Paragraph Writing

Unit 1 Introduction to the Paragraph

1.1 What Is a Paragraph

1) A paragraph is the necessary and important unit of thought in writing.

2) It is usually a series of sentences that develop one controlling idea.

3) It is a part of a larger piece of writing composition or chapter in a book.

4) It must be about one single topic.

1.2 The Form of a Paragraph

1) It begins with an empty space called an introduction.

2) A paragraph also has margins on the left and right side of the paper.

3) There will also be top and bottom margins for a single paragraph.

4) Do not begin a new line with each sentence.

5) There is no specific number of sentences in a good paragraph.

1.3 Functions of a Paragraph

1) Paragraphing therefore helps to break the writer's flow of thoughts.

2) It separates one idea from another, one aspect of a matter from another, one stage of deve lopment from another.

3) The paragraph is a way of combining sentences into a larger unit of discourse.

Unit 2 Paragraph Structure

2.1 Topic Sentence

1) The topic is the general subject of the paragraph.

2) The controlling idea limits the topic so that the paragraph covers only a specific part or aspect of it.

For example:

In the late 19th century, a man named Sir Francis Galton made the fiIn the late 19th century, a man named Sir Francis Galton made the first attempt to scientifically measure human intelligence.rst attempt to scientifically measure human intelligence. Galton tried Galton tried to use a psychological approach to his testing, rather than the medicato use a psychological approach to his testing, rather than the medical/anatomical approach of scientists and researchers before him. From l/anatomical approach of scientists and researchers before him. From 1884 to 1890, Galton ran a service in a museum in London, where p1884 to 1890, Galton ran a service in a museum in London, where people could pay for a test of their intelligence. However, the specific eople could pay for a test of their intelligence. However, the specific tests that Galton chose to use were not very good ones. For example, tests that Galton chose to use were not very good ones. For example, in one test, Galton tried to find the highest-pitched sound a person cin one test, Galton tried to find the highest-pitched sound a person could perceive, so he made a whistle for people to listen to. In anotheould perceive, so he made a whistle for people to listen to. In another test, he tried to measure people’s sensitivity to the smell of roses. Tr test, he tried to measure people’s sensitivity to the smell of roses. Thus, Galton tried to show that intelligence could have a scientific mehus, Galton tried to show that intelligence could have a scientific measure, but he was not able to create a test that truly did this.asure, but he was not able to create a test that truly did this.

2.2 Supporting Details

A good paragraph has several supporting sentences.

These sentences give details, such as facts, specific details and examples, which relate to the topic sentence.

For example:

Flooding always brings severe damages to Mississippi baFlooding always brings severe damages to Mississippi basin. The flooding in 1995 had caused the death of 12 peopsin. The flooding in 1995 had caused the death of 12 people, destroyed nearly 3,000 homes, blew down thousands ole, destroyed nearly 3,000 homes, blew down thousands of fruit trees, and wiped out a good portion of the crops anf fruit trees, and wiped out a good portion of the crops and poultry. The flooding altogether caused US $ 10.2 billiod poultry. The flooding altogether caused US $ 10.2 billion worth of damage, which reduced the Mississippi’s 1995 n worth of damage, which reduced the Mississippi’s 1995 GDP by 0.05%. Therefore, the government should take iGDP by 0.05%. Therefore, the government should take immediate measures to prevent the disaster’s happening agmmediate measures to prevent the disaster’s happening again.ain.

2.3 Concluding Sentences

The concluding sentence of a paragraph may provide a summary of the paragraph, or give a result.

Some typical words or expressions you might find at the beginning of a concluding sentence are finally, in conclusion, therefore, thus, as a result, in summary, and in short.

For example:

Teaching students with different learning styles may seem like a diffTeaching students with different learning styles may seem like a difficult task, but a teacher can find ways to satisfy the various learning icult task, but a teacher can find ways to satisfy the various learning preferences found in a class. One effective way might be to use multpreferences found in a class. One effective way might be to use multimedia in the classroom as much as possible. For example, the use oimedia in the classroom as much as possible. For example, the use of visual aids will help in cases where words alone may not be effectif visual aids will help in cases where words alone may not be effective. Regalia, or tangible objects, may be useful for teaching new infove. Regalia, or tangible objects, may be useful for teaching new information as well as motor skills. Other helpful teaching techniques mirmation as well as motor skills. Other helpful teaching techniques might utilize motion and performance so that students are actively invoght utilize motion and performance so that students are actively involved in the learning process. Even testing, which most often is done tlved in the learning process. Even testing, which most often is done through the printed word, can be handled through electronic media shrough the printed word, can be handled through electronic media such as computers. uch as computers. In short, teachers may want to use various techniqIn short, teachers may want to use various techniques in the class room in order to help students with different learning ues in the class room in order to help students with different learning styles.styles.

2.4 Three Special Paragraphs 2.4.1 Opening Paragraphs 1) Begin with an observation:

It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.

--Jane Austin, Pride and Prejudice

2) Begin with a quotation or literary allusion

“Habit the second nature! Habit is ten times nature,” the Duke of Wellington is said to have exclaimed; and the degree to which this is true no one probably can appreciate as well as one who is a veteran soldier himself. The daily drill and the years of discipline end by fashioning a man completely over again, as to most of the possibilities of his conduct.

---William James

3) Begin with an analogy or contrast

Music comes in many forms; most countries have a style of their own. Poland has its polkas. Hungary has its czardas. Brazil is famous for the bossa nova, Caribbean countries for the meringue, and Argentina for the tango. The U.S. is known for jazz, a completely original type of music that has gained world-wide popularity.

---Robert C. Lugton

4) Begin with a question

What would you say to your children if you caught them cutting pieces off butterflies’ wings to see how it affected their ability to fly? Killing insect pests is fair enough, but most of us would feel unhappy about our children mutilating animals for curiosity’s sake.

---Phil Gates

5) Begin with a relevant story or anecdote One cold afternoon in 1937 a football game was taking plac

e. The players were students at Harvard University, near Boston, in the United States of America. American football is a rough game in which it is easy to get hurt. The players are usually strong, solid young men. But on this occasion one player was tall and thin. He wasn’t really heavy enough for football. But he was keen to succeed in spite of that. He loved outdoor games and played most of them well. Whatever he did he did with all his heart. He was John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Twenty-three year later he would become Present of the United States.

---Carol Christian

6) Begin with an interesting factual statement or point of view

Few Americans stay put for a lifetime. We move from town to city to suburb, from high school to college in a different state, from a job in one region to a better job elsewhere, from the home where we raise our children to the home where we plan to live in retirement. With each move we are forever making new friends, who become part of our new life at that time.

---Mead and Rhoda Metraux

7) Begin with a definition

The word “justice” is usually associated with courts of law. We might say that justice has been done when a man’s innocence or guilt has been proved beyond doubt. Justice is part of the complex machinery of the law. Those who seek it undertake an arduous journey and can never be sure that they will find it. Judges, however wise or eminent, are human and can make mistake.

---L.G. Alexander

2.4.2 Closing Paragraphs 1) End with a significant quotation which supports the thesis

And so we agree with Emerson: “Every great and commanding moment in the annals of the world is the triumph of some enthusiasm.”

--Barbara Williams, 12 Steps to Better Exposition

2) End with a question

If humor can be used successfully against such odds, what can’t you and I do with it in daily life?

3) End with a prophecy or a warning based on the thesis

We can save, conserve, cut out waste, but what we have we must keep. The only solution, as always in the history of mankind, is to solve problems by still further advance in technology.

4) End with a forceful restatement of the thesis through the use of balance, emphasis, or other rhetorical devices

…and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

--Abraham Lincoln, “Gettysburg Address”

5) End with a generalization

Nothing in the universe has more grandeur than the infinity of the human mind. Even pea-sized computers capable of forecasting the movement of the galaxies are not more wondrous than the mysterious human creature that produced them. The ultimate frontier is not geographical or spatial but intellectual.

--Norman Cousins, “The Conquest of Pain”

Unit 3 Effective Paragraphs

3.1 Paragraph Unity

3.1.1 Singleness of purpose

For example: Unity means singleness of purpose. There should be one and only one c

entral thought in a paragraph, around which all the sen tences in it hang together, and towards which they all contrib ute something.

3.1.2 Topic Sentence

A good topic sentence must satisfy the following requirements: (1) It must be a complete sentence containing at least one complete tho

ught. (2) It should be clear and should state the one idea of the paragraph in a

manner that is easy to recognize; otherwise, the reader may misunderstand the meaning or gets confused.

(3) It should be specific. When a topic sentence is specific enough, the topic is limited to the size suitable for a paragraph.

(4) It should be well-worded. You should find the right words or choose words that can best express your meaning.

3.2 Paragraph Coherence 3.2.1 Coherence through Cohesive Devices (1) Transitional words and phrases.

Not confined to conjunctions and adverbs, they are used to indicate shifts in thought or to mark progress in writing. Essentially they perform logical functions such as:

a. addition, e.g. in addition a. addition, e.g. in addition the next wasthe next was A is followed by BA is followed by B another friendanother friend b. illustration, e.g. the example asb. illustration, e.g. the example as for instance for instance exemplify, typifyexemplify, typify likelike c. temporal or logical sequence, e.g. first, secondc. temporal or logical sequence, e.g. first, second the next daythe next day follow, precedefollow, precede d. causation…d. causation… e. contrast …e. contrast …

(2) Substitution

(3) Repetition of key words.

(4) Repetition of structure.

(5) Metalanguage ("language about language").

3.2.2 Coherence through Logical Arrangement (1) Natural logical sequence (2) Dominant impression

3.3 Paragraph Emphasis

(1) Proportion

The greater proportion of space is given to the most important idea.

(2) Position

The beginning and ending of a paragraph are of greater emphatic value than the middle; thus another way to emphasize the most important idea is positioning—to have it appear, not in the middle, but at the beginning or at the end.

(3) Climatic order

Wherever there is a series of ideas in a paragraph, it is much better to have it arranged in the order of increasing importance.

Unit 4 Methods of Developing Paragraphs

4.1 Time Paragraph

The easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last.

For example:

On Wednesday evenings my uncle and I spend an enjoyable hour plaOn Wednesday evenings my uncle and I spend an enjoyable hour playing golf. After dinner, my uncle picks me up in his station wagon aying golf. After dinner, my uncle picks me up in his station wagon and we zoom over to the Bethpage Center. After a quick change of clnd we zoom over to the Bethpage Center. After a quick change of clothing in the locker room, we play an exciting but exhausting hour oothing in the locker room, we play an exciting but exhausting hour of golf. Then we usually go into the sauna for ten minutes before hittif golf. Then we usually go into the sauna for ten minutes before hitting the showers. On the way home, we sometimes stop for beer of ice ng the showers. On the way home, we sometimes stop for beer of ice cream; of course, the loser always pays the bill. When I get home, I’cream; of course, the loser always pays the bill. When I get home, I’m ready for a good night’s sleep.m ready for a good night’s sleep.

4.2 Process Paragraph A process paragraph is one that explains how something is done or mad

e. It describes definite steps in a necessary order. It is connected by enumerative transitions such as “First,… Second,…Third,…” and so on.

The developers in a process paragraph must present steps precisely in the order that will bring about the desired result. If the order of the steps in the process were changed, the result would be quite different.

For example:

When you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you shoulWhen you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing, a form of artifd begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing, a form of artificial respiration. First, place the victim on his back and remove any ficial respiration. First, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers. Then, tilt his head boreign matter from his mouth with your fingers. Then, tilt his head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up. Next, pull his mouth open ackwards, so that his chin is pointing up. Next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. After this, you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. After this, place your mouth tightly over the victim’s. Blow into his mouth untiplace your mouth tightly over the victim’s. Blow into his mouth until you see his chest rise. Then, turn your head to the side and listen fol you see his chest rise. Then, turn your head to the side and listen for the out rush of air which indicates an air exchange. Repeat the procr the out rush of air which indicates an air exchange. Repeat the process until the person regains breath.ess until the person regains breath.

4.3 Example Paragraph

Using examples to develop a general idea in a paragraph is a common

strategy that writers employ. Development by examples is also called

development by illustration.

For example:

We tend to use certain parts of our face to communicate certain emWe tend to use certain parts of our face to communicate certain emotions.otions. For example, For example, research tends to support the notion that our research tends to support the notion that our eyes and eyelids are the most accurate indicators of fear. When we eyes and eyelids are the most accurate indicators of fear. When we are afraid, our eyes are wide open and we may look straightforwarare afraid, our eyes are wide open and we may look straightforward with a “blank star” until the threat passes or we learn to control d with a “blank star” until the threat passes or we learn to control

our emotions.our emotions.

4.4 Space Paragraph

A writer must find a good angle to observe the object.

He may take a bird's eye view of it.

The former tends to be general and the latter detailed.

For example:

My room is on the first floor of a building in Norman, South CarolinMy room is on the first floor of a building in Norman, South Carolina. It is a large room about ten meters long and five meters wide. The a. It is a large room about ten meters long and five meters wide. The walls are light blue and the ceiling is white. On one side of the room walls are light blue and the ceiling is white. On one side of the room there are three windows. On the opposite wall, in the middle, there is there are three windows. On the opposite wall, in the middle, there is a brown door and next to it, there is a light switch. There is a large ba brown door and next to it, there is a light switch. There is a large bed in one corner of the room. Above the bed there is a painting of a led in one corner of the room. Above the bed there is a painting of a landscape. Next to the bed, there is a night table. On the night table, tandscape. Next to the bed, there is a night table. On the night table, there is a lamp. On the other side of the night table, there is a closet. here is a lamp. On the other side of the night table, there is a closet. On the other side of the room there is a sofa. To the left side of the sOn the other side of the room there is a sofa. To the left side of the sofa, there is a television set. To the right side of the sofa, there is a litofa, there is a television set. To the right side of the sofa, there is a little end table and on this table there is a radio. In the center of the rootle end table and on this table there is a radio. In the center of the room, there is a blue Oriental carpet on the floor. There is a nice table wm, there is a blue Oriental carpet on the floor. There is a nice table with four chairs around it on this carpet. A white tablecloth and a bowl ith four chairs around it on this carpet. A white tablecloth and a bowl of flowers are on the table. On the whole, it is a cheerful and comforof flowers are on the table. On the whole, it is a cheerful and comfortable room. table room.

4.5 Definition Paragraph

Definitions are particularly important for limiting the intended meaning of abstract or technical terms .

There are two types of definition: formal definition and ex

tended definition.

Tips for expanding formal definitions:

•  Defining with examples •  Defining with description •  Defining with comparison •  Defining with process

4.6 Cause and Effect Paragraph

Causal analysis involves the ability to see cause and effect relationships between two elements.

When we investigate the reason for something, we are either answering the question, why did this happen? Or, What will this do?

The answer to the first question we label cause; the answer to the second question we label effect.

In order to arrive at a cause, we need to distinguish among three kinds: necessary, sufficient and contributory.

4.7 Classification Paragraph

Classification means dividing people, objects, processes, concepts, or ideas into various classes, groups, or categories according to some logical principle.

What is being classified here must be a plural subject or a subject with a plural meaning.

For example:

Mayer grouped obesities into two major categories: regulMayer grouped obesities into two major categories: regulatory and metabolic. In the former, the central mechanism atory and metabolic. In the former, the central mechanism regulating food intake is impaired; in the latter there is an regulating food intake is impaired; in the latter there is an inborn or acquired error in the metabolism of the tissues tinborn or acquired error in the metabolism of the tissues themselves. In the first case, habitual overeating can lead themselves. In the first case, habitual overeating can lead to secondary metabolic abnormalities; in the second, peripo secondary metabolic abnormalities; in the second, peripheral metabolic dysfunction may interfere with the regulatheral metabolic dysfunction may interfere with the regulating centers in the brain.ing centers in the brain.

4.8 Opinion Paragraph

4.9 Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

A comparion shows how two or more things are alike, and a contrast shows how they are different.

Comparison and contrast often appear together.

For example:

The teacher works as your coach or trainer. If you were bThe teacher works as your coach or trainer. If you were becoming a professional tennis player or musician, you woecoming a professional tennis player or musician, you would expect your coach to look out for ways of improving uld expect your coach to look out for ways of improving your performance, and for criticize your work all the time;your performance, and for criticize your work all the time; you would be silly to feel fed up about this---in fact you you would be silly to feel fed up about this---in fact you would sack your coach if she just said everything was finwould sack your coach if she just said everything was fine. So if you get work back with a poorer mark than you ee. So if you get work back with a poorer mark than you expected and with various criticisms, don’t feel discouragexpected and with various criticisms, don’t feel discouraged by this; if you don’t understand what is wrong and how d by this; if you don’t understand what is wrong and how to improve, then ask your teacher to explain and don’t be to improve, then ask your teacher to explain and don’t be satisfied until you do understand.satisfied until you do understand.