part i: identifying research topics part ii: frequency ......frequency distribution 4. using the...

Part I: Identifying Research Topics Part II: Frequency Distribution

Brandé Flamez Rick Balkin September 9, 2009

Five Main Components

  1. Identifying research topics   2. Specifying research questions and

hypotheses   3. Formulating operational definitions   4. Identifying research variables   5. Collecting and analyzing data

Identifying Research Topics   Identify some topic that may:

  Contribute to the profession’s knowledge base in a meaningful way

  Stimulate and motivate students to explore and learn more about the topic

  According to Heppner, Wampold, & Kivlighan (2008) good first step:   1. Collect information about previous research

both within and outside of counseling   Read professional journals

Identifying Research Topic Cont.

  2. Look for literature reviews on specific topic

  3. Spend at least 5 hrs a wk reading and exploring journals for 6wks or more

  4. Use faculty and student resources on campus.   Your advisor-great resource

Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses

  After identifying a possible research topic:   Become knowledgeable about previous research

on topic   May write your own formal review paper   Examine key studies

  Pay attention to discussion section   Authors discuss future research needs, next logical

step

  Pay attention to constructs used in previous research

Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses Cont.

 Research questions:  Research hypothesis:

  Three useful categories of research:   1. Descriptive questions   2. Difference questions   3. Relationship questions


  1. Descriptive questions   What some phenomena or events are

like   Experimental manipulations typically not

used   Collect info on surveys, interviews to

describe events


  2. Difference questions   Are there differences between groups of

people or within individual participants?   Tend to focus on groups of individuals

  Groups may differ or receive different treatment

  Ex:


  3. Relationship questions   Explore the degree to which two or more

constructs vary together   Often use correlational statistics or

regression analysis   Ex:


 What makes a testable research question?   According to Kerlinger and Lee (2000):

  1. worded clearly and unambiguously in question form

  2. should inquire into a relationship between two or more constructs (is construct A related to construct B)

Formulating Operational Definitions

 Operationally define each construct   Operationally defined

means___________________________.   The primary purpose of an operational

definition:

Identifying Research Variables   The effect of ______ variable (varied, altered, what

you are manipulating) on the ______ variable (what you are measuring, observing, changed).

  Other names for independent variable:   1.   2.   3.

  Other names for dependent variable:   1.   2.   3.

Collecting and Analyzing Data

  Process of data collection depends on the design of the experiment

Frequency Distribution

 A way to present information on scores for a group

 Scores are listed from highest to lowest

  Percentiles can be easily calculated


Exam Scores 98 85 80 76 67 97 85 80 76 67 95 85 80 75 64 93 84 80 73 60 90 82 78 72 57

88 82 78 70

87 82 78 70

87 80 77 70

Frequency Distribution 1.  Order all of the scores in a single column

  This is known as the raw score

2.  Identify the number of people who made that actual score   This is known as the frequency

3.  Starting from the lowest score, identify all of the participants who made that score or below   This is known as the cumulative frequency

Frequency Distribution 4.  Using the frequency (2nd column)

identify the percent of people who made that particular score by dividing the frequency by the total number of participants

5.  Starting from the lowest percent, identify all of the participants who made that percent or below   This is known as the cumulative percent

See Handout

Score Frequency cf percent cum percent

98 1 37 2.70% 100%

97 1 36 2.70% 97%

95 1 35 2.70% 95%

93 1 34 2.70% 92%

90 1 33 2.70% 89%

88 1 32 2.70% 86%

87 2 31 5.41% 84%

85 3 29 8.11% 78%

84 1 26 2.70% 70%

82 3 25 8.11% 68%

80 5 22 13.51% 59%

78 3 17 8.11% 46%

77 1 14 2.70% 38%

76 2 13 5.41% 35%

75 1 11 2.70% 30%

73 1 10 2.70% 27%

72 1 9 2.70% 24%

70 3 8 8.11% 22%

67 2 5 5.41% 14%

64 1 3 2.70% 8%

60 1 2 2.70% 5%

57 1 1 2.70% 3%

100%

Raw Score distribution


Interval Frequency cf percent cum

percent 96-100 2 37 5.41% 100.00% 91-95 2 35 5.41% 94.60% 86-90 4 33 10.81% 89.19% 81-85 7 29 18.92% 78.38% 76-80 11 22 29.73% 59.46% 71-75 3 11 8.11% 29.73% 66-70 5 8 13.51% 21.62% 61-65 1 3 2.70% 8.11% 56-60 2 2 5.41% 5.41%

Interval Distribution

Group Exercise   Create a frequency distribution using the

same data in intervals of 10.

98 85 80 76 67 97 85 80 76 67 95 85 80 75 64 93 84 80 73 60 90 82 78 72 57 88 82 78 70 87 82 78 70 87 80 77 70

One possible answer

Interval Frequency cf percent cum

percent 90-99 5 37 13.51% 100.00% 80-89 15 32 40.54% 86.48% 70-79 12 17 32.43% 45.94% 60-69 4 5 10.81% 13.51% 50-59 1 1 2.70% 2.70%

SPSS   Frequency Distribution Tables pg. 62

in GW   Frequency Distribution Histogram or

Bar Graph pg. 63   Let’s practice using SPSS: problem 1

pg 66.   Scores are: 4, 6, 2, 9, 8, 6, 5, 7, 7, 3, 6,

6, 7, 3, 7, 4, 5, 8, 6, 5   Make a frequency table and histogram

Non-Normal (Skewed) Distributions

  Positively Skewed Distribution: the majority of scores fall on the low end of the distribution; many low scores, few high scores

Non-Normal (Skewed) Distributions

 Negatively Skewed Distribution: the majority of scores fall on the high end of the distribution; many high scores, few low scores

 A very difficult exam would probably produce a ______ skewed distribution. (Hint: Draw)

 A very easy exam would probably produce a ______ skewed distribution.

part i: identifying research topics part ii: frequency ......frequency distribution 4. using the...

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