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Part 1 Review Slide 2 APES year in review 2009 Slide 3 Easter Island Sustainability - A system/process can continue indefinitely without depleting resources used. *no sacrifice to future generations* Easter Island flourishing population of 10,000+ used up islands trees faster than they could regenerate. Without trees, islanders couldnt build canoes, fish, build homes, etc. People starved and within 300 years, only 2000 remained Slide 4 Scientific Method 1. Define the problem (?) One that is testable. 2. Research 3. Hypothesis 4. Experiment -Variable (s) - Independent- (tested) * only one. - Dependent (measured) Valid measures what it was intended to. Reliable- repeatable 5. Collect Data Quantitative- numbers -Qualitative- appearance 6. Conclusion 7. Report You may be asked to set up an experiment. (Need large trial groups) 10 + Slide 5 Slide 6 Ecosystems Levels of organization of matter Universe Ecosphere/biosphere Ecosystems Communities Populations Organisms Cells Atoms Slide 7 Plants and animals interacting with their abiotic environment. Ecosystems exist in biomes. Climate av. temperature over time *Weather daily variations in temp and precipitation Microclimate and Other Abiotic Factors * Light intensity * Soil type * Topography Ecosystems Slide 8 Trophic Relationship Food webs Trophic levels * producers * herbivores *primary carnivores Slide 9 Biomass and Biomass Pyramid All biomass gets its energy from the sun Only 10% of energy from one trophic level moves to the next trophic level Energy released is high potential energy molecules (like glucose) then converted to low potential energy molecules (like carbon dioxide) * concept of eating lower on the biomass pyramid Slide 10 Ecosystem Diversity Biodiversity depends on: latitude (tropical is most diverse, polar is lowest. Depth in aquatic systems diversity increases to ~ 2000m, then declines (in aquatic, diversity declines w/pollution) Slide 11 Generalist species (R-species) have broad niches, and can survive in many places, a Specialist pecies (K-species) has a narrow niche, and can only survive under certain conditions. Keystone Species -species are more important than biomass suggests (ex: flying foxes/bat pollinate plants, elephants uproot trees creating forest openings, beaver dams) = stabilizing effect on ecosystem Loss can lead to domino effect loss of more and more species Indicator Species- indicates environmental changes. * frogs- water pollution. Invasive Species-(non-native) Cane toad. Species Slide 12 Relationships Mutualism * Flowers & insects Commensalism Parasitism Predator/prey Host/ Parasite Competition habitat vs. niche Competitive interactions Intraspecific competition b/t members of the same species Interspecific competition b/t 2 or more different species for food, space, etc. Interference competition one may limit anothers access to some resource Explotative competition - one species can use a resource faster (exploit it) humans do this often Slide 13 Limiting Factors Biotic & Abiotic Temperature, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide, precipitation Optimum levels Zones of stress Limits of Tolerance Range of Tolerance * Pond Water Gizmo Synergistic effects The interaction of two or more factors is greater than the sum of the effects when each acts alone. Example: pollution and disease Slide 14 Carrying Capacity Slide 15 Major Terrestrial Biomes: ecological communities adapted to climate of the region (most have ECOTONES). Desert near equator. hot & cold Grassland enough rain for grass to live, but not enough for big trees, -can be: Tropical (savanna) biggest in Africa = warm all year, 2 long dry seasons has lots of grazing animals) Temperate (in the plains in N.&S. America =.cold winter, hot/dry summers, not much rain, so deep fertile soil, prairie grass) **often used to grow crops, can lead to erosion of soil. Chaparral temperate shrubland along coastal areas, naturally maintained w/periodic fires (people in this area like CA, experience fire loss often) Slide 16 Tundra (v. cold, no trees, ice/snow, reindeer/caribou (dont hibernate instead have thick coats), has spongy mat of short plants which grow during 6-8 weeks of sun) **contains permafrost stays frozen year round and prevent liquid water from getting deep underground = marshy in the summertime. * Melting Alpine tundra above limit of tree growth, similar to arctic tundra, has no permafrost Forest mod. to high precipitation, lots of trees/smaller vegetation Tropical Rainforest= lots of biodiversity (50-80% of terrestrial species), dead decompose quickly, little leaf litter, large canopy Temperate (deciduous forest = avg. rain and change significantly during the seasons, deciduous forests (*lose leaves in winter) including: oak, hickory, maple, poplar, many plants at ground level have been cleared to make tree plantations Evergreen Coniferous (called boreal or taiga) = v. cold winters, short, mild summers, cone-bearing trees (*have leaves year-round, needle- shaped, waxy ex: spruce, fir, cedar, hemlock, pine), low plant diversity, slow decomposition of leaf litter. Slide 17 Slide 18 An ecotone is a transition area between two adjacent ecological communities. (ecosystems). Riparian Slide 19 Slide 20 Aquatic Biomes: Oceans Euphotic zone (lighted upper zone w/photosynthesis, high DO, low nutrients, predatory fish), Bathyal zone (dimly lit middle zone, zooplankton/smaller fish). Abyssal zone (dark lower zone/little DO/lots of nutrients Upwelling / Nutrients Downwelling/ Oxygen Slide 21 Lakes littoral zone (shallow sunlit water near shore/to depth plants stop growing), limnetic zone (open sunlit surface layer away from shore/produces food for the lake), profundal zone (deep ocean water/too dark for photosynthesis), benthic zone (bottom of lake inhabited by organisms that tolerate low DO and temp.) Slide 22 Oligotrophic lake nutrient poor lake Eutrophic lake nutrient rich lake sometimes caused by runoff of fertilizer (nitrates/phosphates into lake cultural eutrophication Slide 23 Freshwater streams/rivers Source zone (turbulent headwaters, lots DO, fish w/flattened bodies). Transition zone (headwaters merge = wider, deeper streams = more producers, lower DO) Floodplain zone (streams join into rivers that meander across valleys, higher temp, less DO, empty into ocean) Slide 24 Energy flow - * very important / energy is most often stored in glucose. Photosynthesis: CO 2 + water + solar energy glucose + O 2 Very inefficient (Only 1% of the energy from the sun is used) Cellular respiration Aerobic resp.: Glucose + oxygen CO 2 + water + energy Anaerobic respiration: breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen products are methane (CH 4 ), ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) * pew Slide 25 Ecological succession gradual change in species composition of a given area. Primary succession (can take thousands of years) Secondary succession (150-200 years) Slide 26 Fires in Ecosystem Maintain balance of species and energy in ecosystems over the long run. Beneficial b/c provide nutrients for soil. * grasslands We avoid natural fires, but the problems like Crown Fires- (not natural) kill the whole tree 1988 Yellowstone fires changed climax ecosystems of white bark pine trees to huckle berries. * Grizzlies eat both. Slide 27 Carbon Cycle Carbon Cycle based on CO 2 gas which makes up 0.0036% of our troposphere, important because it is a major component of the earths thermostat Movement of Carbon in the sea: Soluble in water, so can stay dissolved in the sea REMEMBER: the warmer the water, the LESS gas the water can hold, so as water warms, more CO 2 returns to the atmosphere. * Colder water holds more O 2 Some removed by photosynthesis producers Some reacts with seawater to form carbonate ions (CO 3 - 2 ) which later can react with Ca ions to form CaCO 3 hardened shells of many sea creatures (when the organism dies, the shells can then be converted to limestone over time), plants in the sea can also die and over the years form fossil fuels. Slide 28 Carbon Sinks-, sediments, oceans, biofauna. Slide 29 Movement of Carbon on land: Autotrophs absorb CO 2 Aerobic respiration gives of CO 2 Buried dead plants (over millions of years) are compressed, form fossil fuels (like coal/oil) when burned give of CO 2 Slide 30 Nitrogen cycle Main reserve in the atmosphere Living things must get N from ammonium (NH 4 ) or nitrate (NO 3 ) N from the atmosphere must be fixed Change N 2 into ammonium or nitrate Rhizobium (bacteria living in roots of legumes) ---- Lightning Burning fossil fuels * Industrial Slide 31 Slide 32 Phosphorus cycle No gas phase, only solid and liquid. * Rocks Man-made fertilizers contain organic phosphates Because P is a limiting factor in aquatic systems, it leads to eutrophication. The rain forest is very good at recycling P, except when we cut it down Slide 33 Slide 34 Element Main nonliving reservoir Main living reservoir Other nonliving reservoir Human-induced problem Carbon C Atmosphere CO 2 Carbohydrates (CH 2 O)n And all organic molecules Hydro Carbonate (CO 3 -2) Bicarbonate (HCO 3 -) Litho minerals Global warming Carbon from fossil fuels underground are burned and released into the air as CO 2 Nitrogen N Atmosphere N 2 Proteins and other N- containing organic molecules Hydro Ammonium NH4+ Nitrate NO 3 - Nitrite NO 2 - Eutrophication Fertilizers contain human- made nitrates that end up in the water Phos- phorous P Lithosphere rocks as PO 4 -3 *no gas phase DNA ATP phospholipids Hydro Phosphate PO 4 - 3 Eutrophication Fertilizers contain human- made phosphates that end up in the water Cutting down rainforest stops recycling of P Slide 35 Diversity ? Top 6 most abundant elements in living things (not in order) * NCHOPS Top 8 elements in the earths crust (in order) * O, Si, Al, Fe (iron), Ca, Na (sodium), P, Mg Only silly apes in college study past midnight. Slide 36 Evolutionary Change Vocabulary that you need to know * DNA * Chromosome * Gene * Allele Central Dogma: DNA- blueprint RNA- carpenter Protein- house, wood Slide 37 Cambrian Explosion- Life You are here. Geological time scale Slide 38 Why do species change? Environmental resistance and biotic potential. Selective pressure on mutations. Speciation * creation of a new species based on reproductive isolation. Slide 39 Evolution the change in a populations genetic makeup through successive generations - Microevolution small genetic changes that occur in a population. Occurs in species with genetic variation, one genetic variation is more adapted to survive, that genetic variation reproduces more, becomes more common (example: peppered moth) natural selection -Macroevolution long-term, large-scale evolutionary changes, leads to a new species forming and the other species being lost to extinction. -Co-evolution occurs when two populations of two different species interact over a long period of time, changes occur in the gene pool of one species lead to changes in the other Usually occurs with carnivores: Owls that have better eyesight can catch more mice, so they thrive mice that run faster avoid being eaten by the owls. Slide 40 Mutations Mutations (changes) are naturally random events. * Normal variation- diversity of organisms * Chemical * UV * Radiation * Genetic Trait- only passed down if an organism reproduces. Survival of the Fittest Slide 41 Natural Selection Directional changing environmental conditions cause individuals at one end average to become more common than mid-range it pays to be different -Stabilizing eliminates individuals on either end of genetic spectrum, favors individuals w/avg. genetic makeup pays to be average -Diversifying environmental conditions favor individuals at both extremes it does not pay to be normal Slide 42 Figure 9-1 Earths water supply Water Slide 43 Water Facts The primary use for fresh water in U.S. is for agriculture. In our homes, we use the most fresh water to wash, clean and flush. The typical person in an industrialized nation uses 700-1000 gallons per week! Slide 44 World Fresh Water Supply Largest lake 20 %. of fresh water. Lake Baikal, Russia 4000 Miles Slide 45 Water cycle powered by the sun and gravity, a natural cycle that acts to purify water **only cycle that does NOT involve a chemical reaction (only a physical change of state) Evaporation (liquid water to water vapor) Transpiration (liquid water on leaves/roots into water vapor) Condensation (water vapor to liquid water clouds/fog) Precipitation (rain/sleet/hail/snow) Infiltration (liquid water into the soil) Percolation (downward flow of water into the soil and aquifers) Runoff (down slope surface movement of water back to the sea to resume the cycle) Slide 46 Slide 47 Human effects on the Hydrologic Cycle Figure 9-3 The Hydrologic cycle Anthropogenic Slide 48 Aquifer -S-Salt water intrusion Slide 49 Slide 50 Rain shadow Figure 9-6 Rain shadow Slide 51 Mono Lake Excellent example of human interference with the water supply. The water in the lake was diverted from the lake to the city of Los Angeles. It became a salt bed. Salt concentration due to evaporation Slide 52 Three Gorges Dam in China China needs to meet the growing demand for energy Huge environmental impact Hundreds of thousands of people will be displaced (not to mention the ecosystems which will be flooded)