Northeast (110 ha) and coastal Central Vietnam (61 ha). C. tabularis was planted in large areas in some State forest enterprises in Son La (Moc Chau I, Moc Chau II) and in small areas in other provinces. Previous to 1995 C. tabularis was planted as pure plantation, in patches or in bands. Planting band is 30m wide. Planting density in planting band varies from 1,100 trees/ha to 3,300 trees/ha. In some places it was planted in scattered places. Son La forestry service planted C. tabularis at density of 2,500 trees/ha. Song Hieu Forest Company planted pure C. tabularis plantation in bands (30m wide), planting density in planting band was 1,600 trees/ha. Research results of Nguyen Ba Chat (1985) provided an initial conclusion: C. tabularis pure plantation in bands is suitable. Planting band is 20-30m wide, left-over band 10-20m wide, planting density in planting bands is 1,100 trees/ha. Some draft procedures for C. tabularis forest planting also recommend a planting density of 1,100 trees/ha. In 40 years of forest planting with C. tabularis, draft procedure has been prepared twice but till now no procedures have been promulgated. Practically C. tabularis was planted in more than 12 provinces of which Son La, Nghe An, Lai Chau have largest planted areas with highest plantation age (over 30 years-planted in 1967). As the system of techniques was not stable, each locality in each period guided and organized C. tabularis planting

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according to the knowledge acquired. Pure plantations of C. tabularis planted in patches, bands, rows or as scattered trees everywhere make it difficult for evaluation. Thus for a precise evaluation of the forest planting with C. tabularis .In Vietnam there must be overview of its planting in various ecological zones. Table 1: Situation of C. tabularis planting in various provinces (Forest inventory 1999)

The above data show that productivity of C. tabularis plantation is very low. At 30 years of age, C. tabularis plantation-Son La only attains mean 92.08 m3/ha. Table 2: Situation of C. tabularis growth in some localities

Provinces Total Planting system Age class (15 years) I II III Son La (ha) 349 Pure planting 273 64 12 M (m3) 5,861 893 m3/ha 92.08 74.41 Mixed planting 2,284 Lai Chau 1,315 Pure planting 1,273 42 M (m3) 553 m3/ha 13.16 C. tabularis+ Aleurites

montana 913

Nghe An 850 Pure planting 651 170 29 M (m3) 11.706 3,382 m3/ha 68.86 116.62 Mixed planting 631 17

Age Locality Planting system

Soil Growth V/ha Differentiation D%

Remarks

D (cm)

H (m)

4 Nghia Dan

Entire area Poor forest 7.2 6.3 29.4 30 Survival 90%, low branching density 1600 trees/ha

4 Nghia Dan

In bands Poor forest 7.3 6.5 25-27 Survival 90% density 1100 trees/ha

20 Nghia Dan

Entire area Poor forest 17.2 15.4 142.2 35 Thinning intensity 30% at 10 years of age

20 Nghia Dan

In bands 21.4 17.4 117.8 20 Thinning intensity 30% at 10 years of age

4 Quy Chau Entire area Poor forest 5.2 4.3 25-35 Density 2,000 trees/ha

20 Quy Chau Entire area Poor forest 13.5 10.7 30-35 Thinning at 10 years of age

10 Song Da Entire area Soil after slash-and-burn cultivation

7.5 6.3 27-30 Density 1600 trees/ha no thinning

5 Song Da In rows Soil after slash-and-burn cultivation

3.5 2.7 30 Planted with Acacia mangium 1600

5 Song Da In rows Soil after slash-and-burn cultivation

3.9 3.2 27 Planted with Acacia auriculiformis 1600

5 Son Duong

In rows Soil after slash-and-burn cultivation

3.7 3.2 29 Planted with Acacia mangium

5 Son Duong

In rows Soil after slash-and-burn cultivation

4.1 3.5 28 Planted with Acacia auriculiformis 1600

4 Nghia Dan

Scattered 8.7 7.6 10 Spacing 5m

20 Nghia Scattered 32.5 23.7 Spacing 5m

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Different planting systems: in bands, entire area, scattered, mixed in rows, resulted in diameter and height growths of C. tabularis much differ. The formula of planting in bands in poor forest soil by Nghia Dan State Forest Enterprise gives highest diameter and height growth although in planting in bands planted area represents only half of the area in general, the plantation does attain 117.8 m3 or 235.6m3/ha, mean annual increment is 11.78m3/ha. This shows that if C. tabularis is planted in bands, on average soil, with normal tending, thinning 30% of the trees at age 10, increment attained is over 10m3/ha/yr. This is a rather attractive figure in C. tabularis planting for timber supply. Specially best growth indices are obtained in scattered planting. The differentiation in diameter in pure planting with a density of 1,600 trees/ha is great. Branching of C. tabularis is low everywhere. Bole section under branch is short. C. tabularis planted in Nghe An, Tuyen Quang and Hoa Binh all has high survival rate (>90%). The differentiation rate in diameter is all high, 20-30% of the trees, low branching, stem form is not fine. Planting done in entire area gives poor D and H growth. Being planted mixed in rows with Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis, growth of C. tabularis is poor due to suppression by the other two species. With planting in bands and intermediate thinning (age 10), C. tabularis together with other rehabilitated tree species make up mixed forest. C. tabularis growth is rather good, highly promising in establishment of forest stand for supplying of C. tabularis timber. 5/ Recommendation Presently there is not procedure for C. tabularis planting. It possible to establish C. tabularis plantation for supplying timber of high quality and protection forest but suitable structure of forest stand must be designed to achieve desired result. Being protection forest or forest for timber supply, the final number of C. tabularis trees must not exceed 100 trees/ha. For successful planting of C. tabularis for various aims, attention must be paid to the following items: -Seed: Planted C. tabularis trees 7-8 years of age already have flowers and bear fruit but seed should be collected only from trees over 15 years of age. Seed collection is in November-January, 1kg of seed contains 60,000-62,000 seed, germination rate 70-80%, 14-16 fruit give 1kg of seed, 1kg of seed gives 20,000-25,000 seedlings up to standard. Seedling standard: planting is done with ball-seedlings or bare-rooted seedlings with the following standard: age: 7-8 month-old; height: 0.6-0.7m; Do: 0.5-0.6cm, well-proportioned and normal development. -Soil: For forest planting: poor forest soil, soil after slash-and-burn cultivation, still good; moisture and nutrient elements ensured. Soil must not be too acidic or heavy loam. Planting region: within natural distribution range of C. tabularis. -Technique: Steps from seed collection, seed treatment and sowing, seedlings production to tending in early stage have been elaborated, well-founded scientifically. The most important thing is creating rational structure of C. tabularis plantation, prompted by the fact that C. tabularis is distributed scatteringly in natural forest, a species with long management rotation (over 30 years), and disadvantages in pure planting. Thus there must be determination on mixed planting system and method (in patches, in groups...). Thus C. tabularis can be planted in group of 3-5 trees, trees spacing 3-5m with other species or in rehabilitated forest vegetation but sufficient light must be ensured for C. tabularis to grow and develop. Attention must be paid to shape the stem form in pure planting or planting at low density. At present there exist areas of planted C. tabularis in various provinces at different age classes that must be maintained. But there is not technical guidance on thinning and maintenance thus the maintenance of these C. tabularis areas with definite objectives (protection forest or large-timber forest) meets with embarrassment in technique. Without treatment the existing areas of C. tabularis can not bring about their good affect economically as well as environmentally. C. tabularis yields wood of high value and brings about high efficiency in scattered planting. Thus system of scattered planting of C. tabularis must be promoted. Attention must be paid to wilting seedlings in nursery stage, leaf-eating insects in C. tabularis plantation and stem borers. References

1. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1989: Forest improvement with Chukrasia tabularis. Some results of forest Scientific and technical research, 1976-1985. Forest Research Institute. Agriculture Publishing House.

2. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1993: Technical measures in maintenance and thinning of C. tabularis in Nghia Dan-Nghe An. Scientific Research Results. Forest Research Institute. Agriculture Publishing House.

3. Kalinganire and K. Pinyopusarerk, 2000. Chukrasia: Biology, cultivation and Utilization. ACIAR Technical Reports 49. Kingston ACT 2604 Australia.

4. Data of Forest Inventory 1999: Central Forest Inventory Board, 2001 Back to main page Next>>

Dan

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MICHELIA MEDIOCRIS Vietnamese name: Gioi xanh Scientific name: Michelia mediocris Dandy (M. tonkinensis A. Chev.) Family: Magnoliaceae 1/ Morphological description M. mediocris is a large-sized tree species with straight stem, height is upto 35-37m. D1.3 is upto 120-150cm. Base of tree has low buttress, good natural branching. Bark glabrous, pale brown in colour with white streaks around the stem. Bark crip, slightly fragrant. Leaves single, alternate, oblong. Leaf 12-30 long, 6-12 wide. Veins conspicuous, upper surface glabrous, green in colour, lower surface pale green, stipules caducous leaving a round scar on young branch. Flowers axile, perianth dull white. Carpels separated, spirally arranged on receptacle. M. mediocris flowering is in March-April, fruit ripe in September, October. Fruit 3-5 separated carpels, each carpel bean 3-5 seed, self-splitting when ripe. Ripen seed has red endosperm, soft, sweet. Seed oily, fragrant, pungent and can be used for belly-ache curing and spice. 2/ Ecological characteristics M. mediocris usually grows mixed with other bread-leaved species in various types of broad-leaved, evergreen forest. M. mediocris is found in natural forest in almost all provinces of North Vietnam and southernmost to provinces of the Central Highlands. In Lao Cai, M. mediocris grows mixed with Machilus sp., Lithocarpus sp., Engelhardtia chrysolepsis. M. mediocris is usually met with other species in broad-leaved, evergreen forest such as in the following regions: Tuyen Quang: Lithocarpus sp., Cinnamomum sp., Canarium album. Ba Vi (Ha Tay province): Michelia tonkinensis, Machilus bonii, Amessidendron chinensis, Symplocos cochinchinensis. Song Hieu (Nghe An province): Mechelia tonkinensis, Machilus sp., Aglaia gigantea, Cinnamomum sp., Canarium album, Madhuca pasquieri Ha Tinh: Michelia tonkinensis, Vatica tonkinensis, Cinnamomum sp., Schima wallichii. Kon Ha Nung (Gia Lai province): Michelia tonkinensis, Cinnamomum sp., Canarium album, Dialium cochinchinensis. - Natural distribution range of M. mediocris usually has rainfall 1,500-2,500 mm/yr with 1-2 dry months.

Humidity 85-87%. - Temperature: 20-23oC on the average M. mediocris is distributed in various soil types: yellowish brown soil on

old alluvium, red soil on neutral and basic magma; yellowish red soil on metamorphic rock, claystone; reddish yellow soil on acidic magma; pale yellow soil on sandstone. M. mediocris is neutral when young and light demanding when grown up, occupying upper storey of the forest. M. mediocris is a broad-leaved species, green all the year round. There are two flowering seasons. Main one in February-March, fruit ripe in September- October. Minor flowering season is in July-August fruit ripe in March-April. M. mediocris usually has flowers and bears fruit annually. Heavy fruit bearing year depends on weather and heavy fruit bearing cycle. Season of ripe fruit is September-October. Results of survey on M. mediocris regeneration in Nghe An and Kon Ha Nung show that there is little regeneration (Survey was done in circles 40m in diameter around trees that have yielded fruit).

Table 1: Natural regeneration of M. mediocris

Table 1 shows that forest cover increases, M. mediocris regeneration decreases. Number of promising regenerated trees (over 1m high) is usually below 10 trees/ha. There is a great loss of trees from regenerated seedlings to seedlings over 1m in height. 50-70% of the seedlings are eliminated. At age 4 only 2-3% of the seedlings remains. This shows that in various stages of natural forest, M. mediocris is little regenerated, much eliminated. Forest stands with higher forest cover (> 0.6), more regenerated seedlings are eliminated. 3/ Uses: M. mediocris wood is much desired by the people for furniture making, house construction, carving. This wood is little damaged by termites and wood borers, little twisted and curved; fine grain, durable. M. mediocris is one of the species rather commonly met in broad-leaved, evergreen forest. Wood with distinct sapwood and heartwood. Sapwood is yellowish leige, heartwood is brownish yellow, fragrant. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 3-5mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, scattered; long, double vessels are rare. Number of vessels per 1mm2 great, vessel diameter small, inside the vessel there is usually a knot substance. Rays small and narrow, cells contain aromatic essential oil; soft tissue in narrow strip and terminal. Wood fibres in form of trachaeid, average length 1.2mm with thin wall. Wood medium weight and hardness, specific density of dry wood 580kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.46, wood grain saturation point 22%. Pressure strength along the grain 605 kg/cm2, static bending strength 1345 kg/cm2. Splitting strength 13kg/cm. Collision bending coefficient 1.03. M. mediocris wood is upto the standards satisfying the requirements in furniture making. It can be used for structure requiring medium strength, mainly in construction, communication and transport. It is used for structure resistant to collision and vibration.

Region Cover Mother trees Height of regenerated trees (cm) Total N/ha D1.3 H (m) <50 50-100 >100

Nghia Dan- 0.4-0.5 47 23 17 7 2 26 207 Nghe An 0.5-0.6 52 27 12 4 1 17 135 > 0.6 57 29 29 3 1 11 88 Ka Nak 0.4-0.5 62 31 15 4 1 20 160 Gia Lai 0.5-0.6 71 32 11 3 0 14 112 >0.6 69 28 12 2 1 15 120

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4/ Evaluation of M. mediocris plantation From 1980 some units have investigated M. mediocris planting. From 1983 State Forest Enterprises of Kon Ha Nung Forest and Industry Union have carried out forest enrichment planting with this species in about 400 ha (upto 1993). Based on the trial planting in Nghia Dan, we have made a preliminary review on M. mediocris planting technique and in 1995 this was supplemented with document on experiments by research subject KN03. From 1959 to 1963 Dung Silvicultural Station-Yen Cat-Thanh Hoa planted M. mediocris in bands 30m wide, left-over bands 15m wide. Planted seedlings were 45cm high; at age 4 the trees were 4.5m high, diameter 9.5cm (Nguyen Tien Nghenh, 1970). NGHE AN MODEL: In 1980 Nghia Dan State Forest Enterprise planted M. mediocris in bands and rows as follows: + Planting in rows: 5m wide, tree spacing in a row: 3m, left over band 10m wide. + Planting in bands: band of M. mediocris was 20m wide, left-over band 10m wide. Seedling standard: usually ball-seedlings, 7-8 month old, 30-40cm high, diameter at the base 0.3-0.4cm. Planting holes 40x40x40cm. No fertilizer application. Tending in 3 years, each year thrice. Table 2: Growth of planted M. mediocris in Nghia Dan-Nghe An

* Improved rows: 5m wide, trees with thick crowns and height over 5m in left over band are cut. M. mediocris planted in Nghia Dan, Nghe An at 20 years of age attains 90-136m3/ha, mean increment is 4.5-6.8 m3/ha/yr. The above results show that M. mediocris planted in rows in Nghe An, if vegetation treatment and tending, maintenance are good, 30-40% of the trees will have fine stem form and rather good growth. M. mediocris planted in 1980 in Koba State forest enterprise (planted in rows) now remains 19 trees. Biggest tree has D1.3 = 30cm, H=19m,

mean D1.3 = 21cm, mean H = 17m (2000). M. mediocris planted in Ngoc Lac, Thanh Hoa (1980), measurement made

in 2000 had D1.3 = 35cm, H = 23m, scattered trees remained 7. Table 3: Growth of M. mediocris planted in Kon Ha Nung and Cau Hai

Note: Column 2: 5/10 the upper number is the width of the band planted with M. mediocris (5m), the below number is the width of left over band (10m); 93*: data from document of Cau Hai. KON HA NUNG MODEL: Experiments in Kon Ha Nung were carried out in 1982, 1985, 1989 on poor forest soil but the height of the forest was 20-22m. Although the planted rows were 5m wide but in the third year tree crowns in the left over bands did overshade the planted M. mediocris trees in the rows. Diameter increment of M. mediocris planted before 1992 is greatest, 0.9cm/yr, height increment is 1m/yr. In Cau Hai, Phu Tho alone diameter and height increments were over 1.2cm/yr and 1.2m/yr respectively. Trees in left over bands exert great affect on M. mediocris planted in the rows. Thus the treatment of the left over bands is highly significant of the growth process of M. mediocris planted in the rows. Success or failure, it depends on the process of left over band treatment in the period of forest tending and maintenance. The above data show that survival rate, height and diameter growth of planted M. mediocris all are normal. There is a disproportion between height growth and diameter growth. In formulae with 5m wide planting rows, the height of the forest was 22m. Now 50-60% of the M. mediocris trees in the rows are overshaded by the trees in the left over bands. In this stage the upper storey of M. mediocris must be removed.

Planted in 1980. Measurement in 1985

Planted in 1980. Measurement in 2000

Planting systems D1.3 (cm)

H (m) Survival (%)

D1.3 (cm)

H (m) V/ha (m3)

Survival (%)

Planting in rows 8.5 6.1 78 24.3 17.5 121.7 65 Planting in bands 11.1 6.7 81 22.1 15.7 90.33 62 Chukrasia tabularis+ 12.3 8.3 83 23.1 16.2 119.3 61 M. mediocris Improved rows* 12.2 8.1 87 25.3 18.1 136.5 63

Year

Planting band/ left over band (m)

Height

N/H

Survival %

Measurement 1993

Measurement year 2000

D1.3

DD

H DH

D1.3

DD

H DH Survival (%)

82 5/10 20 330 76 6.1 0.6

9.4 0.9 14.6 0.76

15.7 0.87

65

82 10/10 20 350 70 7.3 0.7

9.8 1.0 16.2 0.76

17.3 0.96

62

85 5/10 22 330 76 7.6 0.9

6.8 0.8 12.4 0.68

14.3 0.79

60

89 5/10 22 330 76 1.4 0.4

1.8 0.4 7.8 0.71

92 0.84

93 5/10 18 330 75 4.8 0.6

5.6 0.7

75

93* 3/7 6 330 78 9.7 1.2

10.2 1.2

78

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But the number of trees occupying the upper storey is too great to be removed. This makes it necessary to reconsider the choice of the target for forest enrichment by M. mediocris, either the width of the row must be increased or the height of the trees in the left over bands must be lowered. 5/ Recommendation * Using M. mediocris for enrichment of poor forest is a proper choice as M. mediocris wood is of high value in use. Initial techniques: seed collection, seedling production are very convenient. M. mediocris grows easily, has main stem, medium growth rate, good wood, wide distribution, abundant seed source. Those are rather favourable factors providing sufficient conditions for M. mediocris to be one of the forest plantation species for large and valuable timber supply. Target for forest enrichment must be chosen in agreement with the aim of planting, bringing into full play the potentialities of climate, soil and planted species. · Seed: At present M. mediocris trees in natural forest are almost all cut. This has been a source of seed supply so

far and it is now seriously threatened. There must be a planning to convert the areas of naturally distributed M. mediocris into seed stands. At the same time some of the areas of planted M. mediocris must be selected for conversion into seed stands. These are steps taken to establish seed stands of high quality.

· Soil: M. mediocris must be planted on soil still remains the nature of forest soil. · Being planted in rows, the target must be forest of height not exceeding 10m; soil layer must be thick. Where the

vegetation cover is thick, treatment must be carried out. · M. mediocris can be planted where the trees have just been exploited. Enrichment planting must be done with M.

mediocris after forest exploitation; tending in 5-7 years, then the forest is closed. The seedlings to be planted in poor forest vegetation can be maintained longer in the nursery to have their height reaching 1m and over.

References:

1. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1989: Technique of M. mediocris planting. Forestry Review N.4-1984 2. Nguyen Tien Nghenh, 1980: M. mediocris species, Review of Scientific Research, Forestry College. 3. Pham Hoang Ho, 1987: Vietnam vegetation. 4. Lecomte, 1904: Flora of Indochina.

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PINUS MASSONIANA Vietnamese name: Thong duoi ngua Other names: Thong ma vi, Thong tau Scientific name: Pinus massoniana Lamb. Family: Pinaceae 1/ Morphological description: P. massoniana is a large-sized tree species with round and straight stem, height is upto 20-25m and 30m on good soil, diameter 0.5-0.6m. Young parts of stem and branches are pale brown, bark thin and peeled in patches and these are truly outward features differing from these of Pinus merkusii. Bark dark brown, cracks along the stem to form the grooves. Early naturally thinning and pruning leave on trees 5-6 years old and over many scars of round branch base. Branches and branchlets are twisted and crooked resulting in destitute crown of mature tree, 20 year old and over. Needles have two forms: linear and needle. Linear forms remains only with young trees below 1 year of age. These grow spirally around young tree stem, green, 2-4cm long. These linear forms gradually dry up and fall giving place to tufts of needles. Length of needles increases with tree age and is maximum (15-20cm) on mature trees. Crown shape is pyramid at 5-10 years of age and turns into ovoid and parasol at maturity. P. massoniana begins flowering and bearing fruit at 6-7 years of age. Flower monosexual, monoecious. Male flowers appear in March-April, fruit ripe in November-December the next year. Seed flat, ovoid, dark brown when ripe. Average weight of 1,000 seed is 10-14g. Processing of 40-50kg of cones gives 1kg seed. Germination rate of freshly collected seed is over 90%. 2/ Ecological characteristics P. massoniana has a geographical origin in temperate region of China, most concentrated in the South East of Chinese continent; Taiwan island and the Chinese-Vietnamese border provinces. Its uninterrupted distribution is from 21o to 36o N latitutde. In Vietnam P. massoniana is scatteringly planted in some provinces of North Vietnam such as Da Chong-Ha Tay province, Phu Dien-Thanh Hoa province, Yen Lap-Quang Ninh province but only mainly from 20o N latitude northwards. P. massoniana is a light demanding species but shade tolerant in young stage. Mean annual air temperature 13-20oC or mean temperature of the months in the year is 18oC. It can be tolerant of low temperature of –15oC. Rainfall varies from 1,500 mm to 2,000mm, elevation range mainly 600-800m a.s.l. Outside these limits, depending on soil conditions, P. massoniana can grow at lower or higher elevation. In some provinces of North Vietnam, P. massoniana was planted at 300-1,500m a.s.l and this species still grows well with rather high productivity. P. massoniana is adapted to many different soil types such as soil generated on acidic magma and sandstone, hill soil generated on clay stone, and metamorphic rocks, steep and gentle slopes. In general this species grows well on loose, porous, well-water-drained soil with soil layer thickness over 40cm, pH 4.5-5.5. Due to being planted long ago and widely adapted to conditions in Vietnam, P. massoniana is considered as an acclimatized “native” species. 3/ Uses Wood is pale yellow in colour, heartwood with red veins, sapwood is whitish, wood fibre long and straight, fine surface, oily smell. With high cellulose content, wood of P. massoniana is used for paper raw material, mine props (due to high strength and little attack by termites and wood borers), household utensils (as easy planing, sticking to paint and varnish). Besides, P. massoniana also provides turpentine used in industry. Sapwood and heartwood are distinct, fragrant. Annual rings are conspicuous and clear-cut, 3-6mm wide. Early and late wood distinct, late wood usually represents only 1/5 the width of annual ring. Under X10 lens, tracheids are clearly seen. Rays are of two width degrees. Normal rays are small and narrow. The ray crossed long vessel is swollen at the crossing point. There is usually one vessel crossing a ray. There are scattered vessels along the tracheids of spring and autumn wood. Tracheid is 1.7mm long on the average. The wood is medium in hardness and weight; specific density of dry wood is 640kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient is 0.55. Saturation point of wood grain: 7kg/cm. Collision bending coefficient 0.48. Pressure strength along the grain 500kg/cm2, static bending strength 780kg/cm2. Splitting strength 7kg/cm. P. massoniana wood can be used in ordinary construction, indoor structure, boxes and crates making as well as for furniture and paper pulp. 4/ Evaluation of P. massoniana plantation P. massoniana has been planted in many places in North Vietnam, mainly in the North East: Quang Ninh, Lang Son and Thai Nguyen provinces and in the North West: Hoa Binh and Son La provinces; in the Mid-region: Yen Bai and Lao Cai provinces and great success has been achieved. In many regions, concentrated areas of thousands of hectares of planted P. massoniana have reached exploitation age supplying raw material for industry and mine-props. Simple sowing and planting techniques have been drawn from many years with specific procedures for different ecological zones. P. massoniana is adaptable to many soil types from soil generated on acidic magma and sandstone, hill soil generated on claystone and metamorphic rocks, steep and gentle slopes. In general this species grows well on loose, porous soil with good water drainage, soil layer depth over 40cm, pH 4.5-5.5. Depending on definite regions planting can be successful with ball or bare-rooted seedlings. Usually seedlings 6-8 month old, 18-25cm high, root-collar diameter 4-5mm are used in planting. * In some main regions with large planting areas, results achieved are as follows: · In Bac Can and Thai Nguyen: P. massoniana has been much planted in low and medium hill areas with feralit

soil generated on acidic magma and sandstone, hill soil on clay stone and metamorphic rocks old alluvial terraces in Phu Binh, Dong Hy and Phu Luong districts. Many plantations are 10-20 years of age. Depending on tree age, timber stocking of the forest stands is from 50m3 to 200m3 /ha. In some areas on claystone and metamorphic rock with thick soil layer, low slopeness (15-25o), P. massoniana at 14 years old attains timber stocking upto 246m3/ha.

Timber stocking of P. massoniana of some forest stands in Thai Nguyen is as follows:

Page 1 of 3

It can be seen that P. massoniana is well adaptable to low hill and mountain areas with gently slopes. Timber stocking of the forest at 15 years of age can attain 174-264m3/ha. In general P. massoniana in these areas grows luxuriantly and is not inferior to some other planted tree species and superior to Pinus merkusi of the same age. · In some other planting areas of Lang Son province such as plantations in Long Dau, Tu Mich and Loi Bac with

low and medium mountain, soil generated on claystone, P. massoniana still attains increment of 10-15m3/ha/yr. Here there are some plantations 30-40 years of age with timber stocking of over 250m3/ha that have been converted into seed stands, supplying seed for reforestation programmes all over the country. In these areas regeneration of P. massoniana is very strong, thin forest stands are expected to have the regeneration of 600-1,000 trees/ha. In some areas, natural regeneration of P. massoniana has grown into forest.

· A region with successful, concentrated planting of P. massoniana in North Vietnam is Mu Cang Chai-Yen Bai. 10,000 ha of P. massoniana was planted in this district and resulted in changed ecological conditions in the region formerly known as a region of bare land and denuded hills.

Concentrated areas of P. massoniana are in some communes such as Pung Luong, Na Pan Tan, Ze Xu Phinh, Nam Khat planted by Pung Luong State forest enterprise. Area of successful plantations is 3,173 ha. Natural area occupied by this enterprise is 16,702 ha. This is a hunge high mountain area lying on the western side of Hoang Lien Son mountain range with dissected topography, steep slopes 20-40o, average elevation 1,500m a.s.l (Highest elevation is 2,498m; lowest elevation is 1,300m). Area planted with P. massoniana mainly lies at 1,300-1,500m elevation, mean annual temperature 18.7oC, rainfall 1,813mm/yr. Over 3,000 ha of P. massoniana here grows very well. Mean annual increments of diameter, height, volume are 1.1cm, 1m and 12-17m3/ha respectively. One P. massoniana stand 20 years of age in Pung Luong had growth rate and the regeneration layer under forest canopy as follows (Lam Phuc Co, 1976).

In stands without thinning, forest cover 0.6-0.7 and over, there is almost no regenerated indigenous species under forest canopy. But in plots of planted P. massoniana near secondary forest with rational thinning to reduce the forest cover to 0.4, some indigenous species did regenerate under the canopy. This is a very important feature of P. massoniana plantation. It opens up a possibility of converting pure pine plantation into mixed forest of pine and broad-leaved species aimed at improvement of ecological condition of the area especially with the area of forest planting serving the protection objective as Mu Cang Chai. There need be however further investigation in what conditions broad-leaved species can regenerate, how thinning must be done to best promote the regeneration of broad-leaved species and how the regenerated species can be tended and maintained so that they can quickly join the species in main forest canopy. · Some remarks. + Although P. massoniana is naturally distributed in definite ecological conditions but when being planted it proves to be adaptable to rather wide ecological range. From low hill regions to high mountain areas in North Vietnam mountainous regions, P. massoniana can all be planted with rather good results. + P. massoniana is capable of rather strong regeneration. In the area around P. massoniana plantations, regeneration gradually spreads and the regeneration area is greater and greater if there is no destruction by man and domestic animals. The regeneration takes place right on earthen cliffs and high up rocky mountain sides, providing a good soil cover for soil conservation. + The protection function of P. massoniana forest is weaker than that of broad-leaved forest. However, broad-leaved species can regenerate under the canopy of P. massoniana forest if the forest is properly thinned, rationally regulating the forest cover. P. massoniana is also tolerant of poor soil thus can be used as a species for partly improving the environment, creating favourable conditions for regeneration of some other broad-leaved species. + In high mountain region, cool climate is highly suitable for planting of P. massoniana . Here diseases and harmful insects rarely give rise to epidemics. 5/ Recommendation · Pushing ahead the planting of this species even on low and high mountains in North Vietnam, creating of raw

material areas. In upper region planning must be directed to the use of resin and creating protection forest in areas of poor soil.

· Using soil with humus under pine forest for pot mixture, creating mycorrhiza for good growth of the trees, diminishing pathological fungi.

Localities Soil types Slopeness (o) Age (year)

Density (trees/ha)

Increment (m3/ha/yr)

Timber stocking (m3/ha)

Dai Tu Low mountain on acidic magma and sandstone

15 25

25 15

2,174 1,500

11.6 9.0

174 135

Dong Hy Nam Phu Luong

Hill soil on claystone and metamorphic rock

15-25

14

1,100

17.6

246.4

Nam Dong Hy Phu Binh

Hill soil on claystone and metamorphic rock

25 35 25 15

15 9 7 15

1,425 1,724 2,512 2,165

7.5 5.0 4.7 14.1

112.5 45.00 32.90 211.5

Mountain foot Mountain side Mountain top Species D (cm) H (m) Forest

cover D (cm) H (m) Forest

cover D (cm) H (m) Forest

cover 1 P.

massoniana 30.13 24.27 0.41 18.13 20.28 0.4 18.12 19.21 0.42

2 Other regenerated indigenous species

2.66 2.97 0.2 3.08 6.81 0.2 2.35 2.47 0.2

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· Attention must be paid to control of needle wilting disease and Dendrolimus punctatus epidemic · In protection areas after protection forest with P. massoniana has been established it is necessary to study on the

gradual conversion from pure to mixed forest with regeneration promotion measures or enrichment planting with indigenous broad-leaved species to have forest structure of good protection function and sustainable.

References

1. Lam Phuc Co, 1996: Research on some measures to establish upstream protection forest at Pung Luong State

forest enterprise, Mu Cang Chai, Yen Bai (Doctoral thesis)

2. Techniques of seed and seed sowing for some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House, 1995

3. Nguyen Xuan Quat, Trinh Khac Muoi, Vien Ngoc Hung, Tran Quang Viet, Cao Tho Ung, 1996: Evaluation of the potentiality of various soil types and increment of forest plantation species and models of sloping

agricultural land techniques in Bac Thai.

4. Science Department, Ministry of Forestry, 1994: Techniques of planting of some forest tree species.

Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi. Back to main page Next>>

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DIPTEROCARPUS ALATUS Vietnamese name: Dau nuoc Other name: Dau con rai Scientific name: Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb Family: Dipterocarpaceae 1/ Morphological description: Large timber species, upto 40m high. Stem straight, cylindrical, high branching. Diameter at breast height upto 2m. Bark grey thick, when mature with deep and wide cracks. Epidermis peeled in large patches. Leaves: simple, alternate, stipule caducous, leaf blade ovoid, clovate, upper surface glabrous, lower surface pale green, tomentose. Leaf 16-20cm long, 8-10cm wide. Inflorescence axillary, apical, calyx persistent with two sepals 12-15cm long, 3-5cm wide, 3 veins at the base. Fruit globular, 2-3cm in diameter, green when young, turning brownish red when ripe. Flowering season November-December. Fruiting season April-May. 2/ Ecological conditions · Climatic conditions: - Mean annual rainfall 1,500-2,200mm. - Mean annual temperature: 25-27oC. - Average relative humidity: 75-85% - Dry season in 4-6 months. · Edaphic conditions D. alatus prefers thick, moist soil layer, soil texture from light loam to medium loam, tolerant of little water-logging in a short period. The same as Hopea odorata and Anisoptera costata, D. alatus is suitable to grey soils on old alluvium and feralit on mica schist or granite, soil relatively poor in humus, pH H20: 5-6, topography: flat. · Plant community: D. alatus is usually found in transitional belt from closed, moist, broad leaved, evergreen forest type to dry, deciduous, monsoon forest type. In the forest D. alatus together with H. odorata, A. costata form an “ecological group” of dipterocarp species. Sometimes they form pure dipterocarp patch (Tan Phu, Dong Nai). D. alatus crowns make up a separate storey (ecologically dominant or emergent storey). · Distribution range: + In the world: South East Asian countries: The Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia... + In Vietnam: rather wide distribution range from Quang Binh to Tay Ninh, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc including provinces in the Central Highlands such as Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Dak Lak, Lam Dong, but most concentrated area is Eastern South Vietnam 3/ Uses: Wood is bright in colour, sapwood and heartwood distinct. Wood is used for veneer production and in construction. Resin is white in colour, resquitepire represents 50-70% and can replace colophony in point, varnish, printing ink industries. Price of round wood at present in the world is USD 1,500-2,000/m3. Sapwood greyish pink, heartwood pink. Annual rings are not conspicuous. Simple vessels scattered, large vessel diameter, number of vessels per 1mm2 few. There is usually a pinkish brown or white substance inside the vessel. Rays with two different widths. Parenchyma scattered and gather into interrupted narrow strips. Paratracheal parenchyma scanty. Wood fibre: tracheid form, 1.1-1.4mm long, thick wall, scattered resin conducting ducts. Wood medium hardness and weight; specific density of dry wood: 780kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.51. Grain saturation point 26%. Pressure strength along the grain 586kg/cm2. Collision bending strength 0.6 Wood can be used for structure requiring good strength, mainly in construction, communication and transport 4/ Evaluation of D. alatus plantation:

� General remark: Results of models established in some ecological zones

Planting system Agroforestry (mixed with Coffee)

Agroforestry (mixed with Mandarin)

Pure planting Pure planting

General information

*Data collection

La Nga forest enterprise 4, Dong Nai

La Nga forest enterprise 3, Dong Nai

Duong Minh, Chau Tay Ninh

Trang Bom, Dong Nai

*Area of model 4 ha 3 ha 15 ha 1 ha *Technical

design N/ha: 600 trees (4x4m)

N/ha: 400 trees (5x5m)

2,000 trees/ha (3x3m)

600 trees/ha (4x4m)

*Climate

Page 1 of 3

-Mean annual rainfall

2,000mm 2,000mm 1,800mm 2,000mm

-Mean annual To

27oC 27oC 26oC 27oC

* Edaphic conditions

Sites -Soil type Tuf basalt Tuf basalt Grey, on old alluvium

Grey, on old alluvium

-Soil layer depth (cm)

30-50 30-50 > 100 > 100

-pH 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-6 4.5-5.5 -Humus content

(%) 1.2-1.8 1.2-1.8 2-2.5 2-3

-Vegetation before planting

Savanna of grasses and bushes

Depleted secondary forest

Eucalypt + Acacia

Savanna of grasses and bushes

* Age 10 9 16 20 * H (m) 14.11 14.45 16.62 19.21 * DH (m) 1.41 1.61 1.04 0.96 Increment * D 18.4 18.8 219.2 32.96 * DD (cm) 1.8 2.1 1.2 1.60 Remark on capability and prospect

Hardly to become forest as trees are gradually thinned providing light for Coffea

Hardly to become forest as the crown and branches are much cut to provide light for fruit trees

Forest is established, tree growth is normal differentiation takes place

Tree growth is very good, exploitation can be carried out at technologically mature age

Planting systems Mixed with

Acacia auriculiformis

Mixed with Coffea

Pure planting Mixed with Acacia auriculiformis

* Data collection location

Ma Da Forest Enterprise Dong Nai

Xuan Loc-Dong Nai

Xuyen Moc Loc Ninh-Binh Phuoc

General information

* Area of the model

31 ha 58 ha

*Technical design

400 trees/ha (5x5m)

280 trees/ha (5x7m)

1,100 trees/ha (3x3,5m)

400 trees/ha (5x5m)

*Climate -Mean annual

rainfall 2,000mm 2,000mm 1,800mm 2,000mm

-Mean annual To

27oC 27oC 27oC 26oC

* Edaphic conditions

-Soil type Grey, degraded Grey on old alluvium

Grey on old alluvium

Grey on old alluvium

-Soil layer depth (cm)

100 100 100 100

-pH 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 -Humus

content (%) 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3

Sites -Vegetation before planting

Savanna with grasses and bushes

Savanna with grasses and bushes

Acacia auriculiformis already exploited

Savanna with grasses and bushes

* Age 15 16 13 11 * H (m) 3.67 17.34 11.67 8.43 * DH (m) 0.24 1.02 0.83 0.77 Increment * D 5.94 30.20 19.93 14.66 * DD (cm) 0.37 1.86 1.42 1.33 Remark on capability and prospect

No prospect to become forest, growth very poor

High possibility to become forest normal tree growth

High possibility to become forest, medium tree growth

High possibility to become forest, medium tree growth

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Due to seriously abused exploitation, ecosystem of dipterocarps in Eastern South Vietnam is almost destroyed. Before 1975 there was an intention to replant 6000 ha of D. alatus and Dalbergia cochinchinensis but due to the war the intention failed. After 1975 thousands of hectares of D. alatus have been planted by State forest enterprises: Duong Minh Chau (Tay Ninh), Ma Da, La Nga etc. with various planting systems such as industrial plantation, forest improvement, forest enrichment, agroforestry etc... Many models were considered successful on large scale such as 300ha of plantation in Xuan Son-Chau Duc (Ba Ria Vung Tau). In Dong Nai alone there are over 1200 ha of plantation. It is advisable to plant D. alatus on grey soil on old alluvium with pure planting system on large areas or in bands 15-30m wide. D. alatus should not be planted with agroforestry system, because people prunned severely D.alatus for growth of coffee. 5/ Recommendation: · Seed and planting material - Results of vegetative propagation by cuttings show that the ratio of rooted cuttings is very high, > 75% thus

mass production of ramets is possible to serve forest planting programmes. - D. alatus is a species with annual flowering and fruiting but sources of seed supply are not many, the main one

is still from Ho Chi Minh City. - Seed quickly loses its germinability (after 10-15 days, germination rate can be reduced to 50%) thus seed must

be sown right after collection. · Planting site: Most suitable is grey soil on old alluvium, flat topography with bushes and grasses vegetation or depleted secondary forest. · Forest planting technique: a/ Fruit collection season: In March –April when the fruits turn from green colour into dark green. Fruit can be collected right on the tree or after their falling on the ground. Fruit must be collected in time otherwise they will be rotten or destroyed by insects. b/ Seedlings production: After taken home the fruit must have their sepals removed and then are immersed in warm water in about 5-6 hours. The seeds are then washed clean, incubated by straw to sprout and then sown in PE pots (15-20cm) with pot mixture of which 80-85% is nursery soil, 15-20% decomposed farm yard manure. Standard of seedlings to be planted: 12-14 month old, mean height 0.6-0.8m. c/ Planting technique: D. alatus can be planted as pure plantation under the crowns of Indigofera teysmanii with initial density of 1,000 trees/ha (3x3m) or 600 trees/ha (4x4m). Seven-ten years later, thinning will be carried out leaving a final density of about 280-300 trees/ha (4x8m or 6x6m). D. alatus needs slight shading in early stage of the plantation. Cassia seamea or Indigofera teysmanii are very suitable as support species. Forest planting must be done right after the first rains of the rainy season (June-July) with the provinces of South Vietnam. d/ Tending techniques: Tending is carried out in 7 successive years: - First year to third year ( 2 times in a year one before the rainy season) and another after the rainy season;

mainly weeding, breaking hard span, cutting of liana. - 4th-5th years: thinning the shoots, shaping the stem.

- 6th and 7th years: thinning, opening the canopy, regulating the density (final density about 280-300 trees/ha). - Besides there must be measures for fire control in dry season. References:

1. Vu Biet Linh, Bui Doan: Intensive management of natural forest. State research subject KHCN 03-02 (1990-1995).

2. Methods of Hopea odorata-Dipterocarpus alatus-Anisoptera cochinchinensis planting. Forest Scientific and Technical Information South Vietnam. Forest Science Sub-Institute (1983).

3. Science and Technology Department. Ministry of Forestry, 1994. Techniques of planting some forest tree species.

4. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1980. Forest tree species of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House.

Back to main page Next>>

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HOPEA ODORATA Vietnamese name: Sao den Scientific name: Hopea odorata Roxb Family: Dipterocarpaceae 1/ Morphological description Large-sized tree species, upto 30-40m high. Stem cylindrical, straight, no buttress. Diameter atb breast height, can be upto 80cm. Bark black in colour, cracks along the stem when mature, epidermis peeled in large patches. Branching is not as high as Dipterocarpus alatus. Leaves single, alternate, oblong or lanceslate, 3-6cm wide, 8-14cm long, leaf blade dark green, veins conspicuous on lower surface, stellate tomentose on both surface. Inflorescence paniculate axillary or apical, flowers white, bisexual, stamens 15-19, calyx 5 sepals 2 develop into wings. Flowering season February-March, fruiting season April-May. 2/ Ecological characteristics · Climate conditions: - Mean annual rainfall 1,500-2,000mm. - Mean annual temperature: 25-27oC. - Average annual relative humidity: 75-85%. - Dry season lasts 4-6 months. · Edaphic conditions: Good growth is on grey soil on old alluvium, feralit on mica schist, granite or red basalt soil. Soils in distribution range of Hopea odorata are usually of thick layer, good, well water-drained, humus content 2-3%, pH H2O: 5.5-6.5. · Plant community: Hopea odorata usually grows in patches mixed with dipterocarps: D. alatus, Anisoptera cochinchinensis, Diptercarpus intricatusi and a number of leguminous species such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia kylocarpa, Dalbergia cochinchinensis. They usually concentrate in the low lying areas, banks of mountain streams. · Distribution range + In the world: Dipterocarpaceae is an endemic family in the South East Asia: The Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia. + In Vietnam: Main distribution range is South Vietnam especially the Eastern South Vietnam. 3/ Uses: Sapwood and heartwood distinct, sapwood is pale yellow, heartwood pale brownish yellow. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 3-6mm wide, sometimes upto 10mm. Vessels single, scattered, double and short vessels rare, vessel diameter: medium, number of vessels per 1mm2: average. Inside the vessel there is usually tylosis or a coloured substance. Wood fibres small and narrow. Parenchyma scattered and aggregate, sometimes in narrow interrupted bands; paratracheal parenchyma scanty. Wood fibres tracheal, 1.3-1.8mm long. Resin conducting tubes scattered or aggregate into interrupted tangents. Wood is medium in hardness and weight, specific density of dry wood 740kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.45. Fibre saturation point 18%. Pressure strength along the grain 647kg/cm3, static bending strength 1,635 kg/cm3. Splitting strength 16kg/cm. Collision bending strength 0.97. H. odorata wood has sufficient strong points satisfying the requirements in ship building for sea travel, structure requiring good strength, mainly in construction and communication and transport. 4/ Evaluation of H. odorata plantation: General remark: Before 1975, H. odorata was one of the dipterocarp species much desired in home country as well as in the world. In early XX century, H. odorata was planted as trial in Ha Noi (the trees remain now in Lo Duc street). H. odorata was planted in Ekmat (Dak Lak). After 1975 H. odorata was used in forest planting on large scale and was planted in State forest enterprises such as Ma Da, La Nga, Xuyen Moc, Tan Phu etc.. But upto now only models in Ekmat or Xuan Loc (Ba Ria, Vung Tau) remain most successful. In other locations tree growth is slow, even too slow in some places, with damage by diseases and insects such as in La Nga 4 (Dong Nai) Forest enterprise. In the whole Dong Nai province there are about 2,700 ha and in Ba Ria –Vung Tau there are 350ha of H. odorata plantation. Results of models established in some ecological zones

Planting system Agroforestry Pure planting Pure planting Pure planting General information

* Location of data collection

Forest enterprise La Nga 4 Dong Nai

Forest enterprise La Nga 3 Dong Nai

Ma Da Forest enterprise Dong Nai

Trang Bom Dong Nai

* Area evaluated 2 ha mixed with coffee

3ha 3ha 3ha

* Technical design N/ha =280 trees (6x6m)

1000 trees/ha (3x3m)

N/ha=600 trees (4x4m)

N/ha=2500 trees (2x2m)

*Climate -Mean annual rainfall 2000mm 2000mm 2000mm 2000mm Site -Mean annual To 27oC 27oC 27oC 27oC * Edaphic conditions -Soil type Reddish brown

feralit on basalt Reddish brown feralit on basalt

Grey, on old alluvium

Grey, on old alluvium

Page 1 of 3

It is advisable to plant H. odorata on grey soil, old alluvium or secondary forest soil with forest cover still remained. Planting system is pure planting or mixed planting with D. alatus or Indigofera teysmenii. Planting system should not be agroforestry systems. 5/ Recommendation: * Seed: - H. odorata is a dipterocarp species with annual flowering and fruiting and seed supply source for forest planting

plans is rather stable. - H. odorata seed loses its germinability very quickly (10-15 days after collection, germination rate can be reduced to

50%) thus after collection the seed should be treated by immersion in water to sprout and then sown in seed bed. The seedlings are planted in P.E pots (15x20cm). Pot mixture composition is soil of surface layer (75-80%) and decomposed farmyard manure (15-20%).

- H. odorata is one of the dipterocarp species that have high ratio of rooted cuttings in vegetative propagation by cuttings. That is why this method can be applied in supplying planting material for forest planting.

· Planting site: H. odorata grows and develop well in tropical climate conditions with distinct rainy and dry seasons, on grey soil on old alluvium and brownish red basalt soil with vegetation type being depleted secondary forest, below 800m a.s.l. It is better to

-Soil depth (cm) 70-100 70 70 100 -pH 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 -Humus content (%) » 3% 2-3% 2-3% 2-3% *Vegetation before

forest planting Fallow land after eucalypt exploitation

Bare land +savanna +bushes

Depleted secondary forest

Waste land +savanna +bushes

* Age 15 15 14 15 * H (m) 14.13 14.82 14.52 15.14 Increment * DH (m) 0.94 0.99 1.01 1.01 * D (cm) 15.45 15.49 14.56 14.85 *DD (cm) 1.03 1.03 1.04 0.99 Remarks on results

and prospect No forest is formed as pruning is too much for providing light for coffee

Slow growth due to lack of tending and thinning ( H. odorata is brought to bare hill too early)

Medium growth, closed young forest timely thinning is needed

Poor growth due to lack of thinning and irrational density (too high density)

Planting system Mixed with Acacia auriculiformis

Mixed with Acacia auriculiformis

Mixed with Acacia auriculiformis

Pure planting

General information

* Location of data collection

Tan Uyen Duong Minh Chau Chau Duc Xuyen Moc

* Area of the model

* Technical design 400 trees /ha (5x5m)

400 trees/ha (5x5m)

500 trees /ha (4x5m)

2000 trees/ha (2x2.5m)

*Climate -Mean annual

rainfall 1800mm 1800mm 1350mm 1350mm

Site -Mean annual To 26oC 26oC 27.2oC 27.2oC * Edaphic

conditions

-Soil type Feralit on mica schist

Grey, on old alluvium

Old alluvium Old alluvium

-Soil depth (cm) 70 100 100 100 -pH 4-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 -Humus content

(%) 2-3% 2-3% 2-3% 2-3%

*Vegetation before forest planting

Acacia auriculiformis plantation

Bare land, savanna, bushes

Bare land, savanna, bushes

Bare land, savanna, bushes

* Age 18 6 19 17 * H (m) 11.34 3.0 20.54 19.12 Increment * DH (m) 0.63 0.50 1.08 1,12 * D (cm) 24.17 9.36 24.82 19.28 *DD (cm) 1.34 1.56 1.30 1.13 Remarks on results

and prospect Fast diameter increment low height increment. Trees: normal

Normal growth young forest canopy closure is under way

Good growth forest established

Good growth, young forest with closed canopy

Page 2 of 3

plant H. odorata in areas with deep soil layer, moist, good soil, good water drainage. · Planting techniques: - Seed collection season: - In April-May when the coat of the fruit turns from green to yellow. It is best to collect the seed in the middle of fruit

falling season. (In this period the fruits are usually full and ripe in great numbers). * Seedlings production: H. odorata the same as D.alatus and Anisoptera cochinchinensis if planting is done right after seed collection and sowing, the seedlings are still too young and meagre (seed collection is in April-May-planting season July-August). Thus it is necessary to maintain the seedlings in the nursery at least in 12 months (height of standard seedlings is 0.8-1.0m). - Planting method: H. odorata can be planted in entire area (industrial plantation) but the soil must be good, moist (alluvial deposit along river bank or flat land at mountain foot and in the valley). Besides H. odorata can also be planted in patches or bands (15-30m wide), average density 600 trees/ha (4x4m)-1000 trees/ha (3x3m) so that final density after thinning is 300-400 trees/ha. In the early growing period, H. odorata needs a slight shading. Thus Indigofera teysmaniiI and Cassia siamea are best used as support species. (Usually support trees are used in the first 2-3 years of the plantation). - Tending, protection: Tending is done in 7 consecutive years till canopy closure: + In the first 3 years (forest tending twice yearly, one before the rainy season, another after the rainy season) mainly weeding, heaping soil to tree base, loosing the hardpan, liana cutting. + Fourth and fifth years: Shoot thinning, stem shaping, canopy opening for growth promotion. + Seventh-eighth year: thinning, providing growing space. + Besides there must be measures for fire control in dry season. References:

1. Nguyen Minh Duong, 1985: Preliminary results of Dipterocarpus alatus and H. odorata planting system. Scientific and Technical Information, South Vietnam (No. 2-1985).

2. Soil, light conditions and forest planting system with H. odorata, Dipterocarpus alatus, Anisoptera cochinchinensis. Scientific and Technical Information, South Vietnam (No. 6-1981).

3. Scientific and Technological Department, Ministry of Forestry. Planting techniques of some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House.

4. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute. Forest tree species of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House. Back to main page Next>>

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PAULOWNIA FORTUNEI Vietnamese name: Hong Other name: Cay Bao dong (Kinh ethnic group); May djooc (Tay ethnic group); May khang (Nung ethnic group); Tong dang lang (H’Mong ethnic group). Scientific name: Paulownia fortunei (Seem) Hemsl. Family: Serophulariaceae 1/ Morphological description: Species of the genus Paulownia have grey, brown or white bark. Leaves widely scattered. Almost all parts of the tree except old branches are covered with hairs having mucous glands; thick hairs with many nodes, tree-shaped hairs or stellate hairs. Almost all species of Paulownia genus have symmetrical branches. P. fortunei is rather distinct in that the terminal buds sometimes develop into new branches. On young trees leaf blade is very large, rounded and thick, upto 40-50cm wide, 50-60cm long. Leaves of mature trees are smaller, oblong, length of leaf blade can be two times its width, leaf margin entire or undulate. Inflorescence racemose, each cluster 2-5 flowers, pedicel or node: terminal, calyx fleshy, campanulate, 5-lobed uneven. Lobes are triangular, usually covered with thick tomentose. Corolla large, purplish red to pinkish white, bilabellate. Two lobes of upper labella and two long lobes of lower labella. Perianth campanulate, curved 5-7mm at the base then gradually widened. In inner face of petals there are usually purplish red spots and yellow wrinkles. Stamens are half the length of petals. Pistils are as long as or a bit longer than stamens. Ovary 2 celled. Fruit ovoid or elliptical. According to description in available taxonomical documents and in comparison with plant specimens in our country, Vu Van Can and Tran Quang Viet have identified the species as P. fortunei (Seem) Hemsl. 2/ Ecological characteristics: P. fortunei is naturally distributed and grows well in regions of 300-1500m a.s.l elevation, mean annual rainfall 1500-1884mm, mean annual temperature 18-23.5oC. Mean temperature of hottest month 28-32oC with 1-2 dry months but no drought or only one month of drought in a year (where monthly rainfall is less than mean monthly temperature). P. fortunei grows on feralit soil generated on gneis, mica schist, sandstone, basalt, the soil is still rather good, humus content of the surface soil layer 2-3%, soil texture light to medium. Soil layer depth is over 60cm, loose and porous, good water permeability and drainage. P. fortunei is not suitable to compact soil, denuded, degenerated and stony soil or laterite. 3/ Uses: P. fortunei wood light, bright in colour with fine veins, easily kiln-dried, easy carving, easy processing, little curved and twisted, little attacked by termites and wood borers thus it is very suitable for making ordinary furniture, carved articles, musical instruments. Wood is pale yellow in colour. Annual rings distinct, usually 5-8 mm wide, sometimes upto 15mm. Wood is soft, light, specific density of dry wood 384kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.45. Fibre saturation point 25%. Pressure strength along the grain 206kg/cm2, static bending strength 583kg/cm2. Splitting strength 4.6kg/cm. Collision bending strength 1.00. P. fortunei wood can be used for making ordinary furniture, stationery, paper pulp and wood chips production. P. fortunei must not be used for structure requiring high strengths. It can be used for structure resistant to collision and vibration. Besides P. fortunei is characterized by deep root system, concentrated in deep layer and therefore suitable for establishment of agroforestry systems. China- a nation of large territory-has found for itself species of Paulownia genus (consisting of 9 species naturally distributed in China) for wide planting in many regions in a rather large area (1,800,000 ha), mainly in agroforestry systems (mixed with agricultural crops). There are also species of this genus that are naturally distributed in some countries and territories such as Japan, Laos, Vietnam, Taiwan. P. fortunei is an important tree species and is one of the 2 species of fastest growth of Paulownia genus. P. fortunei grows rather fast as compared with some other planted tree species. In some regions in China 10 years after planting the trees attain mean height of 16-20m, mean breast-high diameter 35-40cm, tree volume 0.5m3/tree. This is a species suitable for planting in agroforestry system, scattered planting along the roads, canals, around offices, schools, creating suitable scenery for living environment at the same time serving as a source of material on the spot for the people. In China, growth of P. fortunei and P. elongata in some localities is as follows:

Species Planting localities

Age (year)

Diameter (cm)

Height (m)

Volume (m3)

Latitude Longitude

P. fortunei Szechuan province

75 134.4 44.0 22.48 28o06’ 108o54’

P. fortunei Szechuan province

31 100.5 21.7 6.65 28o06’ 108o55’

P. fortunei Quangtzy province

11 75.1 22.0 3.69 25o00’ 109o50’

P. fortunei Quang Chau province

80 202 49.5 34.0 26o13’ 108o45’

P. fortunei Wu Gueng 5 14.7 9.3 0.0433 34o26’ 107o42’ P. elongata Ho Nam

province 19 104 17.1 4.81 34o51’ 115o50’

P. elongata Ho Nam province

18 73 17.5 2.50 34o50’ 115o56’

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4/ Evaluation of P. fortunei plantation: P. fortunei has been experimentally planted in many areas in the country where the conditions are similar to as well as different from those in its natural distribution range. Results show that with types of degraded soil such as laterite (Ba Vi –Ha Tay) degraded basalt soil with prolonged dry season (Pleiku), ordinary planting methods all resulted in failure. In the first year the trees might grow normally but afterwards they did poorly develop and gradually got stunted in dry season, died or survived but with no growth. Experimental site is in Lon hamlet, Nai valley, Hoa Binh province, elevation: 164-300m a.s.l, vegetation is bushes mixed with a few pioneer tree species and Saccharum arundinaceum. Planting density 1600 trees/ha. Experimental plots are separated by Tephrosia candida rows serving soil erosion control and environment improvement. Mixed planting with maize is carried out in early stage. Soil is feralit generated on mica schist, soil layer medium depth. Formulae of manure application at planting: 1kg/tree, microbiotic fertilizer 500g/tree, NPK (5-10-3) 100g/tree. Land preparation is done by hand labour, vegetation cutting and moving, planting holes digging 40x40x30cm. Planting is done in early July. In Ba Vi, experimental planting is done in land area owned by the Research Centre for Forest Tree Improvement. The soil generated on old alluvium has gone through a rotation of planted eucalypt. The soil is degenerated and laterite is found at some places. Mechanized land preparation is carried out with total ploughing. Pure planting of P. fortunei is done at spacing of 3x3m at a site in Dan Chu commune. Soil layer is medium, generated on mica schist. Vegetation is high bushes mixed with a few regenerated trees of some species such as Peltephorum dasyrhachis, Erythrophloeum fordii, Phoebe pallida... Land preparation is done by hand labour. Vegetation cutting and moving, planting holes digging: 40x40x30cm. Planting is done in April. Seedlings to be planted are upto the standard: 30-35cm high, diameter at the base 5-6mm. Mixed planting of P. fortunei and Thea simensis in Thanh Son and Long Phu tea companies, Thea sinensis is over 10-year old. Mixed planting of P. fortunei is done at 5m spacing along the roads and 10x10m spacing in T. sinensis plantation. Soil layer is medium in depth, generated on mica schist. P. fortunei is planted mixed with other indigenous species on feralit soil generated on mica schist, medium soil layer. Mixed planting species are Peltophorum dasyrhachis, Chukrasia tabularis. Tephrosia candida bands are planted around the experimental plots, row spacing: 3m, trees spacing 2m. The formulae are couples of species: P. fortunei- Peltophorum dasyrhachis, P. fortunei-Chukrasia tabularis, pure planting of P. fortunei. Agricultural crops are mixed planted in the first year: hill rice, maize. Mixed planting with coffee is done in the Tropical Forest Centre in July, 1997 on thick soil layer, generated on granite. Growth of planted species with different planting systems

· Remarks: It can be seen that in two mixed plantation models with Thea sinensis and coffee, growth of P. fortunei is highly promising. Mean annual diameter increment is 3.7cm and 7cm; mean annual height increment is 2.39m and 2.43m. Mixed planting with coffee on granite soil with thick soil layer in Gia Lai gives best growth. Planting was done in July 1997 and data collection was in November 2000. Forty months after planting mean diameter of P. fortunei attains 23.16cm and mean height 8.09m. coffee at 5 years of age, density 1100 trees/ha (3x3m) yields 16 tons fresh fruit /ha. P. fortunei was planted in July 1997, spacing in the row was 7m. If 100 trees are planted per hectare, the distance between two rows of P. fortunei is 20m and there will be 330 trees suffering from the shading by P. fortunei crowns. At present average diameter of tree crowns is 5.88m. The area of a tree crown is 27.15m2 and a cover of 27.15% will be created if there are 100 trees per hectare. Observation on coffee productivity on either side of P. fortunei row shows that yield of a coffee tree shaded by P. fortunei decreases 1.51kg as compared with a tree suffering no shading (mean yield of a shaded tree is 16.78kg of fruit, mean yield of a tree 30m far from P. fortunei row is 18.29kg/tree). Apart from the above-mentioned planting systems, P. fortunei is also planted scatteringly around houses in the plain. The number of trees is not great but good prospect is expected. Three and half years after planting some trees have diameter over 30cm, height over 10m. In some places of poor soil as on the laterite in Ba Vi-Ha Tay, with fertilizer application in the first year after planting, growth of P. fortunei is not poorer than in other sites but after a dry season, some trees died, other grew poorer and gradually died. In areas planted by the people themselves on degraded basalt soil in Gia Lai, the results were the same:

Growth of planted species with different planting systems P. P. P. P. fortunei in mixed planting Age Observed

indices fortunei pure planting

fortunei mixed with tea

fortunei mixed with coffee

P. fortunei Chukrasia tabularis

Peltophorum dasyrhachis

D (cm) 4.16 2.46 3.16 9 month SD (cm) 1.20 0.49 0.80 old H (m) 1.39 0.86 2.58 0.70 1.97 SH (m) 0.11 0.09 0.58 0.12 0.31

18 month

D (cm) 5.16 6.63 4.79

old SD (cm) 1.05 1.23 0.71 H (m) 5.90 4.42 4.06 1.88 3.01 SH (m) 1.12 0.70 1.10 0.42 0.53

D (cm) 12.6 12.57 23.16 40 month SD (cm) 2.21 3.75 6.39 old H (m) 10.11 7.97 8.09 SH (m) 1.39 1.02 1.54

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almost all the trees died after a prolonged dry season. In a trial planting in this region, 18 months after planting, diameter and height of P. fortunei trees were only 3.82-5.22cm and 1.14-1.62m respectively. This is really a poor result. 5/ Recommendation: P. fortunei is an indigenous, broad-leaved species with light and white wood, rather fine texture and little attacked by termites and wood-borers. Results of research on physical and mechanical properties of wood of P. fortunei growing naturally in our country show that P. fortunei wood can be used in composite board and plywood industries. Besides P. fortunei wood can also be used in making ordinary furniture requiring no high strength. The distribution range of P. fortunei in Vietnam is rather large. It is found in border regions of North Vietnam and some provinces in the Mid-region of North Vietnam, thus research should be continued to have P. fortunei as a main planted tree species. Preliminary research results do not yet provide firm basis for wide planting of this species. Upto now no models of concentrated planting of P. fortunei are successful to be multiplied in production. Three or four years after planting almost all the trees grew poorly and many trees gradually died in dry season. In the first step P. fortunei can be planted in the direction of agroforestry systems, mixed with Thea sinensis or coffee or scatteringly around hamlets, at roadsides, along rice field bunds. References:

1. Tran Quang Viet, 1994: P. fortunei in Vietnam. 2. Tran Quang Viet, Vu Van Can, Trinh Khac Muoi, 1995: P. fortunei cultivation in Vietnam. 3. Tran Quang Viet, 1981: Interim review of the research subject: “ Research on supplementation of technical

measures and planting systems for P. fortunei”. 4. Chinese Academy of Forestry, 1995: Paulownia cultivation and utilization. 5. Jing, J.P. 2000: Paulownia Cultivation. Chinese forestry Press. 6. Zang Huaxin, 2000: Paulownia Breeding, Cultivation, Utilization and extension in China. 7. Zhu, Z.H. et al, 1991: Integrated efficacy and optimal models of Paulownia crop intercropping. Paulownia

and agroforestry, (1) 1-19. 8. Nguyen Thi Kim Huong, 2000: Contribution to P. fortunei cultivation in Gia Lai.

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TARRIETIA JAVANICA Vietnamese name: Huynh Scientific name: Tarrietia javanica Kost. Family: Sterculiaceae 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized tree species, height upto 30m. Stem rounded, straight, small buttress at tree base, bark silvery white, white and transparent sap, breast- high diameter can be upto 1m. Leaf: compound, like duck’s foot, with 3-5 leaflets, upper surface glabrous, lower surface silvery white, tomentose, 4-8cm wide, 12-17cm long. Flowers small monosexual, monoecious, paniculate, axillary, apical. Female flower has no corolla. Male flower with 10 stamens. Fruit flat, globular, 1-1.2cm in diameter. Wing of the fruit is 6-8cm long, 1.5-3cm wide, one seeded. Flowering season January-February. Fruit ripe in June-August. 2/ Ecological characteristics: * Climatic conditions: T. javanica is distributed and grows in regions with the following features: - Mean annual rainfall: 1800-2400mm. - Mean annual temperature: 23-25oC. - Average annual relative humidity: 80-85%. - Rainfall is concentrated in summer. * Edaphic conditions: T. javanica grows well on pale yellow feralit soils generated on acidic magma or mica schist, the soil is still good, moist, thick layer, well water-drained, humus content 1.5-3%, pH H2O: 5.5-6.5. *Plant community: T. javanica is widely distributed in primary and secondary forests especially concentrated in Quang Binh together with other species: Erythrophloeum fordii, Paranephelium spirei, Phoebe pallida, Knema corticosa etc. In the forest T. javanica joins these species in the ecologically dominant storey. * Distribution range: - In the world: According to document written by Paul Maurant (1965), T. javanica is distributed in Laos,

Cambodia and some South East Asian countries. - In Vietnam: T. javanica is distributed from Deo Ngang southwards to Dong Nai, Song Be and is even met in

Phu Quoc-Kien Giang. It is specially concentrated in Quang Binh (T. javanica can be considered as endemic species of Quang Binh).

3/ Uses: Sapwood and heartwood are distinct. Sapwood is pale pink, heartwood greyish pink. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 4-6mm wide, sometimes upto 11mm. Single and double vessels, scattered, usually with two distinct vessel widths. Number of vessels per 1mm2 is few. Wood rays with two distinct widths, alternate storied. Parenchyma scattered and aggregate. Colour of parenchyma is really that of wood surface. Fibres and small rays are alternate-storied. Wood is medium in hardness and weight, specific density of dry wood 640kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.45. Grain saturation point 26%. Pressure strength along the grain 612kg/cm2. Static bending strength 1480kg/cm2. Collision bending coefficient 1.10. T. javanica wood has many strong points satisfying the requirements in ship building. It can be used for structure requiring high strengths mainly in furniture making, communication and transport, construction, structure resistant to collision and vibration. 4/ Evaluation of T. javanica plantation: * General remark: T. javanica is considered one of the main indigenous tree species for reforestation in South Central Vietnam, especially in Quang Binh. After the liberation of South Vietnam in 1975, T. javanica was used in reforestation in Dong Ha (Quang Tri) and Quang Nam together with Acacia auriculiformis. Upto now the remained models of T. javanica plantation are not many. Most of the models have been destroyed due to main causes as follows: a/ Improper choice planting sites. For example in Khe Giua State forest enterprise (Quang Binh), T. javanica was planted right on bare land and denuded hills with Imperata cylindrica, Miscanthus japonicus while ecological characteristics of T. javanica is growing on deep layer of good and moist soil, good water drainage with a slight shading (30-50%) in early growing stage. b/ Standard of seedlings to be planted. The planted seedlings were too low (H 30-40cm) insufficient in competition for nutrients and water with weed species ( Imperata cylindrica, Miscanthus japonicus etc.). In many localities, forest planting was done with Tjavanica wild seedlings. The seedlings were not upto the standards in stem form as well as height that are required at initial stage. c/ Discontinued tending: Tending was usually carried out only in the first 3 years. The plantation was abandoned afterwards. In many places the planted trees were upto 3-4m high but growth began poorer and poorer due to competition of Imperata cylindrica, Miscanthus japonicus , bushes... d/ Lack unanimity in forest development orientation In many places T. javanica forests were destroyed (rehabilitated forest as well as plantation) for pine and coffee planting. At present Long Dai (Quang Binh province) can be considered as an area of most successful T. javanica plantation. It is advisable to plant T. javanica on pale yellow feralit soil generated on sandstone with forest improvement planting

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system in bands 15-30m or enrichment planting of depleted secondary forest. Agroforestry system should not be applied. Results of model establishment in some ecological zones

5/ Recommendation: * Seed: T. javanica is a rather fast growing species, abundant and rather stable seed source, (annual flowering). Seed storage can last 2-3 months. Besides T. javanica is easily planted (planting with bare-rooted seedlings, stumps or wild seedlings) thus forest planting plans with T. javanica meets no difficulties in seed and planting material supply. Results of propagation of T. javanica by cuttings by the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam show that ratio of rooted cuttings of T. javanica is rather high ³ 75%. This opens great prospect for supplying planting material for reforestation in the years to come. * Planting site T. javanica grows and develops well on feralit soil generated on acidic magma, sandstone, deep soil layer, abundance of nutrients. Thus T. javanica can be planted on depleted secondary forest soil. T. javanica planting right after forest exploitation is highly successful. T. javanica should not be planted on bare land and denuded hills. * Planting technique: - Seed collection: The fruits are collected in July-August when the coat turns from green into reddish brown.

Sowing must be done right after fruit collection on seedbed as with other broad-leaved species. The planting is then done in P.E pots (15-20cm).

- Seedlings production: Seedlings must be tended in nursery as with other broad-leaved species. 50% shading is needed in the initial stage. Three months before planting out, shading must be gradually released to increase the

Planting system

Forest enrichment planting in rows

Forest improvement planting in bands

Pure forest plantation (industrial plantation)

Mixed planting with Acacia auriculiformis

*Data collection location

Ba Ren (Quang Binh)

Ba Ren (Quang Binh)

Ba Ren (Quang Binh)

Khe Giua (Quang Binh)

General *Area evaluated 2ha/150ha 3ha 3ha 2ha /56ha information *Technical

design Opened row 5m-wide Left over row 10m-wide

Planting band 30m wide Left over band 30m wide

N/ha =1100 trees (3x3m)

N/ha=222 trees (3x15m)

N/ha=600 trees (4x4m)

N/ha=1100 trees (3x3m)

( 1 T. javanica + 1 Acacia)

*Climate -Mean annual

rainfall 2200-2400mm 2200-2400mm 2000-2200mm 2200-2400mm

-Mean annual To 22-25oC 22-25oC 22-25oC 22-25oC Site *Edaphic

conditions

-Soil type Feralit pale yellow

Feralit yellow on sandstone

Feralit pale yellow on sandstone

Feralit pale yellow on sandstone

-Soil layer depth (cm)

³ 50 » 50 » 50 » 50

-pH H2O 5.5-6.5 5.5-6.5 5.5-6.5 5.5-6.5

-Humus content (%)

1.5-3% 1.5-3% 1.5-3% 1.5-3%

*Vegetation before treatment

Depleted secondary forest

Depleted secondary forest

Imperata cylindrica forest + small bamboo +bushes

Bare land + savanna + bushes

* Age 13 16 16 16 * H (m) 16.2 18.89 17.76 18.08 Increment * DH (m) 1.25 1.18 1.11 1.13 * D (cm) 15.34 19.36 18.08 18.41 *DD (cm) 1.18 1.21 1.13 1.15 Remarks on

results and prospect

Forest canopy already closed, much differentiation due to untimely canopy opening. Success is highly possible if tending is continued in 7-10 years

Forest canopy already closed, trees much differentiated due to lack of thinning. Success is highly possible

Young forest, canopy closed, ordinary tree growth thinning and stem shaping not yet done, low branching

Young forest, canopy closed, medium growth thinning and removing of acacia are not yet done T. javania growth is not promoted.

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adaptability of the seedlings. One month before planting out shading must be totally removed and watering is reduced. - Planting method: T. javanica can be planted by bare-rooted or ball seedlings (ball-seedlings give higher survival

rate) with the following planting systems: forest enrichment planting in patches, forest improvement by planting in bands or mass planting as industrial plantation. Attention must be paid to avoiding high planting density such as done in some localities where initial planting density is also final density without thinning.

N/ha = 2500 trees (2x2m). N/ha = 1700 trees (2x3m).

* Tending and protection of the plantation Tending is done in 5-7 consecutive years till canopy closure. In early stage after planting slight shading is needed, partly and total light is then gradually required. Thus in the tending process it must be ensured that when young T. javanica is neither totally exposed to sunlight nor shaded too much. - First-third years (twice annually one before rainy season and another after rainy season). Mainly: weeding,

heaping soil to tree base, loosening hardpan, climbers cutting. - Fourth-sixth years: canopy opening, stem shaping. - Seventh year: thinning, adjusting the density, creating suitable growing space for planted trees. References:

1. Nguyen Xuan Quat, 1995: Contribution to selecting indigenous tree species of high quality for reforestation in Vietnam. Forest Scientific and Technical Information.

2. Science and Technology Department-Ministry of Forestry, 1994: Planting techniques of some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi.

3. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1986: Forest tree species of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi.

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GMELINA ARBOREA Vietnamese name: Loi tho Scientific name: Gmelina arborea Roxb. Family: Verbenaceae 1/ Morphological description: Medium-sized tree species, height upto 30m, breast-high diameter upto 40-50cm. Bark smooth, lenticels conspicuous, pale yellow when young, pale grey when mature, peeled in patches. Leaves single, opposite, ovoid, pointed tip. Upper surface dark green, lower surface silvery grey, three veins at the base, lateral veins 3-4 pairs, conspicuous on lower surface. Flowers grow in clusters, thick, pale yellow tomentose. Flowers large with linear bracts, petals yellow. Fruit ovoid, 1.5-2cm in diameter, 1-2 seeded. 2/ Ecological characteristics: G. arborea is naturally distributed in many South East Asian countries: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China. In Vietnam G. arborea is scatteringly distributed in broad-leaved and semi-deciduous forests in North Vietnam mountainous and mid-land provinces and southwards to the Central Highlands. G. arborea grows mixed with Quercus sp., Engeldhartia chrysolepsis, Canarium sp., Endospermum sinensis... Distribution elevation is below 700m. * Climatic conditions - G. arborea prefers regions with annual rainfall 1100-2500mm, no more than 3-4 dry months in a year. - G. arborea is suitable to regions of average annual temperature about 20-24oC. * Light requirement - G. arborea is a full-light demanding species. * Soil requirement - G. arborea grows on reddish, greyish brown feralit soils, not acidic, rich in humus content. G. arborea sheds its leaves in February-March. New leaves appear when all old leaves are shedded. Fruits ripe in May-July. 3/ Uses: G. arborea wood is white in colour, heartwood, sapwood slightly distinct, specific density 0.698, soft, easy working. The wood is used for furniture making, musical instruments, matches, packing boxes. It is also used for veneer and paper pulp production. G. arborea is used for industrial plantation establishment in suitable site conditions. High efficiency is also obtained in scattered planting. It can be used for forest planting on degraded soil. G. arborea is one of the fast growing tree species, wood is of good properties. It can be expanded in suitable regions. Fruit and fruit coat are of medicinal value (Trimen, 1895; Wagman, 1982). Young leaves and roots also have medicinal value (Burhill, 1935). Leaves can be used for producing apigemin, luteslin, quercetagenin; roots are used to produce gmelioceryl alcohol. Wood provides lignin. 4/ Evaluation of G. arborea plantation: * Silvicultural characteristics: In nature G. arborea rarely grows into pure population but it grows well in pure plantation. It is a pioneer, light-demanding species but is tolerant of slight shading. G. arborea usually regenerates in large openings in the forests, tolerant of drought and frost but seedlings easily die in these conditions. Growth of G. arborea can be reduced after some drought seasons. It strongly regenerates from seed and is highly capable of coppicing. G. arborea is used for forest planting in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Taiwan, Yunnan), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Utta Pradesh, West Bengal), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Brazil, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands. Main technical details in G. arborea planting are as follows: planting is done with seedlings, stumps, ramets. Weight of fresh seed: 1300-1500 seed per kilogram. Germination rate of fresh seed is 90%. * Seed collection and sowing: Four to seven-year old G. arborea forest already produces flowers and seed. Fruits ripen from May to July. When ripe, fruits have yellow coat and fall on the ground. Ripe fruits are collected, the coat is removed to obtain the seed. Seed can be kept in storage or sown right away. Germination takes places 7-15 days after sowing. If the seeds have been kept in storage they must be immersed in water in 24 hours and then kept warm for germinating. Germinated seeds are sown in pots. Seedlings 2-2.5 month old 30-40cm high, diameter at the base 0.5-0.6cm can be planted out. After selection, G. arborea can be propagated by cuttings with the use of rooting stimulants. Usually IBA and NAA are used in different doses depending on seasons. Countries that have planted G. arborea usually use ramets from selected ortets. * Planting site: Physical and chemical properties of soil exert marked effects on survival and growth of G. arborea. Growth of G. arborea is rather good on loose, porous, less acidic soil. Acidic soil results in poor growth. Usually G. arborea is planted as pure plantation. Depending on objectives of the plantation, suitable planting density is chosen. For particle board and paper pulp production, planting densities are 1.2x1.2m and 1.8x1.8m. For veneer and sawn log production, the planting density is 3x3m. G. arborea is a light-demanding species. Total vegetation must be removed in land preparation for G. arborea planting. Mixed planting of maize, beans and even cassava is possible with G. arborea. Usually tending is done in the first three years when the canopy is not yet closed: heaping soil to tree base, eliminating competitive species. In G. arborea planting with stumps, shoots thinning must usually be done. Thinning is important work in maintenance of the plantation especially when the objective is veneer and sawn log production. Intensity, age and times of thinning depends on initial planting density and soil class. In planting at density 2.2x2.1m and 3.7x3.7m, thinning is done when the height of the forest stand is 6-9m (Fox, 1967). Usually thinning is done when the G. arborea plantation is 3-4 years of age. At age 9, the maintained density is 740 trees/ha, height of the forest stand is 9m. The maintained density when the stand is 15m high is 125 trees/ha. In Brazil

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900-950 trees/ha and 800-1000 trees/ha are maintained at age 5 for good and poor sites respectively. Kolombangara Forest Products Limited planted G. arborea for saw logs maintained 500 trees/ha and 250 trees/ha at age 2 and 3 respectively. For production of wood chips, 10-year rotation, 500 trees/ha are left after thinning at age 2 (Graham Chaplin, 1993). G. arborea planted for sawn log production yields 250-359 m3/ha at age 15-20, density 300 trees/ha (FD, 1993). G. arborea for woodchips, 5-year rotation, yields 200 m3/ha, density 800 trees/ha. G. arborea is a fast growing species, wood is much disired for industrial processing. Many countries in the region and in the world have planted G. arborea of high productivity. Vietnam has been successful in research on G. arborea planting. In 1983 trial planting of G. arborea was conducted in Nghia Dan-Nghe An. The soil planted with G. arborea was poor forest soil, all trees of valuable timber had been cut. Only trees of low economic value remained. Total vegetation removal was done. The soil was reddish yellow feralit on purple mica schist, depth of surface soil layer 40-50cm, pH=4.5, humus content 2%. Soil was still loose and porous. Planting was done with ramets. Initial planting density was 1100 trees/ha. In the third year, canopy was closed, thinning intensity was 30%. The remained density was 700 trees/ha. Second thinning was done at age 6 the remained density was 400 trees/ha. Table 1: Growth of G. arborea planted in Nghia Dan

Mean productivity is 22m3/ha (400 trees/ha) in experimental plot. This experiment is a sounding by nature but it shows that this is a forest tree species of high productivity in forest plantation. In the 1996-2000 period G. arborea was studied rather all-sidely. Results show that G. arborea is suitable to some site types in Vietnam. Experimental model in Lam Son commune, Luong Son, Hoa Binh had the canopy closed at age 4. In forest planting, from planting to canopy closure, if canopy closure is reached the first stage is considered successful. Physical conditions at Lam Son: reddish brown feralit soil on limestone. Elevation: 100m a.s.l. The land has gone through slash-and-burn cultivation many times. Mean slopeness 25o. Depth of surface soil layer 35cm. The soil was loose and porous, pH KCl =4.84. Humus content: 2.39%, N: 0.21%. Mean annual rainfall 1812mm. Four months of monthly rainfall < 50mm, mean annual temperature 23.2oC. The planting was done in August 1997, pure planting at 1100 trees/ha density. Planting holes digging 30x30x30cm. Planting was with ball seedlings, 70-day old, mean height 25-30cm, diameter at the base 0.4-0.5cm. Heaping soil to tree base once in December 1997. Survival rate 95%. Table 2: Growth of G. arborea in Luong Son, Hoa Binh

G. arborea planted in Luong Son attained mean D1.3 increment: 2.6cm/yr, mean height increment: 2.16cm/yr. Forest stand grows luxuriantly although it is still only 5 years of age. Regular increment is rather good although in the experiment (the above data) only ordinary planting technique was applied without intensive management measures. G. arborea does grow naturally in Vietnam. G. arborea has attained high productivity 20-27m3/yr in many countries in the region. G. arborea in two plantation models in Nghe An and Hoa Binh has fast growth, high survival rate (over 95%). The models are apt to become forest. 5/ Recommendation: - It is advisable to raise G. arborea plantation in Vietnam for sawlog and veneer supply. In site selection attention must be paid to pH value. This is an important factor for growth of G. arborea. - Experimental models must be established in the regions: North West of North Vietnam, Central Highlands, Eastern South Vietnam at least in 15-20 ha at main site types to draw the basic technical parameters. - The same as with other indigenous broad-leaved species, plantation models of G. arborea have been successful but expansion has not been done as the next step (pilot production) was not implemented. This must be overcome otherwise many forest tree species that have been selected, studied and recommended to be forest plantation species but still merely lie in the documents elsewhere. References:

1. Nguyen Ba Chat and collaborators, 2000: Research on industrial plantation establishment for wood supply with Paraserianthes falcataria and Gmelina arborea. Scientific report, Forest Science Institute of Vietnam, 2000.

2. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1996: Possibility of G. arborea cultivation in Vietnam, Forestry review 4-5/1996.

Age D1.3 (cm) ZD (cm) H (m) ZH (m) V (m3) 1 0.9 1.2 2 1.9 1.0 3.5 2.3 3 5.8 3.9 5.2 1.7 4 9.6 3.8 8.7 3.5 5 13.4 3.8 11 2.3 25.2 6 16.5 3.1 13 2.0 50.0 7 19.7 3.2 15 2 101.16 8 23.5 3.8 16.8 1.8 87.6 9 26.2 2.7 18.7 1.9 183.6 10 28.5 2.3 20.5 1.8 223.6

Age D1.3 (cm) ZD (cm) H (m) ZH (m) V (m3) 1 0.4-0.5 0.30 2 5.18 3.86 3 8.22 3.04 6.26 2.4 4 10.7 2.48 8.6 2.2 46.0 5 13.3 10.8 73.0

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3. Nguyen Ba Chat, 2000: Technique of G. arborea planting. Forest Scientific and Technical Information 2/2000.

4. Luna R.K., 1996: Plantation trees Dehra Dun, India. International Distributors. 5. Laurison EB, 1977: G. arborea –International provenance trials study tour and seed collection in India.

Forest R, Resources Information . No 6. 6. Soeriannegara I, Lemmens RHMJ, 1993: Plant Resources of South East Asia No.5. Timber trees: major

commercial timer, Bogor, Indonesia pp 610. Back to main page Next>>

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CANARIUM ALBUM Vietnamese name: Tram trang Scientific name: Canarium album Raeusch. Family: Burseraceae 1/ Morphological description Large-sized tree species. Mature tree can be upto 20-30m high. Stem straight and rounded, bark thin, grey in colour. Sap exudes under mechanical impact. Leaves bipinnate, leaflet ovoid or oval, upper surface dark green, lower surface pale green. Flowers monosexual monoecious, racemose. Fruit a drupe, avoid, pointed at both ends, 2.5-3.5cm long, usually with six segments. 2/ Ecological characteristics: C. album is present in almost all North Vietnam provinces and the Central Highlands where the elevation is 150-750m a.s.l., rainfall 1500-2000mm/yr on feralit soils generated on mica schist, thick soil layer, pH=4-5, the soil remains forest soil in nature. C. album usually occurs in moist places near river and stream banks. C. album is a fast growing species, light demanding. In natural forest it usually occupies upper storey but some shading is required in the first two years although the tree top must not be overshaded. Research results of experiments show that mixed planting of Tephrosia candida as support species in initial stage and continued adjustment of the cover so that the top of C. album is not overshaded is the best technical measure. In this condition C. album grows fast, having good vigour and dark green foliage. 3/ Uses: According to recent researches, C. album has been paid attention to previously mainly for wood supply to plywood industry. Now this species can bring about high income if it is planted for resin and fruit. C. album resin can be used in soap industry, cosmetics, synthetic paint. There can be extracted from 100 kg of C. album resin 18-20kg essential oil and 50-60kg colophony that is similar to pine resin but C. album can yield much more colophony than pine. A C. album tree 20cm in diameter can yield 10-15kg resin in a year. Besides C. album fruit can be used to make sugar dried fruit, foodstuff, medicine to cure cough, detoxicant (Pham Dinh Tam, 2000). Experiences of the people living nearly Hoanh Bo (Quang Ninh) show that a C. album tree 30cm in diameter can yield resin in 8-9 consecutive months (each 15 days) in a year, mean monthly resin yield 3-4kg. As regards economic value C. album planting in forest rehabilitation or in forest gardens at 50 trees/ha, after 8-10 years can bring about a harvest of 20-25kg fruit/tree/yr and 10-15kg resin/ha/yr. At the present price, harvest from fruit is 3.0-3.75 million dongs/ha/yr and that from resin is 2-3 million dongs/ha/yr, total 5-6,75 million dongs/ha/yr (Nguyen Ngoc Binh, 2000). If conditions allow good tending, protection and higher planting density better income can be expected. Research results have pointed out suitable planting system for C. album with leguminous, support species such as Tephrosia candida. In the early years C. album grows rather fast, bole section under branches is long with straight stem and fine stem form. For fruit production experiment was successful with grafting method using buds and scions from heavy fruit bearing mother trees. Survival rate of grafted trees was 60-70%. At present there are already grafted trees of yellow fruit imported from China. Initial trials show high prospect. Some grafted trees produce flowers right in the first year. It is hoped that fruit harvest can be obtained in the 3rd and 4th years. This is a species possible for expanding planting in mountainous regions in forest gardens, enrichment planting in rehabilitated forests for fruit production. This is a perennial tree species of good protection function. Sapwood and heartwood are not distinct in colour. Wood is usually pale yellowish white and pinkish. Annual rings are not conspicuous, usually 3-6mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, scattered, number of vessels per 1mm2 is small, vessel diameter: medium. There is usually tylosis inside the vessels. Rays small and narrow. Parenchyma scattered, paratracheal parenchyma-scanty. Wood fibres with many cross walls usually 1mm long, fibre wall thin. The wood is medium in hardness and weight, specific density 550-630kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.48. Pressure strength along the grain 425kg/cm2, static bending strength 1080kg/cm2, splitting strength 7kg/cm. Collision bending strength 0.68. C. album wood is upto the standards satisfying the requirements of wood as raw material for veneer industry, much desired on the market. The wood can also be used for furniture making. 4/ Evaluation of C. album plantation: C. album has been studied and cultivated for a long time but the remaining C. album plantations now are not many. Some pure C. album plantations that can be mentioned are C. album plantation in Lac Thuy (Hoa Binh province), C. album planted in patches in arboretum at Cuc Phuong National Park and experimental planting site of C. album in Hoa Binh managed by Pham Dinh Tam of the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam. C. album trees planted in Cuc Phuong National Park in 1981 now have average height of 7-8m, 12-15cm in diameter although there is a great differentiation among the trees. Some already bear fruit. C. album plantations of Mr. Luan, Thien and Kiem, An Lac team (Lac Thuy, Hoa Binh) were planted in 1980 with ball-seedlings on soil of depleted forest, soil layer depth >60cm. The planting areas were clear-cutting and planting holes were dug. Hill-rice and cassava mixed planting was done in the first two years. Initial planting density: 500 trees/ha (5x4m). Designing was carried out to converse these plantation into seed stands but in waiting for thinning, 30-40% of the trees were thrown breaking by storm in 1996 and the remaining density now is low. Number of trees that produce flowers and fruit is very small. If seeds are to be produced there need be better tending. Performance of the trees is as follows:

Sample collected Density D1.3 (cm) Htop (m) H (m) under branches

D (m) crown

Mr. Thien plantation 213 trees/ha 24.41 19.35 11.06 5,69 Mr. Kiem plantation 233 trees/ha 24.06 21.31 13.43 6,04 Mr. Luan plantation 207trees/ha 24.10 22.29 12.32 5,34

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Variation of measured indices are as follows: VD1.3=15.09-18.47%, VHtop=7.76-13.07%, VDcrown is rather great 28.48-42.53%. In recent years C. album was expanded in many forest farms in North Vietnam and preliminary good results have been achieved in many places. In early years, C. album growth is good. Two year old trees attain D1.3=1.79cm ; Htop = 3.1m,

Dcrown =2.17m. Variation coefficient 114.86-27.75%. In some places with good and moist soil, C. album can grow without cover by support trees. Support species are thus needed to keep the environment moist. This explains why support trees must not overshade C. album in early years. 5/ Recommendation: C. album grows rather fast in the first years, bole section below branches is long, stem straight with fine stem form, very suitable as raw material for plywood production. However, C. album planting for fruit is at present paid attention to by many farm owners as quick products can be obtained. Grafting method using buds and scions from heavy fruit bearing mother trees has been successful. Ratio of survival rate of grafted trees is 60-70%. Some initial trials also show good prospect, trees grow well. Some grafted trees do bear fruit in the first year. Fruit harvest is expected in the 3rd and 4th years. Thus forest farms should change the aim of C. album planting for wood into for fruit and higher efficiency can be obtained. Attention must be paid to shoot borers at early stage. References:

1. Pham Dinh Tam (1998): Technical guidance for C. album planting. 2. Technical handbook on seed and seed sowing of some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House.

1995. 3. Forest tree species of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House.

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CASSIA SIAMEA Vietnamese name: Muong den Other name: Muong Xiem. Scientific name: Cassia siamea Lamark. Family: Caesalpiniaceae 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized tree species, height upto 20-25m, diameter 50-60cm. Stem cylindrical, twisted, early branching, covered with fine hairs when young. Bark grey, with regular small and narrow cracks, sometimes segments are formed due to twisted stem. Leaves paripinnate, alternate, 10-15cm long, leaflets 20-40, rectangular, oblong at both ends, green in colour, 3-7cm long, 1-2cm wide. Stipules small, caducous. Inflorescence racemose, straight, apical with many yellow flowers. Petals 5, yellow, rounded, thick, uneven, tomentose in the outside. Sepals soft, caducous with short claw. Stamens 2, opening at the apex. Ovary oblong, tomentose, glabrous style. Fruit long, narrow, flat, straight, black in colour, ridge at the margin. Fruit 20-30cm long, 1-2cm wide, 20-30seeded. Flat seed in thick relief on the pod, hard. One kg seed contains 32,000-35,000 seeds. 2/ Ecological characteristics: C. siamea is distributed in Malaysia, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. In Vietnam C. siamea is usually met in Gia Lai, Daklak, Kontum. C. siamea is distributed in regions with annual rainfall over 600mm. With 2-3 dry months in a year (monthly rainfall <50mm) C. siamea still grows well . Mean annual temperature is 20-26oC, average temperature of coldest month is not less than 15oC. C. siamea is total light demanding. It is distributed on yellowish red feralit soil generated on basalt, porphyry, mica schist, limestone, soil texture from sandy loam to light loam. C. siamea can grow on poor soil but the trees are stunted, low, small, early branching, crooked stem. C. siamea grows into population in secondary forest below 1200m elevation and usually occupies the upper storey of the forest or at forest margin. C. siamea regenerates in open places. C. siamea is a species of leaves shedding from time to time. Flowering season: May-June, fruit ripening February-April. 3/ Uses: C. siamea is used for planting of timber forests, protection forest, support trees in tea and coffee plantations, soil improvement, shade trees. Wood is used for furniture making or fine art articles. Sapwood and heartwood are distinct; sapwood pale yellow, heartwood yellowish brown to blackish brown. Clearly-seen annual rings, usually 4-6mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, scattered, number of vessels per 1mm2 is small, vessel diameter large, inside the vessel there is usually tyloses or blackish brown and white substances. Rays small and narrow, usually alternate storeyed. Paraparenchyma aliform, aliform confluent developed into wide or narrow bands, continuous or interrupted, slanting or undulate. Wood fibres average in length with cross walls. Wood hard and heavy, specific density of dry wood 810kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.62. Fibre saturation point 23%. Pressure strength along the grain 615kg/cm2, static bending strength 1520kg/cm2, splitting strength 20kg/cm. Collision bending 0.64. C. siamea wood can be used for structure requiring high strength mainly in construction, communication and transport. 4/ Evaluation of C. siamea plantation: Situation of C. siamea planting: Maurand carried out experimentation on C. siamea forest planting since 1934. But C. siamea has been much planted as shade trees for coffee, tea and shelterbelt for other industrial crops. Only since the beginning of the reforestation programmes 327 and 661, was C. siamea widely used in forest planting. The area of C. siamea plantation at present is 10,163 ha of which 4,919ha is pure plantation, 5,244ha is mixed plantation. Concentrated C. siamea plantations are in the Central Highland with an area of 4,892ha in Krong Pac (Daklak) Di Linh (Lam Dong), Cheo Reo (Kon Tum). C. siamea plantation area in Eastern South Vietnam, North Central Vietnam, North West Vietnam are 895ha, 1,404ha and 743ha respectively. At present there is not yet technical procedure for C. siamea forest planting, but through results of experiment, experiences in forest planting and available data, technique of C. siamea cultivation can be summarized as follows: Planting regions: C. siamea can be planted in all ecological zones of Vietnam. C. siamea can grow on all soil types including coastal sandy soil. Depending on objectives of planting: for timber supply, wind-breaks, shade trees, landscape odornment, protection forest, different spacings and densities are chosen. In provinces from North Hai Van pass northwards, planting is done on poor soil, C. siamea trees are low, small, timber production is poor. C. siamea is usually used for support and shade trees planting. As soil conditions are better, tree growth would also be better. -Seed: Planted C. siamea trees 4-5 year old already produce flowers and fruit but seed should only be collected from tree 8 years of age and over. Time of fruit collection: ripe fruits are collected in February-April. When ripe the coat of fruit is dark brown in colour, seed brilliantly black and hard. After collection the fruits are kept warm for ripening in mass. Stirring is done once daily. When all the fruit are ripe, they are dried in mild sunlight in 3-4 days. The seeds are gathered daily and then are dried under shade in 3-4 days. When dry the seed is kept in storage in earthern jars. -Seed treatment and seedlings production: The seed is immersed in warm water in 30-60 hours, kept warm in 2-3 days: sprouted seeds are planted in bags. Seedling standard: 75-90 day old, 25-30cm high, Do=0.4-0.6cm. Planting is done on forest soil with bushes or in bare land. Pure and mixed C. siamea plantations have been planted in some localities. + Pure C. siamea plantation: planting density 1600-2000 trees/ha. Pure C. siamea plantations are much planted in the

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Central Highlands. + Mixed C. siamea plantation: C. siamea represents 50% or 30%, the remaining is acacia or eucalypt. In plantation with C. siamea representing 30%, 2 rows of C. siamea alternated with 3 rows of acacia. Rows spacing is 3m, trees spacing is 2m. Table 1: Situation of C. siamea plantation growth in various regions (Results of Forest Inventory, 1999)

Codes: S = area (ha); M = stocking; M/ha = timber stocking /ha The above table shows that still at 6 and 9 years of age C. siamea planted in Daklak already attains average productivity (8.6m3/ha/yr to 15.6m3/ha/yr). But productivity of C. siamea pure plantation in Gia Lai has too low productivity. Mixed plantation of C. siamea with other tree species has productivity still lower. In Eakmat, Buon Me Thuot city there are 5 ha of C. siamea, density at present is 910 trees/ha, planted on basalt red soil in 1970, measurement was done in May/2000. Mean height of C. siamea was 17.34m, mean D1.3: 37.1cm , stocking:

133.4m3/ha; mean increment: 4.46m3/ha/yr. In the tending process 82% of the trees planted at the beginning (1600 trees/ha) has been cut. In Krong Bach State Forest Enterprise, C. siamea plantation was planted in 1997 on reddish brown soil; measurement was done in the year 2000, the remaining density was 900 trees/ha, mean diameter 16.3cm, mean height 14.3m; mean increment of D: 4.07cm/yr; H : 3,5m/yr; stocking : 125.1m3/ha. Although the stocking was high but the wood quality was poor (poor stem form, crocked, great differentiation in diameter). According to the requirements of forest planting for timber supply, this C. siamea plantation does not meet the requirements due to poor stem form, ratio of wood used is low. In some other places, 10-year old C. siamea plantation has rather high mean D increment (Duc Lap D= 1.89cm/yr; H=1.77m/yr; Krong Ana D=29cm/yr, H=2.3m/yr; Pleiku: D=0.96cm/yr; H=0.8m/yr; Dakto D=1.2cm/yr, H = 1.15m/yr. C. siamea pure plantation planted in 1995 at Xuan Loc-Dong Nai. The remaining density in 2000 was 830 trees/ha, mean D= 7.29cm; mean H = 6.47m; mean D increment= 1.32cm/yr, mean H increment =1.08m/yr. Mixed plantation of C. siamea with cashew and Acacia auriculiformis planted in 1986 now has the remaining density of 200 trees/ha (the year 2000), mean D = 8.91cm, mean H = 6.91m, mean D increment =1.78cm/yr, mean H increment =1.38m/yr (Report on evaluation of forests plantation, Eastern South Vietnam Forest Scientific and Production Centre, 2001). As regards indices of diameter and height growth of C. siamea planted in various sites in the Central Highlands and Eastern South Vietnam, it can be said that this is a tree species of rather fast growth. But being planted on degraded basalt soil around Pleiku, C. siamea grew slow with low survival rate. In evaluation of a forest stand, stem form is of high significance. C. siamea plantation has great differentiation in diameter, crooked stems thus the quality of the product is much reduced. 5/ Recommendation: C. siamea planted in the Central Highlands and Eastern South Vietnam grows rather well. In provinces north of Hai Van pass it grows slower. C. siamea pure plantation on average and better soils attains productivity of 10m3/ha/yr. However stem form is poor with limited value in uses. C. siamea is suitable for shade trees for industrial crops: coffee, tea due to its fast growth and effectiveness in soil improvement. But on poor soils its growth is poorer than that of Acacia auriculiformis and A. mangium. C. siamea should not be planted on poor soil for timber production. This is in agreement with the fact that Tran Van Con (2001) did not include C. siamea in group of species for production forest in North Central Highlands. Forestry branch in Kontum, Gia Lai and Daklak selected C. siamea to establish protection forest. C. siamea can be planted as a pioneer species in protection forest stretches in sloping land areas or shelter belts against shifting sand in coastal regions. References:

1. P Maurand, 1943: Le Muong Essence µ fine multiples L’ Indochina Forestiere. Hanoi, 1943. 2. Planting techniques of some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House, 1994.

Regions General indices Age class (3 years) I II III Whole country Area S (ha) 10,163 8,914 1,164 85 Stocking M (m3) 47,698 43,055 4,643 Pure S (ha) 4,919 3,900 939 80 M (m3) 43,479 38,930 4,549 M/ha (m3) 41.46 56.86 Mixed plantation S (ha) 5,244 5,014 225 5 M (m3) 4,219 4,125 94 M/ha (m3) 18.33 18.8 Daklak Pure plantation S (ha) 1,025 581 409 35 M (m3) 41,526 38,494 2,751 M/ha (m3) 94.11 78.6 Gia Lai Pure plantation S (ha) 105 37 34 34 M (m3) 1,729 169 1569 M/ha (m3) 49 46.14

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3. Tran Van Con, 2001: Supplementary Research on Determination on main planted species in North Central Highlands. Scientific report, Forests Science Institute of Vietnam.

4. Eastern South Vietnam Forests Scientific and Production Centre, 2001: Report on evaluation of forests plantation with indigenous tree species in Eastern South Vietnam.

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CUNNINGHAMIA LANCEOLATA Vietnamese name: Sa mu Other names: Sa moc, Sam moc. Scientific name: Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb) Hook. C. sinensis R. Br. ex Ric Family: Taxodiaceae C. lanceolata has its origin in China but has been long introduced in Vietnam and the area planted with this species has been strongly expanded from 1960 now. Recently some botanists in Vietnam Dinh Van De, Vu Ngoc Sinh (2000) have discovered C. konishii naturally distributed in Tuong Duong area (Que Phong, Nghe An). It is usually met in mixed natural forests at 700m a.s.l elevation and over. This shows the favourable climatic and site conditions for C. lanceolata planting in the Vietnam-China border provinces. 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized tree species, height upto 25-30m, diameter 60-70m. Stem straight, rounded, narrow crown, pyramidal. Bark grey, peeled off. Branches slender. Leaves flat, lanceolate, thick, hard, margin serrate, aggregate at branch top. 2/ Ecological characteristics: C. lanceolata is distributed in South West of China from 22oN latitude to 32oN latitude. C. lanceolata is planted in Quang Ninh, Cao Bang, Ha Giang, Lao Cai and Lai Chau provinces. C. lanceolata grows in the Centre and South of China where elevation is 1000m and over. It is suitable to regions with average temperature 15-20o, annual rainfall 1400-1900mm. C. lanceolata is adaptable to diffused lighting and prefers deep and moist soil layer , good water-drainage, loose and porous, pH>5, rich in humus content. C. lanceolata is suitable to soils generated on mica schist, sandstone, thick soil layer. Flowering is in March, April, fruits ripe in October-November. 3/ Uses: Sapwood and heartwood are not distinct. Wood is yellowish brown in colour, light, straight grain, durable, fine, little attacked by termites and wood borers. Wood is used for ship-building, masts, household utensils. C. lanceolata plantations supply timber for construction and mine-props and C. lanceolata is planted for landscape adornment. C. lanceolata is suitable for protection forest establishment in high mountain regions of North Vietnam. 4/ Evaluation of C. lanceolata plantation: * Present conditions of C. lanceolata plantation: The area of C. lanceolata plantation in North Vietnam provinces is 13,866ha: Ha Giang 648ha; Cao Bang 9ha; Lang Son 257ha; Lao Cai 3,786ha of pure C. lanceolata plantation, 674ha of mixed plantation of C. lanceolata and Alnus nepalensis; Quang Ninh 1,192ha. Timber stocking of the existing C. lanceolata plantation is about 160,281m3 in all age classes (age classes from I to V). This is an exotic species but it proves to be very suitable to North Vietnam provinces. Characteristics of physical conditions of Muong Khuong, Bac Ha, Sa Pa (Lao Cai); Quan Ba, Xin Man (Ha Giang) are 800m and over elevation, high mountain with mist. Average annual temperature 18oC-20oC, highest temperature 42oC, lowest temperature 0oC. Mean annual rainfall 1800-2000mm, concentrated in April-October period. Dry season is from November to March the next year. Mean humidity 88%. The above districts have sub-tropical climate. Table 1: Situation of C. lanceolata cultivation in various provinces

C. lanceolata plantations of lower ages (age class I) in various provinces occupy large area. C. lanceolata plantations in 2 provinces Lao Cai and Ha Giang are of many age classes (5 age classes) but mean stocking at each age class greatly differs. In age class V, mean stocking is 290m3/ha. Mean increment is 11.6m3/ha/yr while in Lao Cai it is only 2.2m3/ha/yr. In Lao Cai alone at ages 10, 15, 20 mean annual increments are 7.7m3/ha/yr; 5.18m3/ha/yr; 4.49m3/ha/yr respectively. C. lanceolata is a fast growing species with high yield. Results of survey on C. lanceolata stand by Vu Tien Hinh (2001) prove this. Table 2: Yield of C. lanceolata forest in various provinces (Vu Tien Hinh, 2001)

Age classes (5 year) Provinces Area (ha) Indices I II III IV V Lao Cai 3,786, pure

plantation S (ha) 2612 121 570 137 346

M (m3) 9330 44361 12308 18838 (m3/ha) 77.10 77,82 89.83 54.44 6,711 mixed

plantation S (ha) 6135 179 397

Quang Ninh 1192 mixed plantation

S (ha) 634 558

M (m3) 30838 (m3/ha) 52.56 Ha Giang 648 pure

plantation S (ha) 404 64 6 33 141

M (m3) 1116 351 1878 40982 (m3/ha) 17.43 58.5 56.90 290.65 Lang Son 257 pure

plantation S (ha) 257

Age Soil class N/ha Hg M dg cm M m3 åM m3

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In Lao Cai, Ha Giang, C. lanceolata was largely planted on good soils (soil classes I and II) and its growth is faster than that of other species. There is a great variation between statistical data and data from survey in stocking. Take data of stocking/ha (M/ha) of Lao Cai for comparison:

In reality higher planting density, at lower age (age 10), high stocking (77.1m3/ha) density 2000 trees/ha, stocking 35.1m3/ha. But at age 15 there is a great difference: 77.82m3 and 137.1m3 between two initial planting densities. This indicates growth potential of C. lanceolata is very great. Initial planting density must be adequately adjusted. Planting density should only be 2000 trees/ha at the same time density must be suitable managed according to age. On the other hand maintenance measure must be taken according to soil classes. With class I: thinning twice at ages 12 and 18; soil class II thinning is done at ages 9 and 15; soil class III, thinning is done at age 10 and 16; soil class IV, thinning at ages 10 and 18. In Quang Ninh, C. lanceolata was planted on poor soil, largely on soil class IV and productivity is not high. Mixed plantation of C. lanceolata and Alnus nepalensis can not be evaluated at present due to lack of accessibility and the plantation is still young (below 7 years), no data are available. 5/ Recommendation: C. lanceolata is an exotic species but grows and develops well in the Vietnam- China border provinces. C. lanceolata planting is highly effective where the elevation is 800m, thick soil layer. Initial planting of 2000 trees/ha is suitable for C. lanceolata: reduced labour and seed requirement, thinning product has higher value. It is advisable to plant C. lanceolata in the Vietnam-China border provinces. Experiences in C. lanceolata planting can be used for expansion of C. konishii Hayata in upper regions of Nghe An and Thanh Hoa. In planting of C. lanceolata plantation in Vietnam attention must be paid to the following main points. * Seed: + Seed collection: seeds are collected from trees 15 years of age and over. Fruits ripe in October-November. Fruits collection from 15 October to 15 December when they are pale yellow, seed is reddish brown , kernel is white and solid. Ripe fruits are collected, kept warm in 2-3 days, striking to obtain the seed. Drying the seeds in mild sunlight. Seeds are stored in earthern jars. Storage can be in 6 months. + Sowing: seeds must be immersed in warm water (35-40oC) in 24 hours and then are taken out, washed for acidity removal and kept warm. After 4-5 days the seeds are sown in seedbeds. 50% shading must be provided for the seedlings. Watering is done daily for sufficient moisture. Seedling standard: 25-30cm in height, diameter at the base: 4-5mm, strong, hardy, leaves dark green with 2-3 branches, no disease insect attack, top remains. * Soil: Topographical and geological factors have created soil types suitable for C. lanceolata planting: + Humus soil on mountains. + Yellowish red feralit generated on mica schist, soil layer depth 0.5-1.2m, less acidic. + Soil types generated on sandstone, mica schist. In selection of site for C. lanceolata planting in Quang Ninh attention must be paid to rather good soil fertility for higher economic efficiency . *Technique: Planting density 1100-2000 trees/ha. Tending is done in 3-4 consecutive years. Thinning is possible to remove poor trees. References:

ZM m3 MTt m3

5 2000 4.9 3.5 6.2 6.2 8 1160 8.2 7.5 26.3 12.6 6.5 32.8 10 I 1160 10.4 10.1 56.1 17.6 62.6 12 940 12.9 13.4 94.8 26.7 10.2 111.5 15 940 15.9 17.3 189.3 34.5 206.0 18 780 19.0 21.3 272.6 39.2 31.0 320.0 20 780 20.5 23.1 348.5 35.5 396.3 5 2000 4.1 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 9 1180 7.9 6.6 20.7 9.8 4.9 25.6 10 II 1180 8.9 7.8 30.1 4.5 35.1 15 910 13.8 14.6 117.1 26.7 15.1 137.1 20 910 17.4 19.7 256.0 29.0 276.0 6 2000 4.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 10 1220 7.4 5.9 15.8 7.4 3.6 19.4 15 III 1220 11.3 11.4 79.9 17.9 83.5 16 960 12.4 13.1 89.2 20.0 10.7 103.5 20 960 14.8 16.9 172.1 21.7 186.4 7 2000 3.7 2.3 2.3 2.3 10 1290 6.6 6.0 15.7 1.6 3.2 18.8 15 IV 1290 9.3 10.0 54.1 12.4 57.3 18 1000 11.3 13.3 88.5 16.3 11.2 102.9 20 1000 13.1 16.3 149.2 15.2 163.5

Age 10 15 20 25 Statistical data (m3/ha) 77.10 77.82 89.83 54.44 Data from survey (m3/ha) 35.1 137.1 276.0

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1. Le Mong Chan, 1967: Forest tree species of Vietnam. Education Publishing House, 1967. 2. Planting techniques of some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House, 1994. 3. Dinh Van De, Vu Ngoc Sinh, 2000: Cunninghamia konishii on Pu Hoat mountains. Forestry Review

7/2000. 4. Data of Forest Inventory in Vietnam, 1999. 5. Vu Tien Hinh, 2001: Construction of growth and yield table for three tree species: Cunninghamia

lanceolata, Pinus massoniana, Manglietia glauca. Scientific report. Forestry College, 2001. Back to main page Next>>

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MACHILUS ODORATISSIMA Vietnamese name: Khao vang Scientific name: Machilus odoratissima Ness Family: Lauraceae. 1/ Morphological description: Tree species upto 25m high, breast high diameter can be upto 60cm. Stem rounded, straight, no buttress, high branching. Leaves simple, alternate, obovate 13-15cm long, 4-6 cm wide, leaf blade thick, upper surface dark green, lower surface pale green, tomentose. Inflorescence racemose, axillary, apical. Flowers bisexual, perianth 6-lobed, inferior ovary ovate, stamens 9. Fruit globular, 6.8-1.2cm in diameter, one seeded. Flowering season April-May. Fruiting season September-November. 2/ Ecological characteristics: M. odoratissima has wide distribution range. It can be found everywhere in primary and secondary broad-leaved, evergreen forests in Vietnam. * Climatic conditions: + Mean annual rainfall: 1500-2500mm. + Mean annual temperature: 23-27oC. * Edaphic conditions: M. odoratissima is suitable to yellowish red or reddish yellow feralit soils on acidic magma or sandstone, mica schist. Humus content from poor to medium (1.5-3%), pH (H2O) 4.5-6.5. * Plant community: In nature M. odoratissima usually occurs in closed, evergreen, monsoon, tropical and sub-tropical, low mountain forest type and together with Quercus sp., Canarium sp., Eugenia brachyata, Erythrophloeum fordii, Vatica tonkinensis, Madhuca pasquieri, Cinamomum obtusifolium to form secondary “ecological groups”. * Distribution range: In the world: it is distributed in South China, Laos, Cambodia. In Vietnam: it is distributed from North to South but is most concentrated in North Vietnam provinces: Thai Nguyen, Bac Giang, Vinh Phuc, Quang Ninh, Lang Son, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai... 3/ Uses: Sapwood and heartwood are distinct. Sapwood is pale yellow, heartwood is yellow, fragrant. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 3-5mm wide. Vessels single and double, short. Long, double vessels are rare, tending to group into slanted rows with modified Z form. Number of vessels per 1mm2 is medium, vessel diameter medium, inside the vessels there is usually tylosis. Rays small and narrow. Paraparenchyma scanty. Fibres 11mm long on the average with many cross walls. There are essential oil secreting cells. Wood medium in hardness and weight specific density of dry wood 709 kg m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.64. Fibre saturation point 21%. Pressure strength along the grain 586kg/cm2. Static bending strength 1292kg/cm2. Splitting strength 14kg/cm. Collision bending 0.82. M. odoratissima wood can be used for structure requiring medium strength, mainly in construction, communication and transport. It can be used for ordinary furniture as well as in veneer and sliced veneer industry. M. odoratissima bark is used for medicine to cure burns and scalds. 4/ Evaluation of M. odoratissima plantation: * General remark: M. odoratissima is also one of tree species for poor forest improvement and was studied and cultivated in Vu Le (Bac Son), Dong Hy (Thai Nguyen) by the Forest Research Institute since 1972. In the process of forest improvement and enrichment, M. odoratissima was usually planted with Pasania ducampii in Bac Son, Vo Nhai and Dong Hy Forest enterprises (1975-1980). Now these forest enterprises have been disbanded. The models have been destroyed and their evaluation is very difficult as the planted area is not sufficient. There remain now some patches of M. odoratissima planted in 1972-1974 period in Vu Le (Bac Son) and 2 ha model of forest enrichment with M. odoratissima and Pasania ducampii in Hoa Thuong (Thai Nguyen). Results of model establishment in some ecological zones

Planting system Forest enrichment with row planting

Total planting

General

*Data collection location Hoa Thuong (Thai Nguyen)

Vu Le (Bac Son)

information *Area of the model 2 ha 0.5 ha *Technical design 5m wide rows, 10m wide

left over rows N/ha=230 trees (5x5m) mixed with P.ducampii

N/ha=600 trees (4x4m) (pure planting in patches)

*Climate: -Mean annual rainfall 2200mm 2200mm -Mean annual To 26oC 25oC Site *Edaphic conditions -Soil type Yellowish red feralit on

sandstone Greyish yellow feralit on sandstone

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5/ Recommendation * Seed: Annual flowering (heavy fruit bearing cycle: 2-3 years), favourable seed source for production. Seed easily kept in storage. Storage can be upto 2-3 months, convenient for transport in long distance. * Planting site: M. odoratissima can be planted in bare land and denuded hills due to its drought resistance. Site type most suitable for M. odoratissima is depleted secondary forest after exploitation, slopes are not too steep, reddish yellow feralit soil on sandstone. * Planting technique: - Seed collection: From October to November when the fruit coat turns from green to yellow. Fruit collection by

cutting of branches or with other tools. - Seedling production: After collection the fruits must have their flesh smashed, kept warm to sprout and then

sown in P.E pots (15-20cm) as done with seed of other species. Seedlings standard before planting in the field: having been maintained 8-12 months in the nursery, minimum height 0.6-0.8m so that after planting they can quickly overtake the invasive weeds and grasses.

- Planting system: M. odoratissima can be planted with ball-seedlings or bare-rooted seedlings in forest improvement or enrichment in bands (15-30m wide). In North Vietnam there are two planting seasons: Spring season (January -March), Autumn season (August-September).

* Tending and protection: Tending is done in 5-7 consecutive years. - First-third years: mainly supplementary planting, heaping soil to tree base, cutting of weed species (twice a year-

one before and another after rainy season). - Fourth –Fifth years: canopy opening, shoots thinning, stem shaping, removal of crooked and insect-attacked and

diseased trees. - Sixth-seventh years: Thinning, creating suitable growing space of for the planted trees. With forest enrichment system the boundary of the bands must be erased at this stage to create a whole entity of planted trees and naturally regenerated trees in the forest. References:

1. Nguyen Son Tung, 1984: Technical guidance for M. odoratissima planting. Forest Science Institute of Vietnam.

2. Scientific and Technological Department-Ministry of Forestry, 1994: Planting techniques of some forest tree species. Agricultural Publishing House.

3. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1968: Forest tree species of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House.

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-Soil layer depth (cm) » 70 » 50 -pH 5,5 5,0 -Humus content (%) 2.5 1.5 + Vegetation before treatment Depleted secondary forest Bare land denuded hills

Imperata cylindrica + climbers bushes

*Age 20 24 Increment *H (m) 18.85 21.86 *DH(m) 0.94 0.91 *D (cm) 23.44 30.48 *DD (cm) 1.17 1.27 Remark on results and prospect Forest canopy closed, fast

increment , the model is being managed and protected for study tour and studied object

Forest canopy closed, fast diameter increment presently. Seed can be collected for forest planting

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LITHOCARPUS DUCAMPII Vietnamese name: De do Scientific name: Lithocarpus ducampii A. Camus or Pasania ducampii Family: Fagaceae 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized tree species, upto 30m high, crown diameter 8-10m, breast-high diameter can be upto 1m. Stem straight, rounded, high branching, buttress at tree base. Bark grey, deep cracks along the stem, epidermis peeled in large patches, rays conspicuous on the stem. Leaves single with stipules, leaf lanceolate, 10-12cm long, 4-5cm wide, leaf blade thick, stiff, upper surface dark green, lower surface silvery colour, tomentose, margin entire. Inflorescence a panicle, each panicle has 2-5 small flowers. Fruit globular, pale green, 1-1.3cm in diameter, around a long large pedicel forming a cluster of fruits, 10-12cm long. Flowering season May-July, fruiting season September-November. 2/ Ecological characteristics: L. ducampii has wide ecological range. It can be found everywhere in primary and secondary broad-leaved forests in Vietnam * Climatic conditions: + Mean annual rainfall: 1500-2500mm + Mean annual temperature: 23-27oC. * Edaphic condition: L. ducampii is most suitable to reddish yellow or yellowish red feralit soil generated on acidic magma or sandstone. Humus content from poor to average (1.5-3%), pHH2O 4.5-6.5. * Plant community: In nature L. ducampii usually occurs in closed, evergreen, monsoon tropical and sub-tropical, low mountain forest type together with: Madhuca pasquieri, Erythrophloeum fordii, Vatica tonkinensis, Machilus odoratissima, Canarium sp., Endospermum sinensis, Gironniera subaequalis forming the Madhuca pasquieri, Vatica tonkinensis, Lithocarpus ducampii belts (Tran Ngu Phuong, 1968). Specially in rehabilitated secondary forests. L. ducampii together with Castanopsis poilanei, Quercus platycalyx, Castanopsis indica form the “dominant” groups. In the world: L. ducampii is distributed in the three Indochina countries: Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and South China. In Vietnam: L. ducampii is much distributed in Bac Thai, Ha Bac, Lang Son, Vinh Phu (200-500m elevation) and in some regions in South Vietnam: Kon Ha Nung (Gia Lai), Cat Tien (Dong Nai). 3/ Uses: Wood is pink in colour, hard, high strength. Formerly it was used for shuttles and constructional material, household utensils. L. ducampii wood is also used for mine-props and railway sleepers. Annual rings not distinct, usually 3-6mm wide. Vessels simple, scattered in masses and slanted rows in radial direction, vessel diameter of two distinct sizes, there is usually tylosis inside the vessels. Rays with two distinct sizes, width of larger rays is larger than vessel diameter, small rays are invisible with naked eyes. Parenchyma scattered and aggregate into short, narrow bands, undulate in the tangential direction. Paraparenchyma scanty. Fibres of tracheal form, average wall thickness. Wood is medium in hardness and weight specific density of dry wood 840kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.58. Pressure strength along the grain 610kg/cm2, static bending strength 1280kg/cm2. Splitting strength 19.2kg/cm. Collision bending 0.75. L. ducampii wood can be used for structure requiring high strength; mainly in construction, communication and transport, furniture making. 4/ Evaluation of L. ducampii plantation: * General remark: L. ducampii is one of the tree species used for poor forest improvement that has been studied and planted in Vu Le (Bac Son), Dong Hy (Thai Nguyen) by the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam since 1972. After 1975 some State Forest Enterprises such as those in Vo Nhai, Bac Son and Dong Hy have expanded L. ducampii plantation, or made use of this species for forest improvement by its planting in bands (15-30m wide) or in patches. Now these forest enterprises have been disbanded, the models were destroyed and their evaluation is very difficult. At present in Vu Le (Bac Son), Dinh Ca (Thai Nguyen) L. ducampii remains only in patches 15-30 trees and in Hoa Thuong (Thai Nguyen) there remain about 2 hectares of forest enrichment model with L. ducampii and Machilus odoratissima. Results of model establishment in some ecological zones

Planting system Forest enrichment by row planting Total planting General *Data collection location Hoa Thuong (Thai Nguyen) Vu Le (Bac Son) information *Area of the model 2 ha 0.5 ha *Technical design Opened row 5m, left over row

10m. N/ha=230 trees (15x3m). Mixed with Machilus odoratissima (1 Machilus odoratissima + 1 L. ducampii)

N /ha = 600 trees (4x4m) (Pure planting in patches)

*Climatic conditions -Mean annual rainfall

(mm) 2200mm 2200mm

-Mean annual To 26oC 25oC

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5/ Recommendation: * Seed: L. ducampii is a species of annuall flowering (heavy fruit bearing cycle is 2-3 years). Seed source is favourable. L. ducampii seed storage is easy (evenly spreed for drying or being kept in sand 12-13%). * Planting site: It is advisable to plant L. ducampii on soil of poor secondary forest still with regenerated trees. L. ducampii can be planted in sloping topographical conditions, on reddish yellow or yellowish red feralit soil generated on acidic magma. L. ducampii is not tolerant of water logging but is drought resistant. * Planting technique: - Fruit collecting season: in October-November when the fruit coat turns from green into dark brown; fruits begin

falling in great number. Attention must be paid to the fact that L. ducampii seeds are easily damaged by insects so it is advisable not to collect the fruits long fallen on the ground. It is best to collect the fruits still on the tree or just fallen.

- Seedling production: Seeds are sown in seedbed before planting in P.E pots (15-20cm). Seedlings are maintained in the nursery for 8-12 months. Before planting out in the field, minimum height of the seedlings must be 0.6m at both planting seasons: Spring season (January-March), Autumn season (September-October). Shading structure must be gradually removed and watering must be reduced before planting out the seedlings in the field.

- Planting system: L. ducampii can be planted with ball-seedlings or bare rooted seedlings in forest improvement or enrichment systems. Initial density is about 500-600 trees/ha, final density after thinning is 150-200 trees/ha.

* Tending and protection: Tending is done in 5-7 consecutive years + First-third years: mainly supplementary planting, weeding, heaping soil to tree base, cutting of climbers (twice a year, one before and another after rainy season). + Fourth-fifth years: shoots thinning, stem shaping, cutting of crooked and diseased, insect-attacked trees. + Sixth-seventh years: Thinning, creating the growing space suitable for planted trees. + With forest enrichment system, boundary of the planted rows must be erased at this stage to obtain a wholesome entity of a mixed population of planted trees and naturally regenerated trees in the forest in the forest. References:

1. Nguyen Son Tung, 1984: Guidance on planting technique of Lithocarpus ducampii. Forest Research Institute.

2. Scientific and Technological Department-Ministry of Forestry, 1994. Planting techniques for some forest tree

species. Agricultural Publishing House.

3. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1986. Forest Tree Species in Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House.

4. Tran Ngu Phuong, 1968: Preliminary research on forests of North Vietnam. Scientific and Technical

Publishing House.

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Site *Edaphic conditions -Soil type Yellowish red feralit on sandstone Greyish yellow feralit on

sandstone -Soil layer depth (cm) » 70 » 50 -pH 5.5 5.0 -Humus content (%) 2.5% 1.5% *Forest vegetation before

treatment Depleted secondary forest Bare land with Imperata

cylindrica and climbers *Age 20 24 *H (m) 19.33 22.32 Increment *DH (m) 0.97 0.93 *D (cm) 24.55 32.24 *DD(cm) 1.23 1.32 Remark Results and prospect Forest established, good tree

growth the model is being managed for study tour and studied object

Forest canopy closed, fast diameter increment presently. The model remains in part due to conservation for seed orchard

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CINNAMOMUM OBTUSIFOLIUM Vietnamese name: Re gung Scientific name: Cinnamomum obtusifolium A Chev (Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch-Hamex Neas) Sweet) Family: Lauraceae 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized tree species, height upto 30m, breast-high diameter upto 60-70cm. Bark silvery grey, smooth, slightly fragrant. Young branches dark green in colour. Leaves single, alternate, basal veins 3, conspicuous, upper surface glabrous, lower surface brilliantly green, slightly fragrant. Leaf 8-10cm long, 4-6cm wide. Inflorescence apical. Perianth 6-lobed, oblong, tomentose on both sides. Stamens in three whorls, staminodes 3, anther 4-celled pistil with ovoid glabrous ovary: Style as long as ovary, big stigmata. Fruit ovoid, green when young, blackish green when ripe, flesh pale purple, one-seeded, coat pale brown. 2/ Ecological characteristics: C. obtusifolium is widely distributed in many ecological regions but is much met from 200m elevation upwards. C. obtusifolium is frequently met in secondary forest in Cao Bang, Lang Son, Phu Tho, Hoa Binh, Thai Nguyen, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Dak lak. At present C. obtusifolium is cultivated in forest gardens in Phu Tho, Ha Giang, Hoa Binh, Tuyen Quang. Flowering season March-May, fruit ripe in February-March. Foliage is usually green all the year round. C. obtusifolium is suitable to tropical humid, monsoon climate and is widely distributed in ecological zones with mean annual rainfall 800-2500mm, mean annual temperature 20-22oC, elevation 50-1500m a.s.l. When young the trees prefer slight shading, when mature they are light demanding. Increment rate rather high, mean 1cm/yr in diameter, 0.8-1m in height. C. obtusifolium grows on many soil types, fast growth on better soil. It grows well on reddish brown soil on basalt, yellowish brown soil on basalt, yellowish red soil on claystone and metamorphic rock, reddish yellow soil on acidic magma. C. obtusifolium is tolerant of thin soil layer, poor soil and even land of hardpan. C. obtusifolium grows mixed with other tree species such as Michelia sp., Phoebe sp., Amoora gigantea, Gironniera subaequalis, Vatica tonkinensis. Sometimes C. obtusifolium grows in patches of 5-7 trees each in secondary forest. It usually represents high ratio in species composition of some forest types. C. obtusifolium usually occupies upper storey of forest. C. obtusifolium regeneration is rather strong in forest having mother trees. Seedlings are of all height classes. Where mother trees exist, number of regenerated seedlings is 1500-2300 seedlings/ha (Huong Son- HaTinh); K.Bang –Gia Lai). 3/ Uses: C. obtusifolium is a large-sized trees species, wood soft, brightly pale pink, specific density 0.42-0.47, little twisted, crooked, cracked and attacked by termites and woodborers. Sawnwood is for furniture making and house construction. Roots contain much essential oil. Wood is highly desired by the people. C. obtusifolium can grow on poor soil, foliage green all the year round, tap root well developed. This species can be used for protection forest constituting good timber supply for mid-land regions. Sapwood and heartwood are not clearly distinct in colour. Sapwood pale yellow, heartwood orange-skin colour, fragrant, annual rings conspicuous, usually 4-6mm wide. Vessels simple and double, scattered, tend to gather in slanted rows in regular modified direction, sometimes undulate; number of vessels per 1mm2: average. Rays small and narrow. Paraparenchyma scanty. Fibre length 1mm on the average. There are essential oil secreting cells in rays and parenchyma. Wood medium in hardness and weight. Specific density of dry wood 500kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.5. Pressure strength along the grain 537kg/cm2, static bending strength 1024kg/cm2, splitting strength 12kg/cm. C. obtusifolium wood is upto the standards satisfying the requirements of wood as raw material for veneer industry. It is suitable for furniture making. 4/ Evaluation of C. obtusifolium plantation: C. obtusifolium has been planted as trials and experimental plantations have been established in some production units but there has not been technical guidance on its planting. In the process of research we have summed up main technical details in C. obtusifolium planting. Models of C. obtusifolium plantation * Forest enrichment by planting in rows, in bands: - Tram Lap Forest Enterprise. In 1988 K’Bang district, Gia Lai, planted C. obtusifolium in rows. Poor forest, average height 15m, 5m wide rows were opened, left over bands 10m wide. In planting rows: clear cutting of climbers and bushes. Trees spacing 2m. Planted seedlings were 15 month old, 30-50cm high. Measurement was done in 1993, survival rate was 85%, mean diameter of the trees 3.86cm, mean tree height 4.38m. Trees in the left over bands appeared to overshade C. obtusifolium. Differentiation in diameter and height was not clear. Survey was done again in the year 2000, survival rate was 65%, great differentiation among the trees. Thirty percent was good trees with mean diameter of 12cm, mean height 9m. The biggest tree had D1.3-17cm, height=14.3cm. The remaining trees were suppressed by trees in the leftover bands. From 1995 now no tending was done. - Cau Hai Silviculture Centre, Phu Tho province. Research subject KN0302 B: Forest enrichment by row planting: The experimental site was an area of poor forest , big trees had been all cut, there remained only bushes and climbers, 3-4m in height. Opened rows: 2m wide, left over rows 3m wide. Trees spacing 3m. In a row, only C. obtusifolium was planted. In another row, alternative 3 C. obtusifolium trees and 3 Prunus arboreum trees.

Table 1: Growth of C. obtusifolium in Cau Hai

Formula Survival % D1.3 (cm)

H (m)

Notes

Planting in rows, bare land 90 7.2 6.2 Trees evenly good Pure planting 1600 trees/ha 91 7.1 6.1 Trees evenly good Enrichment by rows 90 8.3 7.2 Strong trees Mixed planting in rows 90 8.4 7.3 Trees evenly good

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Planting in May 1993. Measurement in the year 2000. The above table shows that C. obtusifolium planted in rows, tree height in left over rows low, height growth of C. obtusifolium is regular. This proves that this species has a rather wide ecological range. Survival rate is high, annual growth rate is rather high. * Planting of C. obtusifolium on bare land, land with bushes. Planting by project 327: in 1993 Cau Hai Silvicultural Centre planted pure C. obtusifolium in rows in the area where Styrax tonkinensis and Manglietia glauca had just been exploited, spacing 3x2m. Tephrosia candida was planted at the initial stage as cover crop. In Doan Hung C. obtusifolium was planted mixed with Canarium album and Acacia mangium. Some forest plantation models of project 327 included C. obtusifolium in the formulae: C. obtusifolium + Chukrasia tabularis + Acacia mangium. C. obtusifolium + Canarium album + Acacia mangium.

No mention was made of the laying out of species in the above mixed plantation but through their performance, necessary experiences can be drawn.

Table 2: Growth of C. obtusifolium and other species in some forest plantation models

At age 3 no differentiation is noticed among C. obtusifolium and Canarium album. In production no formulae are laid out for comparison. Due to its height and diameter growth especially crown increment, at age 3 crown diameter of A. mangium is 2.6-2.8m, the crowns almost touch one another, overshading both C. obtusifolium and Canarium album. With C. obtusifolium planted in the above mixed plantation models although no competition among species is clearly seen but the tendency of spreading of Acacia mangium crowns must be taken into consideration for timely treatment. Thick crowns of A. mangium much overshade the main planted species (C. obtusifolium, Canarium album). This is the fact worth attention to determine rows spacing or early thinning to reduce ill-affect on growth of main species. C. obtusifolium has wide distribution range, is suitable to many soil types, growth is rather fast, wood is of many uses. Seed source is abundant, seedlings are easily produced, planting technique is simple. This is a multi-purposed tree species: firewood and timber supply, establishment of protection forest, landscape adornment. It is very suitable for forest garden.

5/ Recommendation :

In nature C. obtusifolium has wide distribution range, growth is medium. Wood is much used in the household and processing industry. Leaves and roots yield essential oil. Seed is abundant, planting technique is simple. This species is little attacked by diseases and insects. Trees have main bole. C. obtusifolium can be used for timber supply plantation or protection forest. It can be planted mixed with other species or in forest enrichment by patches or rows as in models established in Kon Ha Nung and Cau Hai. C. obtusifolium can be planted on land after slash-and-burn cultivation or in areas where Acacia, Manglietia glauca and Styrax tonkinensis have just been exploited. In mixed planting there must be avoided the species the relation of which with C. obtusifolium is not known such as A.mangium, eucalypts.

* Seed: Flowering and fruiting of C. obtusifolium begin when the trees are 9-10 year old but seed should only be collected from the third flowering season onwards. When ripe the fruit coat is blackish green in colour. After collection the seeds are kept warm in 1-2 days and then the pulp is erased clean. The seeds are spread in layer 5-10 cm thick. When the seeds are no longer wet they are kept in moist sand. After germination the seeds are planted in pots. C. obtusifolium seed storage is difficult and the seeds are better sown right after collection. A kilogram of seed contains 3,200-3,500 seeds, germination rate is 70-85%. A kilogram of seed produces 1,500-2,000 seedlings. * Seedling production. The seeds sprout after being kept warm in 5-7 days and then are planted in pots or sown in seedbed. Size of P.E pots is 8x12cm. Pot mixture consists of earth in the nursery or from forest surface soil layer, light texture, decomposed farmyard manure (10-15%). The pots are arranged in raised beds, 70-80cm wide. Each pot is planted with one sprouted seed. Forty-fifty percent shading is created over the beds. Watering is done to supply sufficient moisture. After 10-20 days the young seedlings produce true leaves. When the seedlings are 3-4 month old, the shading must be adjusted to 20-30 %. There must be control of pathological fungi for the seedlings. Rusting and damping-off fungi usually appear in Spring season. Sometimes leaf-spots disease is also met. * Seedling standards. 6-7 month or 12 month old. Height 30-35cm or 50-65cm. * Planting site: Poor forest soil, soil under secondary forest, land with low bushes, land after slash-and-burn cultivation, soil of forest garden with soil layer depth 30cm and over. * Technique: + Planting system and site treatment Soil under poor forest, bushes. Planting in rows, 2-2.5m wide. Rows spacing 6m. Trees spacing 3m. Mixed planting with other breod-leaved species is possible. Mixed planting in rows results in rather high productivity: Supplementary planting with C. obtusifolium in rehabilitated forest to raise the ratio of species of economic value. Vegetation treatment must ensure the seedlings at the early stage not being totally exposed. Planting holes digging 30x30x30cm. Planting density 250, 500, 1100 trees/ha. + Planting season: Spring season: February-April. Autumn season: July-September. The P.E envelope of the pots must be torn off when planting the ball seedlings in the field.

Models Density (N/ha)

Ratio D1.3 (cm)

H (m)

D1.3/yr H/yr Age Survival rate

Pure planting 1600 6.33 5.76 0.79 0.72 8 85 Mixed planting 1660 40/60 C. obtusifolium 2.66 3 0.89 1 3 87 Canarium album 1.96 1.89 0.69 0.63 3 80 Acacia mangium 5.1 4.8 1.7 1.6 3 91

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+ Tending, maintenance: Tending must be done in 3 consecutive years if planting is done in poor forest vegetation. Climbers and bushes must not be allowed to strangle and suppress C. obtusifolium trees. Tending twice in the first year if planting is done in Autumn season. Tending 4 times if planting is done in Spring season. Content of the tending: cutting of invasive weed species 1-2 times, loosening the soil, heaping soil to tree base. Soil loosening twice before and after the rainy season. In the 2nd and 3rd years: tending 3-4 times as done above. In the 3rd and 4th years, C. obtusifolium trees are 3-4m high and can intermingle with the rehabilitated vegetation. At 20-25 years of age the trees have breast high diameter of 30-35cm, height 20-25m and can be exploited. There must be forest enrichment planting models in patches and rows in 2-3 ecological zones, each at least on 10-15ha, laying out more or less in plots for monitoring tree growth and development serving as a base for reliable evaluation and conclusion. References:

1. Forest tree species of Vietnam, 1980: Forest Inventory and Planning Institute. Agricultural Publishing House.

2. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1994: Planting technique of Cinnamomum obtusifolium, Forestry Review 6. Back to main page Next>>

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ANISOPTERA COCHINCHINENSIS Vietnamese name: Ven ven Scientific name: Anisoptera cochinchinensis Pierre. (A. costata Korth) Family: Dipterocarpaceae 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized trees species, height over 30m, stem cylindrical, straight, no buttress. Bark brownish grey. Breast high diameter can be upto 2m. Leaves single, alternate, stipules caducous. Leaf oblong, upper surface glabrous, lower surface tomentose, conspicuous veins. Leaf 10-15cm long, 5-8cm wide. Inflorescence racemose, axillary. Flowers bisexual, stamens 30-35, inferior ovary 2-celled, each with 2 ovules. Fruit globular, 1-1.5cm in diameter, wings 10-12cm long, 1.5-2cm wide. Flowering season February-March. Fruiting season April-May. 2/ Ecological characteristics: * Climatic conditions: + Mean annual rainfall: 1500-2200mm. + Mean annual temperature: 25-27oC + Average annual relative humidity: 75-85%. + Dry season lasts 4-6 months. * Edaphic conditions: A. cochinchinensis is suitable to degraded grey soil on old alluvium or yellowish brown soil on old alluvium. It is not tolerant of water logging. Soil where A. cochinchinensis is distributed is usually poor in nutrients. * Plant community Distribution range of A. cochinchinensis can be considered as lying in transitional belts from dipterocarp forest to broad-leaved evergreen forest (semi-humid, semi-deciduous, monsoon forest). In natural forest A. cochinchinensis usually grows together with other dipterocarp species: Dipterocarpus kerri, D. jourdanii, Hopea odorata and some leguminous species, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Afrelia xylocarpa, Peltophorum ferrugineum. A. cochinchinensis always occupies ecologically dominant storey or “predominant” storey in the layered structure. * Distribution range In the world: South East Asian countries: The Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia. In Vietnam: from 15oN latitude southwards. Main distribution range in South Vietnam consists of Eastern South Vietnam provinces. 3/ Uses: Distinct sapwood and heartwood: Sapwood pale yellowish white, heartwood pale yellow. Annual rings are not clear-cut, usually 5-7mm wide. Vessels simple, scattered. Double, short vessels are rare; vessel diameter medium, number of vessels per 1mm2 from few to average. Inside the vessels there is usually tylosis, Rays width : average. Parenchyma scattered and aggregate into short and narrow bands. Paraparenchyma-scanty. Fibres tracheal form, 1.6mm long. Resin conducting tubes scattered, rarely aggregate into short arcs in tangential direction. Wood is medium in hardness and weight. Specific density of dry wood is 640kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.49. Fibre situation point 28%. Pressure strength along the grain 504kg/cm2. Static bending strength 1150kg/cm2. Splitting strength 17.5kg/cm. Collision bending strength 1.17. A. cochinchinensis wood is upto the standards satisfying the requirements of wood as raw material in veneer industry. Wood has many strong points meeting the requirements of wood used in ship-building, structures requiring high strength, mainly in furniture making, communication, transport and construction. It is used for structure requiring resistance to impact and vibration. Wood is of high commercial value. Present price in the world USD 2000-2500/m3 of round wood. 4/ Evaluation of A. cochinchinensis plantation: *General remark: Before 1975, A. cochinchinensis was planted for landscape adornment in Sai Gon, Long Hai (Vung Tau), Long Thanh (Dong Nai). After 1975, A. cochinchinensis was planted in forest enrichment in Ma Da, La Nga (Dong Nai), Binh Duong. and Binh Phuoc. Upto now the former models all have been destroyed. There remain only small patches of 15-20 trees each such as in Long Thanh. Results of model establishment in some ecological zones

Planting system Total planting (industrial plantation)

Planting in bands

Agroforestry system

Forest enrichment

*Data collection location

Bau Bang (Binh Duong)

Bau Bang (Binh Duong)

Long Thanh (Dong Nai)

Phu Binh (Song Be)

General *Model area 2 ha 2 ha 1 ha 5 ha information *Technical

design N/ha=1100 trees (3x3m)

Band 1.5 wide N/ha=600 trees

Mixed in rows (5m wide) N/ha=400 trees

Mixed in rows 5m wide A. cochinchi-nensis +Hopea odorata+ D.

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It is advisable to plant A. cochinchinensis on grey soil generated on old alluvium or basalt tuff or in secondary forest soil still covered by forest vegetation. It is better to raise pure plantation in wide bands (15-20m) or mixed with Dipertocarpus alatus under Indigofera teysmanii crowns. 5/ Recommendation * Seed. a/ A characteristic of A. cochinchinensis is irregular flowering and fruiting (once every 3-4 years) thus there must be seed storage and maintaining of seedlings to serve annual forest planting plans. b/ A.cochinchinensis seeds lose their germinability quickly thus after collection the seeds must be treated and sown right away. * Planting site. A. cochinchinensis is most suitable to grey soil on old alluvium, flat topography, no water-logging, soil of depleted secondary forest. · Planting technique. a/ Soil collection: April-May when the fruit coat turns from green into dark brown. b/ Seedling production: - Seeds are sown in seedbed then are planted in P.E. pots (20x25cm) (pot mixture consists of surface layer soil

(80%) and decomposed farmyard manure (20%). - Standard of seedlings to be planted 12-14 month old; mean height: 0.6-0.8m. * Planting technique.

Pure plantation of A.cochinchinensis can be raised under the crowns of Indigofera teysmanii at 600 trees/ha density (3-6m) or can be planted mixed in rows with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. At early stage of the plantation A.cochinchinensis needs a slight shading thus Indigofera teysmanii or Hopea odorata is suitably used as support species. Forest planting is done right in the first rains of the rainy season ( June or July).

d/ Tending technique: in 7 consecutive years.

- First to third years (twice a year, one before and the other after the rainy season), mainly weeding, heaping soil to tree base, breaking the hard pan, cutting of climbers.

- Fourth-fifth years: Shoots thinning, stem shaping. - Sixth-Seventh years: canopy opening, adjustment of density (final density is about 300 trees/ha). - Besides, there must be fire control measures in dry season.

References.

1. Bui Doan. Research on planting technique of A. cochinchinensis to supply raw material for veneer and sliced veneer production. Branch level research subject (1996-2000).

alatus *Climate -Mean annual

rainfall 1800mm 1800mm 2000mm 2000mm

-Mean annual To 26oC 26oC 27oC 26oC *Edaphic

conditions

Site -Soil type Grey soil on old alluvium

Grey soil on old alluvium

Basalt tuff Grey soil on old alluvium

-Soil layer depth -pH 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 4.2-6.5 4.0-5.5 -Humus content

(%) 1.2-1.5 1.2-1.5 2-3 1.5-2

*Vegetation before treatment

Bare land after exploitation of eucalypt, Acacia auriculi-formis

Bare land after exploita-tion of eucalypt, Acacia auriculi-formis

Land after exploitation of Teak for cashew planting

Depleted secondary forest

Increment *Age 5 6 16 4 *H (m) 6.95 8.41 18.5 6.32 *DH (m) 1.25 3.31 1.15 1.58 *D (cm) 5.3 7.5 24 4.4 *DD (cm) 1.05 1.12 1.37 1.1 Remark on capability and prospect Canopy is going

to be closed, little differen-tiation among trees. High prospect to be successful

Closed canopy. High prospect to be successful, little differen-tiation among trees

Model much destronged, only small patches remain, success is not clearly seen

Good tree growth. High prospect to be successful

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2. Method of Hopea odorata, Dipterocarpus alatus and A. cochinchinensis sowing and planting. Forest Scientific and Technical Information. Forest Science Sub-Institute, South Vietnam (1983).

3. Politique forestiere µ envisager au Vietnam. 4. Paul Maurand, 1968: Dans laprÌs-guerre 5. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1980. Forest tree species of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing

House. Back to main page Next>>

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PTEROCARPUS MACROCARPUS Vietnamese name: Giang huong Other names: Huong, Sen, Loc (Ede), Toerung (Ba Na), Nang (Xu Dang) Giau san (Gia Rai), Thnong (Khmer) Scientific name: Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz. Genus: Pterocarpus Sub-family: Papilionoideae. Family: Leguminosae 1/ Morphological description: Two Pterocarpus species that are dominant in South East Asia is P. indicus (naturally distributed in the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia) and P. macrocarpus (naturally distributed in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). According to taxonomical documents, P. pedatus is also present in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam and P. cambodianus is present in Cambodia. In 1994 Look and Heald classified P. pedatus and P. macrocarpus as one sole species: P. macrocarpus. In the world, P. macrocarpus has many local names such as Padauk (Thailand), Mai dou (Laos), Thnong Krop thom (Cambodia) and Giang huong (Vietnam). (F. Coles and J.B. Boyle, 1999). According to Nguyen Tich and Tran Hop (1971), genus Pterocarpus has the following species: P. pedatus Pierre, P. macrocarpus Kurz met in South Vietnam, P.cambodianus Pierre or P.parvifolius and P. flavus Lour . Pham Hoang Ho (1991) acknowledged only two Pterocarpus species in Vietnam i.e. P. indicus Will planted in Sai Gon and P. macrocarpus present in thin forests in Dak Lak, Khanh Hoa, Bien Hoa. The Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (1978, 1980) also mentioned only two species i.e. P.pedatus Pierre and P. macrocarpus Kurz distributed in South Vietnam. Tran Dinh Ly (1993) mentioned only two species: P. indicus Will and P. pedatus met in South Vietnam. Red Book in Vietnam also notices only P. macrocarpus Kurz distributed in Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Dak Lak, Phu Yen, Song Be, Dong Nai, Tay Ninh. According to Vu Van Dung and Nguyen Quoc Dung (1998), two species of the Pterocarpus genus are found in Vietnam i.e P. indicus Will and P. macrocarpus Kurz of which P. indicus is known as a species planted for landscape adornment, planted along street sides and planted for timber supply while P. macrocarpus has very wide distribution range and is present in almost all regions. As to these authors, the following species are considered the same with P. macrocarpus Kurz: P. cambodianus Pierre, P. pedatus Pierre, P. glaucianus Pierre, P. gracilis Pierre, P. pawifolius Craib. Thus the scientific name P. macrocarpus Kurz is used in this paper. P. macrocarpus is a large-sized tree species, seasonal shedding of leaves, crown large umbrella-shaped, with buttrees at the stem base, stem straight, upto 25-35m high, diameter 0.7-0.9m or over. Bark grey, peeled in large patches, cracks along the stem; inner bark yellow, 1-1.5cm thick, containing solid sap, brightly red. Young branches slender, pale brown, tomentose. Mature branches smooth. Leaves odd pinnate, alternate, 15-25cm long, leaflets 7-11, oblong oval or ovoid, margin entire, 4-11cm long, 2-5cm wide, base rounded or obtuse, petiole short, stiff pointed tip, tomentose, upper surface shiny, lower surface pale. Inflorescence racemose, axillary, brown tomentose. Bracts usually small, right below the calyx, 2-2.5mm long. Calyx campanulate, sepals short, nearly even. Corolla with 6 petals usually glabrous. Stamens 10, filaments adnate at the base; anthers rounded, adnate of the back, lengthwise crack. Pistil with thick, tomentose pedicel, ovules 2-4. Fruit rounded, flat, 4.5-8cm in diameter, brownish yellow, pedicel 1cm long. Around the seed is a large wing, with short hairs, wrinkles and reticulated vernation, usually one seeded (Vu Van Dung and Nguyen Quoc Dung, 1998; Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1980). 2/ Ecological characteristics: P. macrocarpus is distributed in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam (J. F. Coles, and F. J. B. Boyle, 1999). In our country it was known that distribution range of P. macrocarpus was mainly in the Central Highlands and South Vietnam but recently this species was discovered in Western Nghe An adjacent to Laos i.e Tuong Duong and Ky Son (Chu Dung, Nguyen Ngoc Chinh, Nguyen Huu Hien, 1994; Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1998). In general, P. macrocarpus is usually distributed at elevation below 1000m a.sl. It usually grows along river banks, streams or near the water sources in mixed, semi-deciduous forest or in thin dipterocarp forest. It usually grows mixed with broad-leaved species such as Afzelia xylocarpa, Cassia siemea, Lagerstroemia sp., Vitex sp., Dipterocarpus intricatus, Terminalis sp., Shorea roxburghii. It rarely grows into dominant population (Vu Van Dung, Nguyen Quoc Dung, 1998). P. macrocarpus grows best on feralit soil and has medium growth on clay soil. This is a species that prefers flat land, good water-drainage, texture from light loam to medium loam generated on old alluvium and acidic magma, pH=6.5-7.0 moderate requirement of water. P. macrocarpus can initially grows on bare hills or on more or less degraded soil after slash-and-burn cultivation or forest fire. The distribution range of P. macrocarpus usually has dry and hot climate, rainfall over 1000mm, with distinct dry and rainy seasons. Dry season coincides with leaf-shedding season of the tree (Vu Van Can, 1981, Vu Van Dung, 1987). Flowering season is late February, early March. Fruit ripe in November-December, leaf shedding in January-February, weight of 1000 fruits is about 1600g and weight of 1000 seeds is about 65g (Ha Thi Mung, 2001). P. macrocarpus can be planted with seedlings or stumps. Coppicing capability: average, shoots stick fast to the stump. Regeneration of P. macrocarpus under forest canopy is poor maybe due to forest fire. Although the quantity of fruits produced annually is great but regeneration of P. macrocarpus under forest canopy or under the crowns of scattered trees is rarely met. On the contrary, coppicing of P. macrocarpus is very strong (Vu Van Dung, Nguyen Quoc Dung, 1998). * Existing P. macrocarpus populations in Vietnam and their conservation. In Dak Lak, Gia Lai, Kon Tum and Phu Yen provinces, P. macrocarpus is scatteringly distributed in some places such as Yokdon National Park, Buon Don, Dak Mil, Cujut, Buon Me Thuot, Krong Nang, Easo Nature reserve, Eavy Forest Enterprise (Dak Lak), Kon Ha Nung (Gia Lai), Krong Trai Nature Reserve (Phu Yen), Cau Doi Experimental Area-Dakbla, Dakto, Chu Mom Ray (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve. Almost all P. macrocarpus populations have been exploited in different degrees. Only the populations in Yokdon

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National Park have been little interfered and their structure still reflects species composition representative of deciduous and semi-deciduous (semi-evergreen forest) forests in the Central Highlands. In spite of this, P. macrocarpus here is only distributed in small populations, 5-10 trees/ha, mean diameter 30-50cm. Occasionally there are trees of diameter upto 80-90cm, mean height 25-30m. Populations in other places almost all have been exhaustedly exploited, natural species composition has been seriously interfered. There remain now only individual P. macrocarpus trees in slash-and-burn cultivation areas, at road sides or small scattered trees in the forest (Ha Thi Mung, 2001). In Tuong Duong and Ky Son (Nghe An) alone, P. macrocarpus regeneration and rehabilitation has been rather stable in exhaustedly exploited population. One hundred and twenty seven hectares have been demarcated and protected for forest regrowth. The biggest tree now has its breast-high diameter upto 50-60cm. Medium tree is 17-30cm in diameter. Twelve hectares have been converted into seed stand (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1998). 3/ Uses: P. macrocarpus is a large-sized precious tree species. The wood has high economic value and is rather much desired in Vietnam. Due to such value in use, P. macrocarpus has been and is being much exploited, number of individuals and populations is diminished quickly (Ministry of Science Technology and Environment, 1996). Thus P. macrocarpus gene sources conservation should be early implemented (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1997). Moreover according to the forestry development orientation in the Central Highlands region period 2001-2010, P. macrocarpus is one of the large-sized, precious tree species that must be paid attention to in cultivation for wood supply to handcraft communes producing fine art commodities and high-grade furniture (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2001). Sapwood and heartwood distinct. Sapwood pale yellow, heartwood yellow, fragrant. Annual rings conspicuous and clear-cut, usually 3-5mm wide. Vessels single and double, half vessel circle distribution. Inside the vessels there is usually a pink substance. Rays small and narrow, storied structure. Paraparenchyma aliform confluent, stretching into continuous or interrupted narrow bands in tangential direction. Fibre average in length, 1.04 mm with thick wall. Wood medium in hardness and weight, specific density of dry wood 730kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.43. Fibre saturation point 20%. Pressure strength along the grain 630kg/cm2. Static bending strength 1200kg/cm2. Splitting strength 11kg/cm. Collision bending strength 0.65 P. macrocarpus wood is upto the standards for use in high-grade furniture making, including surface broad, furniture structure requiring high strength. Besides, P. macrocarpus also yields a red sap that can be used for dyes. P. macrocarpus has beautiful form, sweet-smelling flowers and can be planted for landscape adornment, shade trees in streeds. 4/ Evaluation of P. macrocarpus plantation: Right in 1947 the French foresters did plant P. macrocarpus as a trial planting in an area of 0.5ha in the experimental area in Eakmat-Daklak. At present this trial planting has grown into a population of good growth. At this experimental area in 1999 P. macrocarpus attained average height and diameter of 16.03m and 28.49cm respectively. Mean annual increment: D1.3> 0.55cm, H > 0.3m (Ha Thi Mung, 2001). Most recently, P. macrocarpus was planted as trial in Krong Nang, Dak Lak in 1998. Seedlings to be planted were 6-month old. One year after planting, height and diameter growth were 1.25m and 19.4cm respectively (Ha Thi Mung, 2001). P. macrocarpus was also planted in Trang Bom, Dong Nai as trial planting and the trees are still maintained now. Some years ago, P. macrocarpus was also planted as trial planting in Cau Doi Experimental Area-Dakbla, Kon Tum. Four years after planting height and diameter growth were 1.6m and 2.48cm respectively (Ha Thi Mung, 2001). Thus P. macrocarpus planting is necessary and highly promising. In some regions initial research has been carried out to serve the P. macrocarpus conservation and seed supply planning such as Tuong Duong-Nghe An, Tan Hoa-Tay Ninh, Phu Cuong-An Giang (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1998). * In Tuong Duong-Nghe An: A hundred hectares in Xa Luong commune. An almost natural, pure forest has yielded fruits. Height of the trees is 10-13m, diameter 17-25cm. This area has been planned as seed stand and investment was made since 1994. * In Tan Hoa-Tan Chau-Tay Ninh: A natural forest, 100ha in area, height about 15m, diameter 30cm. Twenty five percent of the trees bears fruit. Density about 160 trees/ha. Trees subjected to seed collection: 40 trees/ha. * In Phu Cuong-Tinh Bien-An Giang: A natural forest, 20ha in area. Density at present about 25-30 trees/ha . Height is upto 18m, diameter: 25cm, fruits are ready to be collected. 5/ Recommendation: * P. macrocarpus is a large-sized, precious species that has been introduced in the Red Book of Vietnam. It has high economic value and is widely distributed in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. In Vietnam P. macrocarpus is distributed in the Central Highlands and South Vietnam provinces such as Dak Lak, Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Phu Yen, Song Be, Dong Nai, Tay Ninh and also in Nghe An. * P. macrocarpus is a species of leaf-shedding in dry season and is distributed scatteringly in deciduous or semi-deciduous tropical forests. It is little found in tropical, monsoon, evergreen forest together with some other broad-leaved species. * P. macrocarpus can grow on poor soil and in harsh climatic conditions. * P. macrocarpus has been and is being subjected to destructive exploitation and the number of trees remained is unnoticeable, mainly in some national parks and nature reserves. Effective conservation measures are needed. * P. macrocarpus can be planted at some sites in its distribution range.

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References:

1. Ministry of Science Technology and Environement (1996). Red Book of Vietnam. Science and Technique

Publishing House.

2. Vu Van Can, 1981: “Some promising forest plantation species in the Central Highlands”. Forestry Review

(10).

3. Vu Van Dung , 1987: “Precious and rare plant species that should be subjected to conservation in Vietnam”.

Specialized Information. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute.

4. Chu Dung, Nguyen Ngoc Chinh, Nguyen Huu Hien, 1994: “Discovery of P. macrocarpus in Western Nghe

An“. Forest Science, Technique and Economics Information (3). Ministry of Forestry.

5. Ha Thi Mung, 1999: “Some remarks on results of P. macrocarpus trial planting in mixed planting model with other indigenous species in Kon Tum”. Forest Science and Technique Information, Forest Science Institute of

Vietnam.

6. Ha Thi Mung, 2000: “Preliminary research on ecological relation of P. macrocarpus with other tree species in

thin dipterocarpus forest”. Forestry Review.

7. Ha Thi Mung, 2001: “Preliminary research on effect of shading degree on growth of P. macrocarpus seedlings

in nursery stage”. Science Review of Tay Nguyen University.

8. Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1998: “Prospect of P. macrocarpus cultivation and rehabilitation”. Specialized Information on Agriculture and Rural Development (2). Information Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural

Development.

9. Vu Van Dung, Nguyen Quoc Dung, 1998: Introduction of four tree species of high economic value in

Vietnam. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute. Back to main page Next>>

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TOONA SURENI Vietnamese name: Xoan moc Other names: Xuong moc, Lat khet, Truong van. Scientific name: Toona sureni (Bl.) Moore or Toona febrifuga Roem. Family: Meliaceae At present the selection of tree species for revegetation of bare land and denuded hills, forest enrichment and forest management is a problem utterly urgent, especially to serve the Five Million ha Reforestation Project of the Government. Indigenous tree species are considered important due to their adaptability to the local ecological conditions, easy seed collection, their capability in forest improvement, forest plantation establishment in simulation of nature, sustainable development. Vietnam has a tropical, diversified vegetation with utterly variable species composition. The problem is to fully understand their biological and ecological characteristics to attain stable development of the forests as well as to carry out technical measures in forest maintenance, forest planting, meeting various objectives in forest management and ecological environment conservation. In the Central Highlands one of the indigenous tree species that are worth attention is Toona sureni (Bl.) Moore. This is a species rather common in evergreen forest types, a large-sized tree species with rather fast growth, easy planting; wood is fine, easy working to make many kinds of household utensils or is used in construction, easy slicing, peeling for plywood production. 1/ Morphological description: Large-sized tree species, height upto 35m, breast-high diameter can be upto over 100cm. Stem rounded, straight, base with buttress. Bark thick, brownish grey, cracks along the stem, peeled off. Young branches dark brown. Leaves paripinnate, rarely odd pinnate, alternate. Leaflets 7-14 pairs, usually 8 pairs, nearly opposite, 8-17cm long, 2.5-7cm wide, elliptic, apex mucronate, base unequal, margin entire or crenulate. Leaf blade glabrous, base of the midrib has a tuft of hairs, lateral veins: 12-15 pairs, conspicuous on lower surface. Inflorescence racemose, apical. Flowers bisexual, corolla white, margin with fine hairs. Stamens 5, free, nearly as long as petal, sometimes with staminodes. Disk (receptacle) stout, rounded lobed, stigma cup shaped, veins 5. Ovary tomentose, 5-locular, each locule 8-10 ovules. Fruit a capsule, elliptic, 3-3.5cm long, 1cm in diameter, fruit coat with many white spots. Seed flat, brilliantly brown, wings at both ends, irregular. Tap root system. 2/ Ecological characteristics: * Distribution: T. sureni is widely distributed in Australia, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, India, Indonesia. In Vietnam it is usually found in evergreen forest in mountainous regions, below 700m a.s.l with the following ecological requirements. * Suitable elevation: below 750m a.s.l. It can grow in various topographical conditions: sides, foot of mountain, mountain crests, valleys, along the banks of rivers and streams, common slopeness <20o. * Climate: It prefers hot and humid climate, mean annual rainfall much varied: 1120-4000mm. Dry seasons lasts 3-4 months. Mean lowest and highest temperatures are 8-36oC. This species tolerates frost in a short period of time. · T. sureni prefers thick soil layer, moist, good water-drainage. It can grow on acidic or alkaline soils. · Vegetation: T. sureni grows mixed with many species in evergreen and semi-deciduous forest types. * Biological characteristics: · T. sureni is fast growing and light-demanding species and prefers hot and humid climate. · Flowering season: January-February. Fruits ripe (to be collected): April-May, black in colour. It is best to collect

the fruits when they are just ripe. Collected fruits are spread in shaded place, avoiding moisture, molding, termites, ants. Fruits are dried in mild sun in about 1-2 hours for splitting of the coat. Seed storage: Spreading in shaded place for drying then kept in well-covered jar. Germination is best within 2 months after collection.

With its ecological characteristics T. sureni has wide natural distribution range thus it can be planted and expanded in many places in the Central Highlands. * Ecological relationship between T. sureni and other tree species. In nature T. sureni grows mixed with many other species thus besides establishment of its concentrated, pure plantations to serve industry, orientation must be determined in creating mixed, simple stable and sustainable plantations, limiting the remaining problems of pure plantation. Based on mutual relation between species and between them and the environment, models are recommended as follows: · Mixed plantation model of two species: T. sureni and another species. T. sureni has good coexistence with 5 species: Pasania sp, Litsea sebifera, Endospermum sinensis, Eugenia brachyata, Garcinia gandichaudii thus there can be mixed plantation of T. sureni with one of these five species: + T. sureni + Pasamia sp. + T. sureni + Litsea sebifera + T. sureni + Garcinia gaudichaudii + T. sureni + Endospermum sinensis + T. sureni + Eugenia brachyata. · Mixed forest plantation model of three species: T. sureni with two other species: - T. sureni –Pasania sp-Garcinia gaudichaudii. - T. sureni –Litsea sebifera-Eugenia brachyata - T. sureni –Litsea sebifera-Garcinia gaudichaudii. 3/ Uses: Wood: distinct sapwood and heartwood. Sapwood pale yellow, heartwood brownish pink, fragrant. Annual rings conspicuous, clear-cut, usually 5-7mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, distribution: circle or semi-circle, there is usually a brown substance inside the vessels. Rays small and medium with sweet-smelling essential oil. Paraparenchyma-scanty and aggregate in terminal band. Parenchyma is also scattered in fibre masses. Wood medium in hardness and weight, specific density of dry wood 540kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.53. Grain saturation point 23%. Pressure strength along the grain 507kg/cm2. Splitting strength 12kg/cm. Collision bending strength 0.52. T. sureni wood is suitable for furniture making including surface board and furniture, structure requiring high strength. T. sureni roots and seeds can be used as medicines. Bark contains much tannin.

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4/ Growth of T. sureni Some basic growth and increment indices of T. sureni are as follows: · Max regular increments are: Zhmax=1.0m/yr; Zdmax=1.8cm/yr;

.Zvmax = 0.164m3/yr. · Mean max increments are Dhmax= 0.9m/yr; Ddmax = 1.4cm/yr;

Dvmax = 0.111m3/yr · Through increment indices it is found that T. sureni has rather high increment rate. In the first 10 years, height

increment is high, diameter and volume increments are low. After this stage diameter and volume increment rates are high.

Table 1: Growth and increment of T. sureni

Table 2: Time of maximum productivity and quantitative maturity

· At present no forest planting models with T. sureni are successful. There are only some trial plantings with T.

sureni in forest enrichment by band planting but the results are not yet satisfactory, survival rate is low because high ratio of trees is liable to be damaged by shoot borers.

· With its ecological characteristics it is shown that T. sureni has wide distribution range thus it can be planted and expanded in many places in the Central Highlands. This species has high growth rate, high productivity (height increment 0.9m/yr, diameter increment 1.4cm/yr), wood is much desired and can be used for making high-grade commodities thus trial forest plantings with this species with various objectives must be continued together with examining mixed plantation models, expanding the cultivation of this valuable indigenous tree species.

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A year

H m Zh m/yr

Dh m/yr

Ph % D1.3 cm

Zd cm/yr

Dd cm/yr

Pd % V m3 Zv m3/yr

Dv m3/yr

Pv %

10 9.4 0.9 6.7 0.7 0.005 0.001 15 13.5 0.8 0.9 7.22 15.0 1.7 1.0 15.26 0.092 0.017 0.006 35.48 20 16.7 0.7 0.8 4.33 23.9 1.8 1.2 9.18 0.375 0.057 0.019 24.27 25 19.4 0.5 0.8 2.96 32.7 1.8 1.3 6.22 0.872 0.099 0.035 15.95 30 21.7 0.4 0.7 2.18 41.0 1.7 1.4 4.54 1.532 0.132 0.051 10.97 35 23.6 0.4 0.7 1.69 48.9 1.6 1.4 3.49 2.290 0.152 0.065 7.94 40 25.2 0.3 0.6 1.36 56.2 1.5 1.4 2.79 3.060 0.161 0.077 5.99 45 26.7 0.3 0.6 1.13 63.0 1.4 1.4 2.29 3.914 0.164 0.087 4.67 50 28.0 0.3 0.6 0.95 69.4 1.3 1.4 1.92 4.722 0.162 0.094 3.74 55 29.2 0.2 0.5 0.82 75.4 1.2 1.4 1.64 5.506 0.157 0.100 3.06 60 30.2 0.2 0.5 0.72 80.9 1.1 1.3 1.43 6.257 0.150 0.104 2.56 65 31.2 0.2 0.5 0.63 86.2 1.0 1.3 1.25 6.973 0.143 0.107 2.16

Growth indices Age of max productivity Age of quantitative maturity H 4 10 D1.3 18 41

V 42 84

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CINNAMOMUM CASSIA Vietnamese name: Que Scientific name: Cinnamomum cassia Bl. Family: Lauraceae 1/ Morphological description C. cassia is a perennial tree species, at 30-35 years of age it can be upto 18-20m high, diameter upto 10-45cm. Leaves simple, alternate or nearly opposite. Leaf with three veins from the base to the tip. Leaves ovoid, green all the year round, poor natural pruning. All parts of the tree contain essential oil, especially in the bark (3-4% of dry weight). Inflorescence: apical, flowers small, white or pale yellow. 2/ Ecological characteristics: C. cassia is widely distributed. It can grow well in both South and North Vietnam. It is depended on whether in the South or in the North, C. cassia is distributed from 200m (in the North) to 600-800m (in the South) elevation where there is mild climate, temperature 20-29oC, high air humidity >85% and drought index low (<0.3), high annual rainfall (2000-4000mm). C. cassia is a medium–sized species. At young stage C. cassia needs proper shading. In the first two years, 40-60% shading is required. Later on shade tolerance diminishes, light demanding increases. At 3-4 years of age, C. cassia is totally light demanding. C. cassia is very sensitive to temperature. At nursery stage it tolerates only temperature as high as 40-45oC. In the forest its tolerance of high temperature is a bit better: 45-48oC. Poor resistance to high temperature may be the cause of limited distribution range of C. cassia. C. cassia is suitable to soil texture from light loam to medium loam, rich in K and humus. C. cassia can grow into pure population or mixed with many other broad-leaved species: In pure C. cassia population, competition for water and light between individuals is serious and this is expressed through drastic differentiation in C. cassia plantation after canopy closure. Flowering of C. cassia takes place 8 years after planting. Flowering is in May-June, fruits ripe in December-January. When ripe, fruit coat turns from green to dark violet, fruit a berry, one seeded. In Vietnam, C. cassia distribution is concentrated in some regions where the bark is well-known for export value such as Quang Ninh, Yen Bai, Thanh Hoa in North Viet Nam and Tra Mi (Quang Nam) and Tra Bong (Quang Ngai) in South Viet Nam. 3/ Uses: C. cassia is an endemic species of tropical forest in our country. From long ago C. cassia bark in our country (C. cassia bark of Giao chi, ancient name of Vietnam) was used as one of the four first ranking medicines curing many illnesses and as the tonics for man. Thus C. cassia bark was considered as a special product of Giao chi offered to the Northern feudal dynasties. C. cassia species has high economic value and constitutes a great source of income closely linked with the life of the ethnic groups: Dao, Muong and Thai in North Viet Nam; Ca Tu, K’Ho in South Viet Nam. That is why C. cassia was much planted in Yen Bai, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai and is considered as the heritage handed down to the young generations by the ancestors. C. cassia bark in Quang Nam and Thanh Hoa was long well-known in the world for its esential oil content and quality. This C. cassia bark is thick with high essential oil content, much desired in foodstuff, phamarceutical industries and cosmetics market in the world. Management of C. cassia is for the bark so to have high productivity and bark of good quality the trees must be big with thick, bark yielding much essential oil. Thus the management of C. cassia plantation is utterly important to ensure proper density and sufficient light for the tree development. 4/ Evaluation of C. cassia plantation: a/ Model of C. cassia planting under forest canopy In Tra Mi (Quang Nam) the K’Ho ethnic people have the habit of planting C. cassia under the canopy of depleted or just rehabilitated forests where there remain only scattered trees. C. cassia is planted in bands, rows or patches in the forest, depending on the forest status. In band planting the width of the band must be from half to full height of the forest canopy. In row planting the width of the row must be 1-2m. Planting density is 1,000-2,000 trees/ha. After 2-4 years the inferior forest trees must be gradually girdled to obtain almost pure C. cassia plantation. This model ensures C. cassia to develop nearly as in its natural environment. The trees grow well; high survival rate is obtained if tending is done timely. This model however requires more careful tending to eliminate competition of climbers and bushes at the same time the canopy must be adjusted so that in the fourth year C. cassia enjoys full light. In the gradual girdling of inferior forest trees a technique is required to avoid damaging C. cassia trees. This is important for success of this model. b/ Model of raising pure C. cassia plantation with agroforestry system at the early stage. This model is practised in Tra Bong (Quang Ngai), Quang Lam, Quang Ha (Quang Ninh), Van Yen (Yen Bai)... The Dao ethnic people in Dai Son cooperative, Van Yen (Yen Bai) and the Ca Dong ethnic people in Tra Bong (Quang Ngai) usually plant C. cassia mixed with hill rice and maize right in the first year. C. cassia is planted at density 3,300-5,000 trees/ha. In the second year cassava or leguminous species are planted to provide shading for C. cassia. Tending of hill rice, maize, cassava, beans is done at the same time with C. cassia. After 5-10 years thinning of C. cassia is done and the thinning product is sold to produce C. cassia fragments for essential oil distillation. After 20 years C. cassia bark is exploited as main product. Model of C. cassia planting with this system in preferred by many ethnic groups in many regions as the planting technique is simple with no cost of clearing the bands or rows under the forest canopy. Besides they can make full use of products of agricultural crops-short term benefits cater for long-term benefits -and from the 5th year onwards full use of C. cassia thinning product is made. This model however can only be applied where slash-and-burn cultivation just begins, the soil is still good, forest

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environment still remains. c/ Model of C. cassia planting in household gardens. This model is applied by many households everywhere especially in Ngoc Lac, Truong Xuan (Thanh Hoa), Tien Phuoc, Hiep Duc (Quang Nam). C. cassia is planted in forest gardens mixed with other kinds of fruit tree depending on the localities. In this model 2 year old C. cassia seedlings are planted at low density-about 300-500 trees/ha. At 20-25 years of age C. cassia is exploited by peeling off the bark step by step. Strong point of this model is C. cassia is little attacked by diseases and insects, easy tending and adjustment of the canopy; the ecological environment of C. cassia is ensured nearly the same as forest environment. 5/ Recommendation: a/ Selection of regions and sites for C. cassia planting: C. cassia is widely planted in provinces in the mid-land and mountainous regions of North Viet Nam, Central Highlands and South Viet Nam where the following requirements are met.

- Mild climate, mean annual temperature 20-24oC, high annual rainfall 2,000-4,000mm, air humidity over 80%, 200-400m a.s.l elevation in the North and over 300m a.s.l in the South.

C. cassia can grows well on many soil types (except soil from limestone, sandy soil, water-logging soil), soil texture from light loam to medium loam, soil layer depth over 50cm.

- C. cassia is planted when the soil remains forest soil nature such as in depleted forest, newly rehabilitated forest or where there remain good bushes and scattered trees. C. cassia should not be planted where there remain only drought resistant bushes or where no forest environment remains.

b/ Techniques concerning seed and seedlings production: C. cassia is mainly planted with seedlings. Vegetative propagation by cuttings and layering is also possible but survival rate is low, high cost and low productivity of bark. seed is collected from 15-30 year old mother trees having straight, rounded stem, normal growth and development, no attack of insects and diseases, well-proportioned foliage, heavy fruit bearing, good seed quality. Fruit ripe in January or February, fruit coat turns from green to dark violet. Fruits are collected on the tree or clearing the vegetation around the tree base to collect the fallen fruits. After collection the fruits are kept warm in some days to soften the fruit coat. Seeds are taken and spread out for drying in cool places and then sowing is done rightaway or the seeds can be stored in moist sand in 1-2 months. Before sowing the seeds are immersed in potassium permanganate solution 0.01% to prevent pathological fungi (benlate or bordeau can be used instead). Then the seeds are kept in moist sand for germination. Germinated seeds are planted in pots and the pots are then placed in beds.

- The beds of pots are watered for sufficient moisture and shading over the beds is needed. - In the first 3 months, C. cassia seedlings need shading 70-80%. Three-six month old seedlings need shading 40-50% and then the shading is adjusted till the seedlings are dispatched to planting site. - At nursery stage the seedlings must be carefully tended, avoiding attack by weeds, insects and diseases. - The seedlings can be maintained in the nursery in 9-12 months.

c/ Forest planting and tending: - Standards of seedlings to be planted out: good growth, no attack by diseases and insects, shading had been removed, size of the seedlings:

* One-year old seedlings: + H = 25-30cm + Do= 0.4-0.5cm * Two year old seedlings: + H = 50-60cm + Do= 0.6-0.8cm

- Three planting systems: + Planting under the canopy of depleted forest or newly rehabilitated forest with forest cover of 40-60%. C. cassia is planted at density 1,100-1,600 trees/ha. After 2-4 years inferior forest trees are gradually girdled for the development of C. cassia. + C. cassia can also be planted mixed with annual agricultural crops such as hill rice, maize, beans, cassava. In this planting system C. cassia can be planted at density 3,300-5,000 trees/ha. After 5-10 years C. cassia can be gradually thinned and after 15-20 years main exploitation is possible. + C. cassia is planted with various kinds of fruit tree in the forest gardens. In this system it is better to plant C. cassia with 2-year old seedlings.

- In North Viet Nam there are two planting seasons: main planting season is from January to March; autumn season is August and September. In South Viet Nam C. cassia is planted in rainy season from September to December. - After planting, C. cassia needs tending in 4 years. Content of the tending: supplementary planting, cutting climbers and bushes that suppress young C. cassia trees, keeping the soil around tree base moist, pest insect and disease control, keeping away cattle that might damage the plantation. In the tending process, forest cover must be adjusted so that in the 4th year, C. cassia trees must be exposed to full light. - There usually occur in C. cassia plantation pest insects and diseases especially the spreading of “ink streaks” when C. cassia planting is expanded at low elevation belt in Quang Nam, Quang Ngai. Timely control measures must be taken.

References:

1. Do Dinh Sam, Ngo Dinh Que, Nguyen Tien Dat, 1988: Research on determining standards and classification of soil to be planted with C. cassia in Quang Nam-Da Nang and Nghia Binh. Scientific report. Forest Science

Institute of Vietnam, Hanoi.

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2. Tran Hop, 1984: C. cassia in North Viet Nam. Doctoral biological thesis.

3. Nguyen Me Linh, 1980: Results of research on composition and content of essential oil of C. cassia. Scientific

report. Forest Research Institute, Hanoi.

4. Nguyen Ngoc Binh, 1983: Some agroforestry models with C. cassia in Hoang Lien Son. Scientific report.

Forest Research Institute, Hanoi.

5. Van Yen State Forest Enterprise, Hoang Lien Son, 1987: Technical procedure of C. cassia planting.

6. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2000: Technical procedure of C. cassia planting. Agricultural

Publishing House, Hanoi. Back to main page Next>>

Page 3 of 3

ILLICIUM VERUM Vietnamese name: Hoi Other name: Mac chac Scientific name: Illicium verum Hook. Family: Illiciaceae 1/ Morphological description: I. verum is a medium sized, indigenous tree species. Mature tree is about 10-15m high. Stem straight and rounded. Bark bright grey. Flowers bisexual, fruit etaeris, 5-8 angled stellate, people usually call “I. verum flower”. Flowering twice a year but not clear cut. First flowering season in June, fruit ripe in May-June the next year. Second flowering takes place only one month after the first one. Fruit ripe in December the next year. This is main fruit harvest, also called winter fruit season. In this season the fruits are of high quality. I. verum is a tree species planted in concentrated plantations in the border provinces of North Viet Nam to supply fruit for essential oil distillation serving domestic and export demands. I. verum is a perennial tree species with good effects on soil and water conservation. It can be planted mixed with some other tree species, combination of economic and protection objectives. 2/ Ecological characteristics: I. verum can be planted in border provinces of North Viet Nam such as Cao Bang, Lang Son, Quang Ninh with conditions are as follows: rainfall 1,200-1,800mm, mean annual temperature 20-21oC. Absolute elevation 200-800m, I. verum is planted on feralit soils generated on mica schist, clayish sandstone, soil layer depth 120cm and over, pH 4-6, minimum humus content 2%. Soil is still covered by vegetation 1.5m high and over. Many research works show that apart from the above-mentioned conditions, I. verum flowering and fruiting is only good with high quality when this species is planted in Lang Son region and the neighbouring ones such as Dong Khe (Cao Bang), Binh Lieu (Quang Ninh) and southernmost in Huu Lung. Outside the above limits, I. verum can also grow but flowering and fruiting is limited. I. verum should not be planted on soil generated from limestone; deep ravine where light is insufficient, moisture is too much; area in which dominant species are Imperata cylindrica and bushes such as Artemisia annua, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Melastioma candidum indicators of much deteriorated soil. 3/ Uses: Main product is I. verum essential oil a traditional product for cold regions to produce anis alcohol. Quality of I. verum essential oil is high, depending on aneton content. The higher of aneton content the higher the freezing point is. Various kinds of I. verum essential oils have freezing point at 17-21oC depending on their quality. The freezing point of Lang Son I. verum essential oil is at 20-21oC. According to the people’s experiences distillation of about 30kg fresh fruit gives 1kg essential oil. According to Nguyen Me Linh (1977) ratio of essential oil in fresh fruit is 1.2-2.61% in weight and 7.69-12.24% in dry fruit. The ratio of essential oil in leaves is 1.29-3.66%. Present price of I. verum fresh and dry fruit is about mean 13,000 VND/kg and 55,000 VND/kg respectively. Fluctuation of price is however also very great, sometimes upto 70,000-80,000 VND/kg of dry fruit. Occasionally it is 120,000 VND/kg. I. verum begins flowering at 5-6 years of age but fruit setting is not much. Usually highest yield and quality of essential oil are obtained with trees 20-70 years of age. Heavy fruit bearing cycle of I. verum is 3-4 years. In heavy fruit bearing years the ratio of flowering trees can be upto 80-90% the trees with fruit setting represent 45-55%. In the years of crop failure, fruit bearing trees represent only about 10%. The highest quality of the fruit is obtained in annual frost period. Seeds for propagation are also obtained in this period. The seeds are collected from I. verum trees of well proportioned, large foliage, fruit with evenly 8 angles. Thirty kilograms of fruit gives one kilogram seed. One kilogram of seed has 8,000-11,000 seeds. Newly collected seeds attains germination rate over 80%. In recent years due to market fluctuations, people usually harvest the fruits 1-2 months in advance of their maturity and fruit yield is thus much reduced. Value yielded by I. verum plantation much depends of age of the trees. I. verum plantation at 40-50 years of age usually has high productivity. At this age in heavy fruit bearing years a tree of I. verum plantation in Van Quan can yield upto 300kg of fresh fruit. Normal yield is however mean 3-4 kg of fruit per tree in the whole plantation. Mr. Chuc in Binh Gia has 300 I. verum trees, also 40-50 years of age, harvests annually 700-800 kg of dry fruit. Mr. La Vi, Vice Chairman of Tu Xuyen commune-Van Quan has 20 I. verum trees about 80 years of age with mean annual yield about 60-70 kg of dry fruit. In Yen Trach, Cao Loc, Lang Son, I. verum plantation on greyish yellow soil generated on mica schist soil layer depth over 80cm, still produces much flowers and fruits. I. verum is planted mixed with Canarium album at hill foot. 4/ Evaluation of I. verum plantation: I. verum is main planted species in Lang Son, Cao Bang and Quang Ninh regions. Main region is however still Lang Son. At present, with the results of production at some State-run units and of the people, it can be confirmed that this species is entirely suitable for the areas having conditions as said above. Van Quan and Binh Gia in Lang Son province are main planting areas of this species. Almost all I. verum plantations in these areas do produce plenty of flowers and fruits with high quality. Newly planted I. verum plantation on reddish yellow soil, soil layer depth > 60cm in main planting area of the I. verum company, density planting 500 trees/ha (in 1980’s), spacing 4x5m, remained density now is 420 trees/ha, attains mean tree height 2.81m, length of stem section under branches 1.43m, crown diameter 3.11m. The trees develop rather well and already produce fruit. However the management and tending is now only protection, little investment and annual harvest is 200-300kg of fruit. Also in this area I. verum is planted mixed with Camellia oleifera. Mixed planting of C.oleifera is at hill foot between two rows of I. verum, rows spacing 3-4m. I. verum still grows well as aboe. C. oleifera trees attain 2.5-3m in height, crown diameter 3-3.4m and already produce fruit. However some trees grow well but do not produce fruit. Some I. verum plantations 70-80 years of age usually have stem diameter 25-30cm, height 10-12m. Some trees that produced few fruit were cut in the period the price of I. verum fruit was too low. The remained density is about 150-

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200 trees/ha with mixed planting of some other species such as Canarium album, Mandarin, Tea... I. verum mixed with Tea, Camellia oleifere and Canarium album at hill foot proves successful. C. album trees 30 year old, stem diameter 22-30cm, height 11-13m grow very well, creating sustainable forest environment. It can be seen that in Lang Son I. verum planted in conditions where the soil is still good is obviously successful. Technical investment is however still much limited especially with old-aged I. verum plantations where the people mainly harvest the fruits, the trees are little tended and nursed. 5/ Recommendation:

· I. verum is a planted species of very high value and has been widely planted and rehabilitated in its main planting region: Lang Son and the adjacent areas lying in Cao Bang and Quang Ninh provinces. At present the value of I. verum fruit is much higher than in the past, true of its merit. In the 70 decade of the XX century, one kilogram of dry I. verum fruit was equivalent to only 1-1.5kg of rice on the market but now one kilogram of dry I. verum fruit is equivalent to 12-15kg of rice. · To have I. verum plantations of high productivity there need be tending and rejuvenating measures for the existing I. verum plantations. · Using advanced techniques of vegetative propagation, planting with grafted trees using material from heavy fruit bearing trees, research on grafting to improve the trees yielding few fruits in the existing I. verum plantation for productivity improvement.

References:

1. Nguyen Ngoc Tan (1976-1980): Effects of light, water and fertilizing regimes on I. verum seedlings at nursery

stage.

2. Bui Nganh-Tran Quang Viet (1981): Some measures in I. verum sowing in Lang Son.

3. Nguyen Me Linh (1977): Preliminary study on dynamics of essential oil accumulation and treatment of I.

verum fruits.

4. Nguyen Ngoc Binh (1981): Results of preliminary research on selection of soil and land use in I. verum

plantation establishment.

5. Cao Lang Provincial Forestry Service (1977): Technical procedure of I. verum plantation raising.

6. Doan Thi Bich (1998): Technical guidance on I. verum planting. Back to main page Next>>

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LITSEA GLUTINOSA Vietnamese name: Boi loi nhot Other name: Boi loi do Scientific name: Lisea glutinosa (Lour) C.B. Rox Family: Lauraceae 1/ Morphological description : Medium-sized trees species, 25-30m high, diameter 40-60cm. Stem straight, branches small. Bark grey in colour, many conspicuous lenticels. Small branches pale brown. Leaves simple, alternate. Leaf oblong, 12-13 cm long, 3-4cm wide, mucronate, base cuneate, glabrous on both sides, lateral veins 7-10 pairs petiole slender, 7-10mm long. Inflorescence racemose, petals tomentose. Flowers pale yellow. Fruit globular, 10-15mm in diameter. When ripe the fruit is blackish violet coverd with white powder, One kilogram of seed contains 2,500-3,000 seeds. 2/ Ecological characteristics: L. glutinosa is usually met in secondary forest or rehabilitated forest after slash-and-burn cultivation below 1,000m elevation. This species is frequently met in Gia Lai, Kon Tum and Binh Dinh provinces. L. glutinosa is adaptable to regions with average annual temperature 19-21oC, total annual temperature 7000-8000o C. The period of average temperature > 20oC lasts 7-8 months.

- Average rainfall 2,000mm/yr. - A.s.l elevation: below 1,000m - Soil: from medium to better.

This is a species requiring moderate moisture, average light. It is suitable to high-land, hilly and flat topographical conditions and grows in secondary forest or rehabilitated forest after slash-and-burn cultivation. L. glutinosa usually grows mixed with Endospermum sinensis, Cinnamomum sp, Canarium sp., Eugenia sp., Ormosia sp.... At young stage, growth is average. L. glutinosa is usually green all the year round. Flowering season May-June, fruit ripe in October-November. 3/ Uses: L. glutinosa is a forest tree species selected by the people in the Central Highlands for cultivation from 1991 now. It is a rather fast growing species with many values, a multi-purpose tree species. Wood is yellow in colour, little attacked by termites and wood borers. It can be used for furniture making. L. glutinosa bark is used for making joss-sticks, raw material for glue production, medicines (Le Van Minh, 1996). L. glutinosa is used for scattered tree planting, protection forest. 4/ Evaluation of L. glutinosa plantation: L. glutinosa was planted by the people in Gia Lai and Kon Tum since 1991, around home gardens, on abandoned slash-and-burn cultivation areas. Planted area in Gia Lai and Kon Tum are 52 ha and 6 ha respectively. No statistics has been made about scattered tree planting. At present scattered tree planting with L. glutinosa is rather popular in Mang Giang, Chu Pa, Chu Pong (Gia Lai). Gia Lai and Kon Tum provinces both chose L. glutinosa for planting of production forest. In 1993, Hoa Binh forest planting enterprise planted 50 ha with L. glutinosa in the suburb of Pleiku township. The planting site has reddish brown feralit soil on basalt, thick soil layer, humus content 1-2%, bare land and grasses savana, pH 4.5-5.5. Planting density 2,500 trees/ha. Mixed planting of bean and ground nut was done in the first two years. In the year 2000 mean height growth was 7.5 m, mean diameter 9.5 cm. Moderate differentiation among trees. The remaining density is 1,200-1,700 trees/ha. In scattered planting, growth of L. glutinosa is faster. With the same climatic and soil conditions mean diameter attained 14.5 cm, height 13,7 m. L. glutinosa was much planted by the people in Gia Lai, Kon Tum since 1991-1993 but full evaluation has not been made. There were only some rather simple technical reviews. 5/ Recommendation: From practical cultivation of L. glutinosa, some technical experiences have been drawn with main points to be applied in its concentrated or scattered planting.

· Seed: Fruit ripe in October-November. Fruits are collected and rinsed to remove the fruit coat. Drying for almost dry fruit and keeping the fruits warm in moist sand . Seeds sprout after 10-15 days and are then planted in pots. Slight shading is provided for the seedlings (40%). · Standards of ball-seedlings: - Age: 6-7 month old. - Height: 25-30 cm. - Diameter at the base: 2-4 mm. 6-8 pairs of leaves. · Soil conditions: main site types: brownish red soil in savanna of bushes, flat land in the hot and dry highlands (Code 4R4 DCa3d1) (Tran Van Con, 2001). Tran Van Con (2001) recommended L. glutinosa forest planting in mixed system, agroforestry system. Ratios of the mixture L. glutinosa: 60%, fruit trees, coffee: 40%. Mixed planting in rows. Management rotation 10-15 years. Planting can be done in patches. Suitable trees spacing is 3 m if rows spacing is also 3m. For success of a forest plantation species there must be full review of techniques, investigation on market as well as its values in use. There must be supplementary study on these aspects.

This is a species of easy planting, with abundant seed source. People already have the habit of cultivation of this species and elementary techniques are already available. There must be research on aspects for expansion of this species, supplementing the collection of forest plantation species in contribution to increasing the people’s income in the Central Highlands.

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References:

1. Nguyen Ba Chat, 1994: L. glutinosa planting. Forestry Review, No. 7/1994.

2. Le Van Minh, 1996: Planting of L. glutinosa. Forest Review No. 4-5/1996.

3. Tran Van Con, 2000: Determination on some planted species for production forest in North Central

Highlands. Scientific report. Forest Science Institute of Viet Nam, 2001.

4. Names of forest tree species in Viet Nam. Agricultural Publishing House, 2001. Back to main page Next>>

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VERNICIA MONTANA: Vietnamese name: Trau Other names: Trau nhan, Trau ta, Trau la xe Scientific name: Vernicia montana Lour. Family: Euphorbiaceae 1/ Morphological description; V. montana is an indigenous, oil yielding tree species that has been planted in Viet Nam from long ago. This is a species that yields a special product once much desired in home and overseas markets. This is a medium sized tree species that can be 15-16 m high. Bark smooth, pale brown in colour; young branches green. Leaves simple, alternate, petiole 7-12 cm long (occasionally 20 cm), leaf blade 4-5 lobed; at tips of branches leaf blade may be slightly lobed or entire (cordate). Flowers monosexual monoecious or dioecious, separate clusters of male and female flowers. A cluster of male flowers can have upto 100-250 flowers while a cluster of female flowers has only 5-50 flowers. Fruit a capsule, globular, 4-5 cm in diameter, 3-seeded at maturity. Seed with hard coat, dark brown, embryo white. Processing of 3-4 kg of seeds gives 1 kg seed. One kilogram of seeds contains 300-400 seeds. 2/ Ecological characteristics: V. montana grows and produces flowers and fruits best in sub-tropical climate conditions inclined to moist tropical climate with such features as: average annual temperature 20-25oC, rainfall 1,600-2,500 mm, 3-4 dry months. V. montana grows well on reddish yellow or yellowish red feralit soils; soils layer depth > 80 cm on metamorphic parent rock or alluvium such as mica-schist, gneiss, porphyry, basalt; soil texture from light loam to average loam, humus content 1.5-3%, N 0.1-0.2%. Good tree growth is on soil pH 5-5.5. 3/ Uses: V. montana is an indigenous, fast growing and multi-purpose tree species. Wood is used for firewood, good raw material for edible mushroom production. V. montana yields an oil used in processing of many kinds of consumer good such as industrial paint, plastics, artificial leather, detoxicant, medicine for boil curing. Oil cake of V. montana seed is a very good fertilizer. There contain in the oil cake 77.58% organic matter, 3.5% N, 0.97% P, 0.5% K. Besides after removal of all toxic substances, oil cake can be used as a feeding for animals. Oil content of the seed is about 25-30%. A problem of V. montana is low seed productivity as there are male and female trees. However as V. montana oil is a commodity much affected by export market, the expansion of this species has gone through many ups and downs and at present it is going down hill. Many V. montana trees bear fruits but the fruits are not harvested due to too low a price on the market. Due to the above-mentioned situation some V. montana plantations have been cut serving other purposes such as fuelwood. Recently V. montana wood was used as raw material to produce edible mushrooms. On the average the price a stere of V. montana wood is 70,000-120,000 d depending on the localities. In production of Jew’ ears a stere of wood can produce 15-20 kg Jew’s ears. Wood is whitish beige in colour. Annual rings conspicuous and clear-cut, usually 4-7 mm wide, sometimes 10 mm. Vessels simple and double, short, distribution in circle or semi-circle pattern. Rays small and narrow. Parenchyma scattered and aggregate forming narrow bands in some places, paraparenchyma scanty and hardly distinguished from the fibres. Fibres are average in length and have thin wall. Wood soft and light, specific density of dry wood 430 kg/m3. Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.40. Pressure strength along the grain 320 kg/cm2; static bending strength 480 kg/cm2. Splitting strength 8.5 kg/cm. Collision bending coefficient 1.35. V. montana wood can be used for stationery and particle boards production. It is not advisable to use V. montana wood for structure requiring high strength. Wood is easily decayed after harvesting and there must be measures for preservation of wood as raw material to ensure the product quality. 4/ Evaluation of V. montana plantation: V. montana is a fast growing species, easy planting. At its golden age, this species was planted in tens of thousand hectares in our country. Simple planting method and most easy to be successful is direct seed sowing. Vegetation at the planting site is cleared and removed, planting holes are dug and seed sowing is done. Planting season is after seed collection. Two –three full seeds are sown in a planting hole. After the emergence of the seedlings, tending must be done in time allowing no suppression of V. montana trees by weed species. V. montana grows rather fast. Height growth in the first year can be 1.5-2 m and with good tending V. montana trees can quickly overtake the layer of weed species, occupying the upper storey. However if planting is done by direct seed sowing the number of heavy fruit bearing trees is not high, number of trees with few fruit or no fruit is rather high while main objective of the planting is fruit production for oil. Fruit productivity of V. montana planted by seed sowing is only about 460-500 kg seed/ha. Planted with grafted trees, productivity can be 3.5-4 times more. V. montana plantation in Thanh Minh commune (Dien Bien) was planted by direct seed sowing with initial density 2,500 trees/ha and thinning has been done for firewood. The plantation is on feralit soil generated on chalkstone, soil layer depth over 80 cm, 500 m a.s.l elevation. Growth status is as follows:

fruit bearing trees: 56%, heavy fruit bearing trees: 12% (> 500 fruits/tree). Twenty two –year old V. montana plantation already manifests some sign of poor growth; crowns are disintegrated, heavy fruit bearing trees remain few.

Samples collected Density D1.3 (cm) Htop (m) H under branches (m)

D crown (m)

Six-year old plantation 1250 trees/ha

13.63 8.04 4.53 5.18

Twenty two-year old plantation

250 trees/ha 50.62 14.20 6.70 7.67

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In general newly planted V. montana plantations still have rather high increment. General law however is trees of heavy fruit bearing are few. Research results on some V. montana plantations in Lai Chau (1996) by Tran Quang Viet show that 5-8 year-old V. montana plantation has annual height increment: 1.38-1.83 m and annual diameter increment: 2.34-2.74 cm. The ratio of fruit bearing trees of V. montana plantation in Muong Lay in 1999 was 70% and trees of 500-1,000 fruits represented 8%. Trees of over 1,000 fruit represented only 2%. Researches by Le Dinh Tram (1990) show that 4-5 year old V. montana tree in former Ha Son Binh had mean increments in height and diameter: 1.28-1.40 m /yr and 1.95-2.0 cm/yr respectively. Number of fruit bearing trees represented about 47-54%. In general V. montana planted in Lai Chau province has better growth and ratio of trees that bear fruit is higher than in other regions. This is also the locality previously had largest area of V. montana plantation. At present some areas are still planted with this species serving various purposes and the trees grow well, established plantations represent high ratio, promptly exserting good effects on soil and water conservation although not in long duration. 5/ Recommendation: + V. montana is an indigenous, fast growing species, easy planting, suitable for expansion in some provinces in the North West, Mid-land of North Viet Nam and the Central Viet Nam. Besides oil, V. montana is also planted for other purposes such as firewood supply. Some documents in foreign countries also motioned the use of V. montana wood for plywood production but this is not practised in our country. + V. montana can be planted for quick revegetation, soil and water conservation, before planting other indigenous, shade-tolerant, broad-leaved species. V. montana wood is presently used for Jew’s ears production with high efficiency. + If V. montana is planted for oil, planting must be done with grafted trees using material from heavy fruit bearing trees and only so high fruit yield is ensured. + If the objective is for wood, planting can be done with seed. When conversion of the plantation into plantation for fruit is needed, improvement can be carried out by grafting in plantation 3-6 years of age. At that time wood harvesting is combined with using the stumps as stock. Thus quick conversion into plantation for fruit is possible at the same time full use is made of the wood harvested. References:

1. Ta Quang Bich ,1989: Research on grafting V. montana with scions in Lai Chau.

2. Duong Hong Dat, 1990: Oil yielding tree species in Viet Nam

3. Ngo Quang De, Le Mong Chan, 1988: V. montana. Agricultural Publishing House.

4. Do Thanh Hoa, 1987: Investigation on soil planted with V. montana, Forestry General Department 2/1987.

5. Planting technique of V. montana: Silviculture Vol. II. Agricultural Publishing House.

6. Handbook on planting techniques of industrial crops 1978. Agricultural Publishing House.

7. Le Dinh Tram, 1990: Research on technical measures for cultivation of high-yield V. montana plantation

8. Tran Quang Viet, 1996: Contribution to studying some ecological characteristics of V. montana and some

measures for its plantation establishment and improvement to raise fruit yield. Back to main page Next>>

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CAMELLIA OLEIFERA Vietnamese name: So Other names: So dau, Che dau, Mac ca dau Scientific name: Camellia oleifera (Camellia oleosa Rehd). Family: Theaceae 1/ Morphological description: C. oleifera is a small-sized tree species, average height is 6-7m, usually 3-5 stemmed. Bark brown or grey, branches numerous, rather thick foliage with different shapes: umbellate, ovoid, cone-shaped, pyramidal, cylindrical. Leaves simple, alternate, petiole short, leaf blade margin serrate; size and shape of leaf blade vary with different localities. Flowers bisexual, white, no pedicel; corolla 5-7; stames 35-40, yellow, inferior ovary 3-4 locular. Flowering season October-December, flower buds appear in spring and wide open in May-June. Fruit rounded, apex slightly concave or oblong. There are also fruits swollen in the middle, slightly concave at both ends (in Thanh Hoa). Size and weight of fruit differ from different varieties and localities, average diameter 3-6 cm, fruit coat 0.5-1 cm thick, many-seeded, seed yellowish brown or greyish brown, shining black when mature. Kernel contains oil. In general, fruit of tea-like C. oleifera has smaller size and weight than that of mandarin like and Diospyros decandra like varieties, fruit coat is also much thinner. 2/ Ecological characteristics: C. oleifera has a rather wide distribution range in Asian Sub-tropical region consisting of China, Viet Nam, Laos, Myanmar and India, from 18o21 to 34o34 N latitude. In Viet Nam C. oleifera has been planted southernmost to 17oN latitude of Vinh Linh and Cam Lo etc.. Areas long planted with C. oleifera in our country mainly lie in North Viet Nam border provinces such as Quang Ninh, Lang Son, Cao Bang, Ha Giang, Lao Cai and some provinces in Mid-land region of North Viet Nam such as Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, Yen Bai. C. oleifera is suitable to regions with mean annual air temperature 18-24oC, absolute lowest temperature 2-3oC. This species needs cool air temperature in January for oil accumulation in the seed. However it can also be tolerant of high air temperature of wind from Laos in the summer months. C. oleifera prefers relative humidity of 65-70% at flowering period and 80-85% at fruit bearing period. Suitable rainfall is 1300-1500mm. It requires total sunshine hours 1500 hours/yr and over. At less than 2 years of age the trees need slight shading. At maturity they need full light for good flowering and fruiting. C. oleifera grows well in hilly region of elevation below 500 m a.s.l. However at 900 m elevation in An Hey and 1700-2000m elevation in Quang Chau and Yunnan mountainous regions, China, C. oleifera still produces flowers and fruits. In our country C. oleifera grows well below 800m elevation. Some authors said that at higher elevation C. oleifera grows slowly and essential oil content is low. C. oleifera is modest in soil requirement. It can grow and produce plenty of flowers and fruits on yellowish brown, yellowish red, reddish yellow soil on parent rocks such as mica-schist, sandstone, rheolit as in Lang Son; on red basalt soil in Vinh Linh-Quang Tri, on fixed sandy soil in Vinh Chap-Vinh Linh. C. oleifera grows well and produces plenty of fruit on red basalt soil with soil layer depth 50 cm, humus content over 1%. 3/ Uses: C. oleifera is planted for oil in the fruits. Oil extracted from the seeds can be used as an edible oil after removal of toxic substances. C. oleifera oil has been used in many localities in our country. Oil content in dry C. oleifera seeds is 20-25% and in the kernel is 40-50%. C. oleifera planted in our country produces some fruit samples with oil content of the kernel upto 52%. Oil-cake of C. oleifera immersed in water to extract crude oil can be used for soap production or after extraction of toxic saponin it can contain 32% protein and is a good animal feeding. Oil cake can be used to produce an insecticide mixture. Saponin extracted from oil cake is used as a substance producing bubbles, detergent in industry, especially a disinfectant for hygiene of lake and pond in aqua-culture. Through hydrolysis fruit coat of C. oleifera can be used to produce ethyl alcohol, butyric acid. Tannin extracted from C. oleifera fruit coat is used in leather tanning. Tannin content in the fruit coat is 9.26%. Besides, it is also used to make activated carbon through pyrolysis or substrate for production of edible mushrooms. C. oleifera wood is used, make household utensils, rather durable; branches are used to make charcoal or as firewood. Results from recent survey on C. oleifera plantations in Nghia Dan-Nghe An show that their economic effienciency is rather high. Plantation established in 1970-1972 has now a density of 755 trees/ha (90.6% as compared with initial density), mean productivity 3000kg seed/ha/yr equivalent to 780-800kg oil/ha/yr (handicraft extraction). Cost of management, maintenance and harvesting is 2.8-3.2 million VND annually. Selling of dry seeds, after deduction of expenses gives an revenue 7.1-7.8 million VND/ha/yr (seed price is 3.300-3.500 VND/kg). If extraction of oil is done together with oil cake, the revenue is upto 8.4-9.3 million VND/ha/yr (Nguyen Quang Khai, 2001). The above regular revenue is attractive enough to forest managers. 4/ Evaluation of C. oleifera plantation: C. oleifera plantations in the North Viet Nam border region-Cao Bang, Lang Son., Quang Ninh- are usually about 30-50 years of age. They were planted in hilly areas at below 800m a.s.l elevation on feralit soils generated on mica schist, phyrit, soil layer depth medium or deep. Planting system was usually mixture with Illicium verum, pear, persimmon scattered at hill foot. Some plantations are now at strong vigour with annual flowering and fruiting and have been even since edible oil sources for local people . There are 4 varieties of C. oleifera that were planted here. Dry fruit productivity is usually not high, varying between 1.33-1.88 kg/tree (Density now is about 625 trees/ha). Ratio of oil in dry kernels is 33.33-34.88%. In these areas C. oleifera has rather clearly heavy fruit bearing cycle: In heavy fruit bearing year fruit productivity can be 5-6 times higher than in the year of crop failure. Most of the plantations that give fruit harvest is those of the people on small scale. Large and concentrated plantations are not effective. In 1969 Lang Son province mobilized a campaign for planting over 10,000 ha of C. oleifera but the remaining area is now unnoticeable. In some places C. oleifera was cut for planting other crops (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1997). Recent survey shows that C. oleifera areas planted at that time nearby the hamlets managed by the people still exist

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with average productivity of 2-3 kg seed/tree. However in some places the remaining scattered trees are not many and people pay little attention to tree tending and fruit harvesting. Fruits are only collected in the years of high prices. The oil used for cooking is also gradually reduced as animal fat is not scarce as in the past and handicraft processing method can not remove all toxic substances. In the mid-land region of North Viet Nam and North Central Viet Nam, some provinces such as Yen Bai, Phu Tho, Thanh Hoa and Nghe An, planted orange and tea varieties of C. oleifera. Trees in some places grow well but produce very few fruits. No research has been done on the cause of the above situation. In some regions such as Phu Yen -Son La, Nghia Dan-Nghe An, C. oleifera has rather high productivity. C. oleifera planted by Dong Hieu Agricultural Enterprise and C. oleifera planted by the people in Gio Linh and Cam Lo-Quang Tri province is mainly of tea variety. As there was no output for the product in a long time, in many areas C. oleifera was replaced by other crops such as sugar, tea. At present some remaining areas have been allocated to the people for management and productivity has been raised as said above. However attention must be drawn to the fact that the soil here is still good. Soil layer is rather thick and the C. oleifera plantation are well managed by the people through annual tending and fertilizer application as with an industrial crop, quite different from former cultivation practice. In Vinh Linh there remain in some communes such as Vinh Trung, Vinh Tuyen some areas of C. oleifera of good fruit producing. Thuy Trung, Vinh Trung cooperative alone harvested over 10 tons of C. oleifera seed in 1996. Recently however some C. oleifera areas were destroyed for rubber planting, a tree of higher economic value. C. oleifera plantations here were planted very long ago. In Vinh Chap, a garden of C. oleifera that is about 100 years of age, on coastal fixed yellowish sandy soil, still produces many fruits annually. Some trees are rather heavy fruit bearing (15-20 kg seed/tree/yr). Therefore some people are expanding C. oleifera planting to neighbouring areas. Though practical C. oleifera cultivation some remarks can be made as follows: + C. oleifera has been planted rather widely in our country. Some planted areas lie outside its natural distribution range. This proves that adaptability of C. oleifera is high. Productivity depends on individual trees and soil in the planting region. + North Viet Nam provinces plant more varieties of C. oleifera, usually yielding bigger fruits and more seeds but thicker fruit coat. + A majority of C. oleifera plantation on the hills now is situated near the houses and receives good tending and management. Intensive management investment on this species is very necessary if high fruit productivity is expected. Productivity of C. oleifera plantations now is generally low. Scattered planting of C. oleifera in patches does not bring about good harvest and protection is met with many difficulties. However there have been discoverd in practice in some clones individual trees in of high fruit productivity and high oil content of the seed. These trees can be used as mother trees for programmes of expanding this species. 5/ Recommendation: C. oleifera is an oil yielding species, the oil is of high quality. It should be planted in regions of suitable conditions. Intensive management of C. oleifera is needed with higher investment rate than other forest species. C. oleifera varieties of superior characteristics of our country must be selected planted in combination with the varieties of high productivity of other countries. Those existing C. oleifera plantations with low productivity must be improved by grafting to obtain higher yield. Investigation and research are needed in establishment of protection forest models in which C. oleifera is planted mixed with other indigenous broad-leaved species to provide annual products for the people practising forest production. References:

1. Documents of scientific seminar on C. oleifera (8/1997). Forest Science Institute of Viet Nam.

2. Tran Quang Viet, Nguyen Quang Khai, 1997: C. oleifera cultivation in Viet Nam.

3. Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1997: Research on germplasm and expansion of C. oleifera in Viet Nam. Research

Results.

4. Vu Thi Dao, 1997: Some research results on industrial processing of C. oleifera seeds.

5. Nguyen Quang Khai, 2001: C. oleifera- a plant oil source of high economic value of Viet Nam.

6. Truong Van Phuong (Peking Publishing House, 1959). C. oleifera and its fruit processing. Translated by Ton

That Loc 15/9/1969. Back to main page The end

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