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Geochemistry of loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley, India: Provenanceand weathering

Ishtiaq Ahmad ⇑, Rakesh Chandra

Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar 190 006, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 18 January 2012

Received in revised form 7 December 2012

Accepted 25 December 2012

Available online 11 January 2013

Keywords:

Loess-paleosol

Middle to Late Pleistocene

Geochemistry

Provenance

Paleoweathering

Kashmir Valley

India

a b s t r a c t

Middle to Late Pleistocene loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley, India, were analyzed for major,

trace and REE elements in order to determine their chemical composition, provenance and intensity of

palaeo-weathering of the source rocks. These sediments are generally enriched with Fe2O3, MgO, MnO,

TiO2, Y, Ni, Cu, Zn, Th, U, Sc, V and Co while contents of SiO2, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, Sr, Nb and Hf are lower

than the UCC. Chondrite normalized REE patterns are characterized by moderate enrichment of LREEs,

relatively flat HREE pattern (GdCN/YbCN = 1.93–2.31) and lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly (Eu/

Eu� = 0.73–1.01, average = 0.81). PAAS normalized REE are characterized by slightly higher LREE, depleted

HREE and positive Eu anomaly. Various provenance discrimination diagrams reveal that the Kashmir

Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived from the mixed source rocks suggesting large provenance with var-

iable geological settings, which apparently have undergone weak to moderate recycling processes.

Weathering indices such as CIA, CIW and PIA values (71.87, 83.83 and 80.57 respectively) and A-CN-K

diagram imply weak to moderate weathering of the source material.

� 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Loess blanket about 10% portion of the globe (Pye, 1987). The

loess deposits are usually found very close to desert margins, to

the mountainous areas, in flood plains of large rivers, on shallow

marine shelves emerged during the last glacial periods and in the

periglacial environment. Almost all the known loess deposits are

essentially of Quaternary age, but little ancient loess with age as

old as Late Precambrian has been recognized (e.g., Edwards, 1979).

In the last two decades, loess deposits have attracted increasing

attention of the Earth Scientists mainly because of their potential

preservation of the past climatic records. Their aeolian origin was

established more than a hundred years ago by the pioneering work

of Von Richthofen (1882) on the Chinese Loess deposits. At present,

an aeolian origin is generally accepted but the detailed processes of

the loess formation with increasing complexity are also recognized

(Smalley and Smalley, 1983). For example, a significant part of the

loess deposits has been reworked and subsequently redeposited.

The chemical composition of loessic sediments is closely related

to the mineral composition of the dust sources, post-depositional

weathering and transportation of sediments from source region

to depocenter. The bulk chemistry of these sediments preserves

the near-original signature of the provenance. Consequently, loess

differs in chemical composition from one region to another and

even from one stratigraphic unit to another (Pye and Johnson,

1988; Taylor et al., 1983). These sediments also more faithfully re-

veal paleoweathering conditions (e.g., Yang and Ding, 2004; Yang

et al., 2006; Ujvari et al., 2008; Muhs et al., 2001, 2008). Like other

clastic sedimentary rocks, these loessic sediments also subjected to

various degrees of chemical weathering and leaching. As loess

weathers, elements that are soluble under surficial weathering

conditions (e.g., Ca2+, Na+, K+) can be readily leached out relative

to stable residual constituents (Al3+, Ti4+) during weathering (Nes-

bitt and Young, 1982). If weathering is strong and persistent, silica

is released, residual sesquioxides can be concentrated, and even

some new sesquioxides can be formed. While low degree of weath-

ering of sedimentary rocks indicates the absence or weak chemical

alteration of the sediments. Thus, the fluctuation in chemical

weathering intensity reflects the systematic variations of element

abundances. The relative variations of various elements have been

used to ascertain the degree of chemical weathering (Nesbitt and

Young, 1982; Price and Velbel, 2003; Jin et al., 2006; Yang et al.,

2006; Ceryan, 2008). Numerous investigations corroborate the

above aspects pertaining to provenances and weathering of loessic

sediments based on geochemical signatures of loess-paleosol sed-

iments (e.g., Jahn et al., 2001; Sun et al., 2007; Muhs and Budahn,

2006; Liang et al., 2009).

In Kashmir, loess deposits are distributed throughout the valley

and covering an area of 500 sq. km. However, these sediments

show great variation in their thickness. The maximum thickness

is found on the southwestern part of the Kashmir Valley where

these are about 22 m thick. The thickness decrease toward the

northeastern part of the valley and is measured about 4 m. These

1367-9120/$ - see front matter � 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.12.029

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9697318304.

E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Ahmad).

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 73–89

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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sediments lie within the Brunhes normal magnetic epoch (Kusum-

gar et al., 1980). The loess deposits along northeastern part of the

Kashmir Valley are younger than 85 ka years. However, along the

southwestern part of the valley entire loess sequence spans at least

�300 ka (Singhvi et al., 1987). On the basis of micromorphological

investigation, Pant et al. (1985) and Bronger and Pant (1985) pro-

posed a stratigraphic comparison between two loess-paleosol se-

quences both along the Himalayan and Pir Panjal flanks. They

concluded that along the northeastern part of the Kashmir Valley,

the older loess-paleosol sequence is missing and in their places,

fluvio-lacustrine sediments of the Upper Karewa exist. Lot of work

has been carried out by various workers (e.g., Agrawal et al., 1979,

1988, 1989; Kusumgar et al., 1980, 1986; Krishnamurthy et al.,

1982, 1985; Bronger and Pant, 1985; Pant and Dilli, 1986; Bronger

et al., 1987; Gardner, 1989) to establish the lithostratigraphy of

these sediments. However, very little data based geological work

has carried out on these loessic sediments. With the exception of

work of Lodha et al. (1985) and Lodha (1987) no attempt has made

to carry out the geochemical study of these loess-paleosol sedi-

ments. The present study examines the detailed geochemistry of

Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments and attempts to constrain their

chemical weathering and provenance. Two representative loess-

paleosol containing sequences at Dilpur (33�560N and 74�470E)

and Karapur (33�500N and 74�570E) village sections along the

southwestern part of the Kashmir Valley have been selected for

the present research work (Fig. 1). These sections represent the

most complete and best records of the terrestrial sedimentation

in Kashmir Valley.

2. Regional tectonic and geological setup of Kashmir Valley

Kashmir Valley comprises a very important place in the geotec-

tonic of Kashmir Himalaya. The general strike of the Kashmir

Valley is from NW to SE, running parallel to the Great Himalayan

Mountain range in the north and Pir-Panjal Mountain range in

the south. The valley takes the form of graben bounded by NW-

SE trending parallel Panjal Thrust and Zanskar Thrust. Wadia

(1931) described the thrust-bounded basin, as ‘Kashmir Nappe

Zone’ comprising the rocks of Paleozoic–Mesozoic marine sedi-

ments, with Precambrian basement thrusted along a regional tec-

tonic plane viz., Panjal Thrust over the younger rocks of the

autochthones belt. The ‘Kashmir Nappe’ forms two major axes of

orogenic upheaval along the Pir-Panjal and the Great Himalayan

ranges. The valley posses almost complete stratigraphic record of

rocks of all ages ranging from Archean to Recent (Fig. 2).

However, Panjal Volcanic Complex and the Triassic Limestone

form the twomain geological formations, underlain by the Archean

metasedimentary rocks (Salkhala Formation) (Fig. 2). Salkhala For-

mation constitutes carbonaceous slates, graphitic phyllite and

schist associated with carbonaceous grey or white limestone, mar-

ble, calcareous slate and calcareous schist. It also comprises sericit-

ic phyllites and schists, garentiferous schists and flaggy quartzite.

The outcrops of these oldest rocks are found around the northwest-

ern extremity of the Kashmir Valley and portions of the Pir-Panjal

range. Exposures of Triassic sequence comprise alternate thick

dark grey limestone, micaceous shale and shally-arenaceous im-

pure limestone (Datta, 1983). These rocks are also associated with

granites and gneisses. The other rocks of lesser distribution include

Dogra Slates, Cambro-Silurian, Zewan Formation and Muth-

Quartzite (Bhat, 1982). Dogra Slates constitute dark grey shale/

slate with quartzite; Cambro-Silurian rocks consist of limestone,

siltstone, shale, quartzite, greenish-grey sandstone and dolomite

with stromatolite (Bhat, 1982).

The Panjal Volcanic Complex is divisible into two well-marked

horizons, the lower Agglomeratic Slate and the upper Panjal Lava

flows (Bhat and Zainuddin, 1978). The Panjal traps includes all

the coeval flows found throughout Ladakh, North Zanskar (Singh

et al., 1976), Suru area (Fig. 1c; Honegger et al., 1982; Papritz

Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of the study area.

74 I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 73–89


and Rey, 1989; Gaetani et al., 1990; Spencer et al., 1995), Kashmir

Valley (Pareek, 1976; Bhat and Zainuddin, 1978, 1979) where they

reach a maximum thickness of about 2500 m. Here they consist in

a basal unit made of intermediate to acidic pyroclastic rocks (Par-

eek, 1976) overlain by massive aphyric basaltic flows with tholei-

itic to slightly alkaline affinities (Singh et al., 1976; Honegger

et al., 1982; Gupta et al., 1983; Vannay and Spring, 1993). These

rocks are also recognized in the western syntaxis of North East

Pakistan (Papritz and Rey, 1989; Spencer et al., 1995). The greatest

chemical variability is observed in the western syntaxis lavas

(North East Pakistan) which also display features of tholeiitic to

slightly alkaline affinities (Pogue et al., 1992; Spencer et al.,

1995). Chauvet et al. (2008) also illustrates that Panjal lavas are

characterized by tholeiitic to slightly alkaline affinities (see

Fig. 5b; Chauvet et al., 2008).

Plio-Pleistocene glacio-fluvio-lacustrine sediments (approxi-

mately 1300 meters thick) in turn overlie the Precambrian to

Mesozoic basement rocks. These sediments constitute the Karewa

Group (Bhatt, 1982, 1989). These sediments preserve the record of

past four million years in which the sedimentation is controlled by

the tectonic events (Bhatt, 1982; Gardner, 1989). The soft uncon-

solidated sand, clay and conglomerate sediments characterize the

Karewa Group. These sediments are capped by mantle of loessic

sediments of Dilpur Formation.

3. Sampling and analytical technique

Thirty-eight representative samples were collected from each

loess-paleosol horizons. The samples were air-dried and homoge-

nized and the bulk sediments of each sample were finely ground

(<200 mesh) in an agate mortar. Major and trace elements were

determined using an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer (SI-

MENS SRS sequential XRF Spectrometer) following the standard

procedure of the Geo Analytical Laboratory of the Wadia Institute

of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India (WIHG). The major and

trace elements were analyzed on pressed powder pallets. Loss on

Ignition (LOI) was obtained by weighing after 24 hours of calcina-

tion at 950 �C. Rare Earth Elements (REEs) were determined by In-

duced Couple Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) technique,

using an open acid digestion technique following the standard pro-

cedure of the Geo Analytical Laboratory at WIHG. The accuracy of

the analytical method was established using two internationally

recognized standard reference materials: AMAG-I and MAG (R.V).

4. Results and discussion

The major (wt%), trace (ppm) and rare earth element (ppm)

concentrations of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are re-

ported in Table 1, along with the ratios of chosen pairs of major,

trace and REE elements. As there is lack of geochemical data on

detrital sediments from the Himalayan belt, a comparison of data

is made against the UCC; Upper Continental Crust and the available

shale standards like PAAS; Post Archean Australian Shale (Taylor

and McLennan, 1985) and NASC; North American Shale Composite

(Gromet et al., 1984). In addition, igneous rocks composition (Con-

die, 1993), average loess composition (AVL) and global average

loess composition (GAL) (Ujvari et al., 2008) also used for

comparison.

Fig. 2. Geological map of Kashmir Himalaya (after Thakur and Rawat, 1992).

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 73–89 75


Table 1

Chemical composition of loess-paleosol sediments of Karewa Group of Kashmir Valley, India.

Sample DL1 DS 1a DS1b DS2a DS2b DS3a DS3b DL2 DS4a DS4b DS5a DS5b

SiO2 51.4 58.07 52.28 51.76 61.77 60.79 60.36 54.79 61.63 50.92 54.9 60.9

Al2O3 12.58 15.72 11.80 12.66 16.52 15.71 17.23 13.64 16.48 11.53 14.77 17.4

Fe2O3 4.87 6 4.52 4.78 6.64 6.71 6.85 5.34 6.45 4.23 5.62 6.78

MnO 0.08 0.101 0.07 0.08 0.098 0.11 0.114 0.084 0.106 0.06 0.089 0.115

MgO 2.59 3.05 2.50 2.43 2.69 2.54 2.56 2.58 2.96 2.50 2.56 2.56

CaO 8.6 3.15 9.95 8.47 1.64 1.30 1.32 6.26 1.38 11.33 5.41 1.21

Na2O 0.87 0.98 0.89 0.8 1.13 0.97 0.86 0.87 1.04 0.88 0.85 0.77

K2O 2.68 2.98 2.61 2.72 3.1 3.17 3.06 2.77 3.03 2.54 2.81 2.94

TiO2 0.6 0.71 0.56 0.61 0.76 0.78 0.78 0.65 0.76 0.53 0.68 0.8

P2O5 0.128 0.116 0.12 0.126 0.114 0.122 0.087 0.127 0.096 0.13 0.138 0.088

LOI 14.81 8.91 13.91 14.79 5.71 8.4 7.5 11.99 7.01 14.4 11.2 7.4

Total 99.20 99.78 99.24 99.22 100.17 100.64 100.72 99.10 100.94 99.09 99.02 100.96

Rb 100.9 126.12 98.70 107.55 143.21 155.93 148.13 112.19 135.64 89.03 130.28 142.14

Sr 142.36 125.39 161.67 143.05 121.04 111.73 113.31 144.39 122.45 150.91 126.44 115.48

Y 24.40 30.92 23.50 25.84 33.46 33.08 32.23 28.079 30.86 20.89 29.63 34.69

Zr 162.09 202.73 159.22 165.04 212.02 209.96 206.19 180.78 218.16 146.20 186.27 223.99

Nb 14.30 16.17 13.05 13.90 18.11 18.52 17.98 14.90 17.71 11.24 16.40 18.47

Ba 374.09 462.4 349.88 394.45 529.62 566.47 547.53 416.93 511.91 312.24 451.88 526.51

Ni 41.82 54.48 34.64 37.53 55.17 61.23 56.11 45.34 57.60 32.30 44.85 55.09

Cu 43.24 49.45 42.47 43.03 56.10 54.54 51.147 47.48 48.33 40.05 48.44 50.08

Zn 74.432 90.05 66.21 78.76 95.24 117.94 86.72 88.85 90.34 60.39 94.27 94.01

Ga 12.06 15.31 11.04 12.68 16.89 17.59 17.46 12.10 15.63 10.14 14.46 16.86

Pb 17.05 23.70 16.75 19.41 22.26 24.23 23.04 17.477 24.99 15.71 21.15 21.52

Th 10.96 15.21 12.19 12.74 15.96 16.09 16.73 11.73 16.18 9.30 15.46 16.81

U 2.98 5.33 2.35 4.19 6.44 5.79 7.11 7.08 6.28 3.85 6.56 6.82

Sc 12.39 14.33 11.62 12.97 15.53 14.56 15.42 13.14 14.78 11.71 13.62 14.84

V 189.34 98.11 80.56 108.35 91.43 90.1 111.6 93.7 107.5 91.62 109.56 111.76

Co 15.04 18 14.19 17.26 18.71 17.2 19.3 15.52 18.4 14.6 15.82 20.6

Hf 2.09 2.9 1.75 2.41 2.23 2.44 3.01 2.52 3 2 2.42 2

La 34.13 39.48 34.76 38.7 43.85 40.54 42.48 38.02 41.94 33.81 38.09 43.12

Ce 66.28 76.85 68.9 76.92 84.5 80.37 83.83 73.24 80.86 64.58 74.29 83.11

Pr 7.26 8.67 7.54 8.31 9.32 9.04 9.34 8.1 9.06 7.36 8.32 9.24

Nd 26.71 33.04 27.1 30.08 34.41 33.8 33.65 29.79 32.58 27.53 31.29 33.95

Sm 5.5 6.71 6.69 6.29 8.16 6.89 6.89 6.18 6.77 6.73 6.06 6.71

Eu 1.33 1.6 1.48 1.55 2.3 1.62 1.6 1.54 1.61 1.54 1.44 1.56

Gd 4.83 5.37 4.74 5.39 5.99 5.62 5.83 5.32 5.65 4.75 5.35 5.7

Tb 0.71 0.77 0.69 0.75 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.74 0.81 0.67 0.79 0.83

Dy 3.85 4.29 3.75 4.03 4.71 4.54 4.75 4 4.4 3.7 4.34 4.67

Ho 0.96 1.08 0.91 1.02 1.21 1.14 1.19 1.02 1.08 0.92 1.05 1.21

Er 2.2 2.39 2.03 2.22 2.78 2.52 2.69 2.28 2.5 2.13 2.36 2.6

Tm 0.37 0.39 0.35 0.38 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.39 0.42 0.35 0.4 0.44

Yb 2 2.15 1.85 1.98 2.38 2.24 2.37 2.05 2.24 1.8 2.02 2.28

Lu 0.26 0.27 0.24 0.26 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.26 0.28 0.23 0.28 0.3

SiO2/Al2O3 4.08 3.69 4.42 4.08 3.73 3.86 3.50 4.01 3.73 4.41 3.71 3.5

K2O/Na2O 3.08 3.04 2.91 3.4 2.74 3.24 3.55 3.18 2.91 2.88 3.30 3.81

Al2O3/TiO2 20.96 22.14 21.01 20.75 21.73 20.04 22.08 20.98 21.68 21.61 21.72 21.75

Na2O/Al2O3 0.069 0.062 0.075 0.063 0.068 0.062 0.049 0.063 0.063 0.076 0.057 0.044

K2O/Al2O3 0.21 0.18 0.22 0.21 0.18 0.20 0.17 0.20 0.18 0.22 0.19 0.168

TiO2/Zr 0.0037 0.0035 0.0035 0.0036 0.0035 0.0037 0.0037 0.0035 0.0034 0.0036 0.00365 0.0035

K/Rb 220.47 196.14 219.73 209.94 179.69 169.02 171.48 204.95 185.44 237.18 179.04 171.69

ICV 1.61 1.07 1.78 1.57 0.97 0.99 0.90 1.36 0.95 1.91 1.21 0.87

CIA 68.58 70.90 67.14 69.42 70.01 70.222 73.72 69.94 71.09 67.133 71.67 75.27

CIW 81.46 82.97 80.01 82.78 81.62 82.97 85.89 82.65 82.80 79.93 84.07 87.29

PIA 77.17 79.48 75.28 78.68 77.97 79.20 83.10 78.80 79.41 75.20 80.74 84.87

Rb/Sr 0.70 1.00 0.61 0.75 1.18 1.395 1.30 0.77 1.10 0.58 1.03 1.23

Ba/Sr 2.62 3.68 2.160 2.75 4.37 5.06 4.83 2.88 4.18 2.06 3.57 4.553

Th/Sc 0.88 1.06 1.04 0.98 1.02 1.10 1.08 0.89 1.09 0.79 1.13 1.13

Zr/Sc 13.08 14.14 13.70 12.72 13.65 14.42 13.37 13.75 14.76 12.48 13.67 15.09

Th/V 0.05 0.15 0.15 0.11 0.17 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.10 0.14 0.15

Zr/Y 6.64 6.55 6.77 6.38 6.33 6.34 6.39 6.43 7.06 6.99 6.28 6.45

Zr/Hf 77.55 69.90 90.98 68.48 95.07 86.05 68.50 71.73 72.72 73.10 76.97 111.99

La/Co 2.26 2.19 2.44 2.24 2.34 2.35 2.20 2.44 2.27 2.31 2.40 2.09P

REE 297.6 349.41 307.5 339.73 383.74 362.15 373.98 329.8 363.02 297.65 335.57 373.41P

LREE 141.21 166.35 146.47 161.85 182.54 172.26 177.79 156.87 172.82 141.55 159.49 177.69P

HREE 15.18 16.71 14.56 16.03 18.66 17.63 18.4 16.06 17.38 14.55 16.59 18.03

LREE/HREE 9.30 9.95 10.05 10.09 9.78 9.77 9.66 9.76 9.94 9.72 9.61 9.85

Eu/Eu� 0.793 0.82 0.81 0.82 1.01 0.80 0.78 0.83 0.80 0.84 0.78 0.78

Ce/Ce� 1.01 0.99 1.03 1.04 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.00 1.01 0.98 1.00 1.00

Gd/YbCN 1.93 2.00 2.05 2.18 2.02 2.01 1.97 2.08 2.02 2.11 2.12 2.00

La/YbCN 11.26 12.12 12.40 12.90 12.16 11.95 11.83 12.24 12.36 12.40 12.45 12.48

Sample DS6b DL3 DS7b KS1a KS1b KS2a KS2b KS3a KS3b KS4a KS4b KL 1 KS5a KS5b

SiO2 54.05 51.74 57.71 56.02 61.42 63.68 62.26 58.35 59.33 62.18 61.11 54.55 54.24 56.42

Al2O3 14.01 11.66 15.43 14.92 16.62 16.14 16.03 16.91 17.77 17.2 17.12 13.95 15.24 15.41

Fe2O3 5.13 4.27 5.81 5.71 6.38 6.14 6.23 6.65 6.82 6.31 6.64 5.34 5.68 5.74



Table 1 (continued)

Sample DS6b DL3 DS7b KS1a KS1b KS2a KS2b KS3a KS3b KS4a KS4b KL 1 KS5a KS5b

MnO 0.085 0.06 0.097 0.102 0.09 0.105 0.098 0.116 0.108 0.107 0.109 0.078 0.088 0.091

MgO 2.69 2.38 2.52 2.48 2.76 2.56 2.49 2.53 2.71 2.41 2.82 2.58 2.63 2.42

CaO 6.83 10.97 4.06 4.63 1.49 1.54 1.49 1.58 1.48 1.05 1.17 6.33 5.25 4.51

Na2O 0.81 0.82 0.78 0.89 1.12 1.15 1.16 0.81 0.93 0.79 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.81

K2O 2.71 2.50 2.92 2.8 2.95 2.89 2.89 2.87 2.93 2.91 2.97 2.73 2.92 2.76

TiO2 0.63 0.54 0.72 0.69 0.74 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.8 0.77 0.65 0.68 0.7

P2O5 0.122 0.12 0.107 0.15 0.13 0.121 0.136 0.136 0.127 0.081 0.129 0.126 0.129 0.123

LOI 12.25 13.91 9.7 11.36 7.17 7.2 7.01 10.63 7.75 7.85 7.76 11.74 10.03 10.47

Total 99.31 99.02 99.85 99.75 100.92 102.31 100.57 101.36 100.74 101.68 101.45 98.88 97.65 99.45

Rb 106.55 87.53 125.88 118.84 135.74 135.02 145.78 136.25 137.63 135.68 132.12 108.41 126.44 123.54

Sr 146.68 167.33 155.78 119.21 114.51 111.92 116.12 105.39 119.91 94.09 111.06 146.31 125.98 120.38

Y 25.97 23.09 33.45 30.40 34.72 32.84 34.46 32.945 33.10 31.29 36.62 28.49 28.66 31.042

Zr 178.92 155.70 201.18 190.20 218.28 224.68 222.22 212.76 212.80 238.65 216.18 179.64 185.93 200.78

Nb 14.55 12.00 16.39 15.95 18.38 19.37 17.96 18.39 17.68 17.76 17.08 15.01 15.44 16.47

Ba 393.08 325.49 471.08 449.03 499.29 508.42 530.11 551.84 544.79 508.94 486.92 391.04 436.80 461.24

Ni 43.19 33.28 46.56 49.50 56.73 49.38 52.55 57.85 53.78 55.04 62.84 48.27 44.31 45.77

Cu 43.11 38.76 45.95 46.00 48.78 45.14 48.38 52.16 51.03 45.06 52.38 47.30 46.35 45.78

Zn 75.87 63.46 84.61 87.64 89.53 84.54 86.82 101.27 86.56 86.51 98.76 85.17 84.22 84.55

Ga 11.89 9.55 14.40 13.85 16.04 15.65 16.88 17.15 17.17 16.42 16.28 12.61 14.30 14.13

Pb 19.79 14.06 20.44 20.07 24.59 21.57 21.18 24.08 22.05 22.08 22.18 19.09 22.14 18.81

Th 12.97 8.99 17.36 16.52 16.93 17.75 19.63 16.91 18.74 16.35 16.96 12.58 14.72 14.80

U 7.35 1.704 8.48 5.357 5.63 7.50 7.564 8.9449 8.18 8.22 1.49 5.64 4.29 4.52

Sc 13.29 12.04 15.39 12.94 14.69 14.6 14.18 15.08 14.5 12.24 15.25 13.44 14.14 14.35

V 93.26 81.89 110.01 97.65 117.02 121.59 103.63 118.81 113.73 121.84 128.02 99.91 109.67 110.26

Co 15.93 14.23 17.34 16.18 18.95 19.07 19.73 22.24 19.93 25.48 19.73 17.27 17.62 18.58

Hf 2 2 3 2.3 2.99 5.35 2 3 3 3 3 3 2.31 2

La 37.18 34.78 41.59 36.26 44.11 45.77 44.96 45.79 45.56 45.34 42.05 38.13 40.48 41.98

Ce 72.36 66.48 79.68 72.84 83.24 88.1 85.92 86.13 83.26 86.93 78.98 69.42 73.4 79.12

Pr 8.01 7.36 9.25 8.08 9.95 10.18 10.24 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.53 8.26 8.71 9.25

Nd 28.92 26.3 33.74 29.42 39.46 39.27 40.12 36.1 36.95 34.54 37.84 32.5 33.34 35.01

Sm 6.99 6.3 7.21 6.14 7.44 6.88 7.65 7.02 7.4 6.61 7.42 6.72 6.81 6.99

Eu 1.42 1.73 1.8 1.5 1.66 1.63 1.67 1.58 1.72 1.47 1.72 1.55 1.64 1.59

Gd 5.07 4.91 6.25 5.09 6.15 6.24 6.09 6.1 6.34 5.65 6.14 5.36 5.54 5.9

Tb 0.73 0.7 0.93 0.73 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.83 0.84 0.77 0.88 0.76 0.79 0.84

Dy 4.09 3.74 5.02 4.04 5.15 5.13 5.11 4.85 4.88 4.59 5.3 4.34 4.48 4.87

Ho 0.99 0.94 1.25 0.99 1.22 1.18 1.2 1.13 1.13 1.08 1.25 1.07 1.07 1.15

Er 2.27 2.13 2.83 2.25 2.72 2.62 2.72 2.52 2.61 2.42 2.75 2.3 2.52 2.54

Tm 0.37 0.36 0.47 0.37 0.46 0.44 0.46 0.43 0.43 0.4 0.47 0.4 0.42 0.42

Yb 2.02 1.88 2.44 2.03 2.34 2.24 2.24 2.21 2.2 2.1 2.41 2.05 2.08 2.13

Lu 0.26 0.24 0.32 0.26 0.32 0.34 0.29 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.33 0.26 0.27 0.29

SiO2/Al2O3 3.85 4.43 3.74 3.75 3.69 3.94 3.88 3.45 3.33 3.61 3.56 3.91 3.55 3.66

K2O/Na2O 3.34 3.02 3.74 3.14 2.63 2.51 2.49 3.54 3.15 3.68 3.45 3.37 3.79 3.40

Al2O3/TiO2 22.23 21.46 21.436 21.62 22.22 20.43 20.55 21.67 22.49 21.5 22.23 21.46 22.41 22.01

Na2O/Al2O3 0.057 0.070 0.050 0.059 0.067 0.071 0.072 0.047 0.052 0.045 0.050 0.058 0.050 0.052

K2O/Al2O3 0.193 0.214 0.189 0.187 0.177 0.179 0.180 0.169 0.164 0.169 0.173 0.195 0.191 0.179

TiO2/Zr 0.0035 0.0034 0.0035 0.0036 0.0034 0.0035 0.0035 0.0036 0.0037 0.0033 0.0035 0.0036 0.0036 0.0034

K/Rb 211.14 237.72 192.56 195.6 180.7 177.6 164.5 174.8 176.7 178.0 186.61 209.04 191.71 185.46

ICV 1.34 1.84 1.09 1.15 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.90 0.88 0.83 0.89 1.32 1.18 1.10

CIA 71.44 68.21 72.93 71.45 70.70 70.01 69.77 74.55 74.03 74.94 73.90 71.28 72.79 73.16

CIW 84.01 81.07 85.73 83.59 81.83 81.00 80.76 86.38 85.31 86.87 85.81 83.96 85.74 85.25

PIA 80.60 76.67 82.70 80.23 78.44 77.47 77.17 83.81 82.67 84.38 83.09 80.49 82.66 82.33

Rb/Sr 0.72 0.52 0.80 0.99 1.18 1.20 1.25 1.29 1.14 1.44 1.18 0.74 1.00 1.02

Ba/Sr 2.67 1.94 3.02 3.76 4.36 4.54 4.56 5.23 4.54 5.40 4.38 2.67 3.46 3.83

Th/Sc 0.97 0.74 1.12 1.27 1.15 1.21 1.38 1.12 1.29 1.33 1.11 0.93 1.04 1.03

Zr/Sc 13.46 12.93 13.07 14.69 14.85 15.38 15.67 14.10 14.67 19.49 14.17 13.36 13.14 13.99

Th/V 0.13 0.10 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.14 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.13

Zr/Y 6.88 6.74 6.01 6.25 6.28 6.84 6.44 6.45 6.42 7.62 5.90 6.30 6.48 6.46

Zr/Hf 89.46 77.85 67.06 82.69 73.00 41.99 111.11 70.92 70.93 79.55 72.06 59.88 80.49 100.39

La/Co 2.33 2.44 2.39 2.24 2.32 2.40 2.27 2.05 2.28 1.77 2.13 2.20 2.29 2.25P

REE 325.56 300.8 366.05 324.24 390.96 402.72 400.1 391.04 387.92 386.5 374.61 329.7 345.93 366.02P

LREE 154.88 142.95 173.27 154.24 185.86 191.83 190.56 186.33 184.6 184.6 177.54 156.58 164.38 173.94P

HREE 15.8 14.9 19.51 15.76 19.24 19.06 18.98 18.38 18.72 17.3 19.53 16.54 17.17 18.14

LREE/HREE 9.80 9.59 8.88 9.78 9.66 10.06 10.04 10.13 9.86 10.67 9.09 9.46 9.57 9.58

Eu/Eu� 0.73 0.96 0.83 0.83 0.76 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.77 0.74 0.78 0.79 0.82 0.76

Ce/Ce� 1.01 1.01 0.98 1.03 0.94 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.94 1.01 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.96

Gd/YbCN 2.01 2.09 2.05 2.01 2.11 2.23 2.18 2.21 2.31 2.16 2.04 2.09 2.13 2.22

La/YbCN 12.15 12.21 11.25 11.79 12.44 13.49 13.25 13.68 13.67 14.25 11.52 12.28 12.85 13.01

Sample KS5c KS6a KS6b KS7a KS7b KS8a KS8b KL2 KS9a KS9b KS10a KS10b

SiO2 63.46 57.49 58.91 63.32 61.89 60.68 61.77 58.21 59.59 62.96 59.54 60.38

Al2O3 16.52 15.93 17.69 16.02 17.05 17 17.12 15.65 16.37 16.28 16.32 15.95

Fe2O3 6 5.762 7.08 6.25 6.54 6.46 6.55 5.72 6.43 6.13 7.01 7.037

MnO 0.072 0.09 0.138 0.13 0.096 0.114 0.10 0.091 0.104 0.081 0.112 0.099

MgO 2.43 2.40 2.6 2.24 2.49 2.67 2.63 2.65 2.28 2.37 2.35 2.469

CaO 1.65 4.52 1.53 1.09 1.09 1.13 1.16 3.87 2.3 1.82 1.9 2.057

Na2O 1.16 0.81 0.87 0.92 0.85 0.82 0.88 0.97 0.79 1.07 0.89 0.955

(continued on next page)



Table 1 (continued)

Sample KS5c KS6a KS6b KS7a KS7b KS8a KS8b KL2 KS9a KS9b KS10a KS10b

K2O 2.81 2.76 2.86 2.86 2.93 2.97 2.98 2.87 2.82 2.84 2.52 2.340

TiO2 0.78 0.70 0.77 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.69 0.77 0.78 0.89 0.934

P2O5 0.103 0.12 0.147 0.11 0.103 0.114 0.11 0.139 0.122 0.105 0.115 0.115

LOI 6.63 7.47 7.84 7.87 7.81 7.89 7.75 8.33 10 7.16 7.79 6.38

Total 101.61 98.08 100.43 101.66 101.62 100.61 101.83 99.19 101.57 101.59 99.43 98.73

Rb 128.20 144.38 128.59 150.19 131.86 134.12 133.48 128.15 127.30 131.43 111.75 99.45

Sr 118.15 110.92 125.44 106.66 106.65 112.83 113.71 135.61 121.18 119.34 128.97 138.3

Y 29.56 33.99 33.75 34.12 33.34 35.06 34.10 31.122 34.618 33.52 34.99 34.38

Zr 232.10 223.22 206.77 228.21 232.30 223.47 223.05 207.66 217.38 230.88 233.59 235.3

Nb 17.98 18.56 17.55 18.18 18.64 18.60 17.15 16.737 18.072 19.52 19.09 19.73

Ba 534.81 460.74 513.11 516.68 501.27 479.25 495.15 478.10 534 524.45 447.87 418.6

Ni 40.94 51.54 59.83 53.55 56.94 55.18 60.26 43.473 51.09 44.18 47.39 43.84

Cu 42.02 46.90 57.50 51.20 47.80 48.82 47.66 48.317 49.69 45.03 47.62 43.90

Zn 77.23 94.08 89.04 113.18 87.57 98.89 94.73 86.088 98.44 83.34 92.87 80.26

Ga 15.71 16.72 17.28 15.63 16.27 15.65 16.54 14.182 15.94 15.12 16.15 15.29

Pb 20.53 24.06 23.98 21.46 20.57 21.93 21.19 20.318 22.94 21.38 19.72 18.27

Th 15.60 18.18 18.09 15.28 15.39 17.55 15.77 16.909 17.27 17.86 13.03 12.43

U 3.71 3.85 6.312 6.48 5.08 5.29 6.28 4.8175 5.416 4.470 7.88 5.366

Sc 13.43 14.7 15.64 – – – – – – – – –

V 114.74 106.22 117.33 – – – – – – – – –

Co 19.35 19.21 19.3 – – – – – – – – –

Hf 2.28 3 2.39 – – – – – – – – –

La 42.97 41.81 42.11 – – – – – – – – –

Ce 86.35 82.5 85.21 – – – – – – – – –

Pr 9.46 8.85 9.16 – – – – – – – – –

Nd 34.35 33.15 33.7 – – – – – – – – –

Sm 6.7 6.72 7.15 – – – – – – – – –

Eu 1.63 1.63 1.81 – – – – – – – – –

Gd 5.39 5.59 5.96 – – – – – – – – –

Tb 0.78 0.8 0.87 – – – – – – – – –

Dy 4.15 4.43 4.7 – – – – – – – – –

Ho 0.99 1.12 1.17 – – – – – – – – –

Er 2.17 2.48 2.64 – – – – – – – – –

Tm 0.36 0.41 0.43 – – – – – – – – –

Yb 1.92 2.13 2.39 – – – – – – – – –

Lu 0.25 0.28 0.29 – – – – – – – – –

SiO2/Al2O3 3.84 3.60 3.33 3.95 3.62 3.56 3.60 3.71 3.64 3.86 3.64 3.78

K2O/Na2O 2.42 3.40 3.28 3.09 3.44 3.62 3.38 2.95 3.56 2.65 2.83 2.44

Al2O3/TiO2 21.17 22.48 22.97 19.62 21.85 22.07 22.23 22.7 21.2 20.87 18.3 17.1

Na2O/Al2O3 0.070 0.050 0.049 0.057 0.049 0.048 0.051 0.061 0.048 0.065 0.054 0.059

K2O/Al2O3 0.170 0.173 0.161 0.17 0.171 0.174 0.174 0.183 0.172 0.174 0.154 0.146

TiO2/Zr 0.0033 0.0031 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033 0.0034 0.0034 0.0033 0.0035 0.0033 0.0038 0.0039

K/Rb 181.95 159.20 184.63 158.50 184.46 183.82 185.32 185.9 183.8 179.4 187.2 195.4

ICV 0.90 1.07 0.89 0.89 0.86 0.87 0.88 1.07 0.94 0.92 0.96 0.99

CIA 70.66 73.74 74.80 72.25 74.07 74.19 73.66 71.30 74.33 71.17 74.26 73.74

CIW 81.23 85.63 86.07 84.01 85.90 86.30 85.53 83.06 86.29 82.22 84.78 83.53

PIA 77.93 82.87 83.60 80.91 83.22 83.63 82.75 79.71 83.66 78.95 82.27 81.01

Rb/Sr 1.08 1.30 1.02 1.40 1.23 1.18 1.17 0.94 1.05 1.10 0.86 0.71

Ba/Sr 4.52 4.15 4.09 4.84 4.700 4.24 4.35 3.52 4.40 4.39 3.47 3.02

Th/Sc 1.16 1.23 1.15

Zr/Sc 17.28 15.18 13.22

Th/V 0.13 0.17 0.15

Zr/Y 7.85 6.56 6.12 6.68 6.96 6.37 6.54 6.67 6.27 6.88 6.67 6.84

Zr/Hf 101.80 74.40 86.51

La/Co 2.22 2.17 2.18P

REE 378.93 366.56 376.73 – – – – – – – – –P

LREE 181.46 174.66 179.14 – – – – – – – – –P

HREE 16.01 17.24 18.45 – – – – – – – – –

LREE/HREE 11.33 10.13 9.70 – – – – – – – – –

Eu/Eu� 0.84 0.82 0.85 – – – – – – – – –

Ce/Ce� 1.04 1.02 1.04 – – – – – – – – –

Gd/YbCN 2.25 2.10 2.00 – – – – – – – – –

La/YbCN 14.77 12.96 11.63 – – – – – – – – –

Sample Kashmir Loess-Paleosol UCC PAAS NASC AVLb GALc Granited Felsic volcanice Andesitef Basaltg

Min. Max. Avg.a

SiO2 50.92 63.68 58.38 66 62.8 64.8 71.19 70.71 73.8 73.2 59.5 50.3

Al2O3 11.53 17.77 15.54 15.2 18.9 16.9 11.63 11.74 13.4 14.0 16.8 15.7

Fe2O3 4.23 7.08 5.99 5 7.22 5.65 3.68 3.75 2.2 2.8 6.8 9.10

MnO 0.06 0.138 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.07 –

MgO 2.24 3.05 2.55 2.2 2.2 2.86 2.05 2.15 0.4 0.4 3.3 6.7

CaO 1.05 11.33 3.72 4.2 1.3 3.63 6.46 6.67 1.2 1.3 6.8 9.5

Na2O 0.77 1.16 0.90 3.9 1.2 1.14 1.69 1.68 3.5 3.7 3.7 3

K2O 2.34 3.17 2.83 3.4 3.7 3.97 2.21 2.22 4.8 4.3 1.2 0.85

TiO2 0.53 0.93 0.72 0.5 1 0.7 0.69 0.71 0.25 0.34 0.78 1.45

P2O5 0.081 0.15 0.11 0.4 0.16 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.09 0.06 0.2 0.28



Fig. 3 shows the distribution of major element contents of

the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments normalized to UCC (Upper

Continental Crust; Taylor and McLennan, 1985). The UCC nor-

malized PAAS (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and NASC (Gromet

et al., 1984) values also show similar patterns to that of Kashmir

Loess-Paleosol sediments. By comparison with UCC (Taylor and

McLennan, 1985), these sediments are slightly depleted in

SiO2, K2O and P2O5 and show large variation in CaO concentra-

tions (Fig. 3). However, Na2O depleted in all the samples,

whereas Al2O3, MgO, MnO and Fe2O3 show slightly higher con-

Table 1 (continued)

Sample Kashmir Loess-Paleosol UCC PAAS NASC AVLb GALc Granited Felsic volcanice Andesitef Basaltg

Min. Max. Avg.a

LOI 5.71 14.81 9.35 – – – – – – – – –

Rb 87.53 155.93 125.93 112 160 125 78 79 170 130 41 29

Sr 94.09 167.33 125.80 350 200 142 210 208 122 160 360 280

Y 20.89 36.62 31.11 22 27 35 24 26 45 20 27

Zr 146.2 238.65 204.73 190 210 200 319 322 250 215 160 131

Nb 11.24 19.73 16.84 25 19 13 13 14 21 20 8 5

Ba 312.24 566.47 469.61 550 650 636 427 427 800 850 650 410

Ni 32.3 62.84 49.46 20 55 58 26 27 7 8 42 68

Cu 38.76 57.5 47.58 25 50 – 19 19 – – – –

Zn 60.39 117.94 87.76 71 85 – 56 57 – – – –

Ga 9.55 17.59 14.90 17 – – 12 12 – – – –

Pb 14.06 24.99 20.87 20 – – 14 15 25 23 20 6

Th 8.99 19.63 15.31 10.7 14.6 12.3 9 9 18 10.2 4 2.4

U 1.49 8.94 5.62 2.8 3.1 2.66 5 2.5 8 1.2

Sc 11.62 15.64 13.93 11 16 14.9 8 5 13 18 33

V 80.56 189.34 110.29 60 150 130 78 79 18 30 140 260

Co 14.19 25.48 18.20 10 23 25.7 – – 3 6 22 35

Hf 1.75 5.35 2.66 5.8 5 6.3 – – 6.5 – 4 3.4

La 33.81 45.79 40.62 30 38 31.1 28 29 40 28 20 11

Ce 64.58 88.1 78.26 64 80 66.7 59 61 94 65 44 27

Pr 7.26 10.24 8.85 7.1 8.83 – – – –

Nd 26.3 40.12 33.06 26 32 27.4 – – 46 25 23 14

Sm 5.5 8.16 6.81 4.5 5.6 5.59 – – 8.8 5 3.90 4

Eu 1.33 2.3 1.63 0.88 1.1 1.18 – – 0.9 0.9 1 1.4

Gd 4.74 6.34 5.59 3.8 4.7 5.5 – – 7.63 4.87 4.14 4.01

Tb 0.67 0.93 0.79 0.64 0.77 0.85 – – 1.15 0.78 2 0.65

Dy 3.7 5.3 4.48 3.5 4.68 5.54 – – – – – –

Ho 0.91 1.25 1.09 0.8 0.99 – – – – – – –

Er 2.03 2.83 2.45 2.3 2.85 3.27 – – – – – –

Tm 0.35 0.47 0.41 0.33 0.4 – – – – – – –

Yb 1.8 2.44 2.14 2.2 2.8 3.06 – – 3.2 2.9 2 2.7

Lu 0.23 0.34 0.28 0.32 0.43 0.46 – – 0.54 0.78 0.31 0.43

SiO2/Al2O3 3.33 4.43 3.77 4.343 3.32 3.83 6.12 6.02 5.50 5.22 3.54 3.20

K2O/Na2O 2.42 3.81 3.16 0.87 3.08 3.48 1.30 1.32 1.37 1.16 0.32 0.28

Al2O3/TiO2 17.1 22.97 21.31 30.4 18.9 24.14 16.85 16.53 53.6 41.179 21.53 10.82

Na2O/Al2O3 0.044 0.076 0.058 0.256 0.063 0.067 0.145 0.143 0.261 0.264 0.220 0.191

K2O/Al2O3 0.146 0.221 0.183 0.223 0.195 0.234 0.190 0.189 0.358 0.307 0.071 0.054

TiO2/Zr 0.0031 0.0039 0.0035 0.0026 0.0047 0.0035 0.0021 0.0022 0.001 0.0015 0.0048 0.0110

K/Rb 158.5 237.72 189.31 – – – – – – – – –

ICV 0.83 1.91 1.1125 1.26 0.88 1.06

CIA 67.133 75.27 71.87 – – – – – – – – –

CIW 79.93 87.29 83.83 – – – – – – – – –

PIA 75.2 84.87 80.57 – – – – – – – – –

Rb/Sr 0.52 1.44 1.027 – – – 0.371 0.379 1.393 0.8125 0.1138 0.1035

Ba/Sr 1.94 5.4 3.852 1.57 3.25 4.47 2.033 2.052 6.557 5.3125 1.805 1.464

Th/Sc 0.74 1.38 1.081 0.97 0.91 0.82 1.12 – 3.6 0.784 0.222 0.072

Zr/Sc 12.48 19.49 14.36 17.27 13.12 13.42 39.875 – 50 16.538 8.888 3.969

Th/V 0.05 0.18 0.136 0.17 0.09 0.09 0.115 0.113 1 0.34 0.028 0.009

Zr/Y 5.9 7.85 6.59 8.63 7.77 5.71 13.29 12.38 5.555 – 8 4.851

Zr/Hf 41.99 111.99 79.26 32.75 42 31.74 – – 38.461 – 40 38.529

La/Co 1.77 2.44 2.247 3 1.65 1.21 – – 13.333 4.666 0.909 0.3142P

REE 297.6 402.72 356.13 – – – – – – – – –P

LREE 139.88 190.2 167.62 – – – – – – – – –P

HREE 14.55 19.53 17.24 – – – – – – – – –

LREE/HREE 8.78 11.23 9.74 – – – – – – – – –

Eu/Eu� 0.73 1.01 0.81 – – – – – – – – –

Ce/Ce� 0.92 1.04 0.99 – – – – – – – – –

Gd/YbCN 1.93 2.31 2.09 – – – – – – – – –

La/YbCN 11.25 14.77 12.57 – – – – – – – – –

Major oxides are in wt%, Trace elements in ppm. Total iron expressed as FeOT in c–g.a Loess-paleosol composition from Kashmir Valley (n = 38) on the basis of this study.b Average loess 3 composition from the mean of sixteen (1–16) averages of eleven loess regions (n = 192), southwestern Hungary (Ujvari et al., 2008).c Global average loess composition from the mean of seventeen (1–17) averages of eleven loess regions (n = 244) (Ujvari et al., 2008).d Average chemical composition of Phanerozoic granite (Condie, 1993).e Average chemical composition of Meso-Cenozoic felsic volcanic rocks (Condie, 1993).f Average chemical composition of Meso-Cenozoic andesite (Condie, 1993).g Average chemical composition of Meso-Cenozoic basalt (Condie, 1993).



centration (with the exception of few samples) compared to UCC

(Fig. 3).

It is well known that the CaO contents of loess vary greatly and

show both positive and negative anomalies on UCC normalized spi-

der diagrams (Gallet et al., 1998; Jahn et al., 2001). Thewide range of

variations in CaO wt% may be argued for high LOI (Honda et al.,

2004), which ranges from 5.71 to 14.81 wt% in the studied samples.

The low CaO contents in sediments relative to PAAS indicate their

maturity (Condie, 1993). Most of the analyzed samples show higher

values of CaO wt% relative to PAAS indicating that these sediments

are relatively less mature than the PAAS (Mahjoor et al., 2009). This

is further supported by the ratio of maturity index (SiO2/Al2O3)

ranging from3.43 to 4.33,which revealsweakmaturity of these sed-

iments. Ratios of abundance of major oxides and correlation coeffi-

cients of major and trace elements of the loess-paleosol sediments

reveal other interesting features. SiO2 contents have a positive cor-

relationwithAl2O3 (r = 0.85) and TiO2 (r = 0.85) reflecting thatmuch

of SiO2 is not present as quartz grains. There is strong positive corre-

lation of TiO2 with Al2O3 (r = 0.85), Fe2O3 (r = 0.93) and MnO

(r = 0.71). These relations also suggest that TiO2 occurs as an essen-

tial chemical constituent of both clays and maficminerals. CaO cor-

relates negatively with both SiO2 (r = �0.93) and Al2O3 (r = �0.96)

indicating that carbonate minerals of secondary origin present in

these loess-paleosol sediments (Moosavirad et al., 2010). A positive

correlation of Al2O3 with K2O (r = 0.60), Na2O (r = 0.19) and MgO

(r = 0.17) implies that the concentrations of the K-bearing minerals

such as illite or muscovite have weak to moderate influence on Al

distribution (McLennanet al., 1983; Jin et al., 2006). K2O/Na2O ratios

of the analyzed samples are variable (2.42–4.75 wt%) and also

attributed to low to moderate amount of K-bearing minerals such

as illite and muscovite (McLennan et al., 1983; Moosavirad et al.,

2010). The values of K2O/Al2O3 ratio of clays are less than 0.3 and

those of feldspars range from 0.3 to 0.9 (Cox et al., 1995). However,

K2O/Al2O3 ratio of the loess-paleosol sediments of the present study

vary narrowly from 0.146 to 0.221 (average = 0.183). These values

indicate preponderance of clay minerals over K-bearing minerals

such as K-feldspars and micas (Cox et al., 1995). This trend can be

further illustrated from the values of the Index of Compositional

Variation (ICV; Cox et al., 1995) where ICV = (Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2-O + CaO + MgO + MnO + TiO2)/Al2O3. Values of ICV < 1 are typical

of minerals like kaolinite, illite and muscovite and higher values

(>1) are characteristic of rock forming minerals such as plagioclase,

K-feldspar, amphiboles and pyroxenes (Cox et al., 1995;Moosavirad

et al., 2010). ICV values of the studied sediments vary from 0.83 to

1.91 (average = 1.11). This suggests that the loess-paleosol sedi-

ments of the present study are enriched in both rocks forming min-

erals and clays.

Na2O although exhibits negative correlations with CaO

(r = �0.33), it shows positive correlations with Fe2O3 (r = 0.21),

Al2O3 (r = 0.19), MgO (r = 0.21) and SiO2 (r = 0.52) suggesting that

smectite present in these loess-paleosol sediments (Moosavirad

et al., 2010). These results are quite agreed with SEM and XRD clay

mineralogical results suggesting dominant smectite followed by il-

lite and traces of mixed layered clay minerals chlorite + kaolinite

Fe2O3%Al2O3% Na2O% P2O5%SiO2% MnO% MgO% CaO%0.1

1

10

Sam

ple

s/U

CC

Fe2O3%Al2O3% Na2O% TiO2% P2O5%SiO2% K2O%TiO2%K2O% MnO% MgO% CaO%0.1

1

10

Sam

ple

s/U

CC

(a) Dilpur Village Section (b) Karapur Village Section

DL1 DS 1a DS1b DS2a DS2b DS3a

DS3b DL2 DS4a DS4b DS5a DS5b

DS6b DL3 DS7b PAAS NASC

KS1a KS1b KS2a KS2b KS3aKS3b KS4a KS4b KL 1 KS5aKS5 KS5c KS6a KS6b KS7aKS7b KS8a KS8b KL2 KS9aKS9b KS10a KS10b PAAS NASC

Fig. 3. UCC normalized spider diagrams for major oxides composition of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments at (a) Dilpur and (b) Karapur Village sections. PAAS and UCC

values after Taylor and McLennan (1985); NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984).

0.1

1

10

Sam

ple

s/U

CC

DL1 DS 1a DS1b DS2a DS2b DS3a

DS3b DL2 DS4a DS4b DS5a DS5b

DS6b DL3 DS7b PAAS NASC

(a) Dilpur Village Section0.1

1

10

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba Ni Cu Zn Ga Pb Th U Sc V Co Hf Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba Ni Cu Zn Ga Pb Th U Sc V Co Hf

Sam

ple

s/U

CC

KS1a KS1b KS2a KS2b KS3aKS3b KS4a KS4b KL 1 KS5aKS5 KS5c KS6a KS6b KS7aKS7b KS8a KS8b KL2 KS9aKS9b KS10a KS10b PAAS NASC

(b) Karapur Village Section

Fig. 4. UCC normalized spider diagrams for trace elements composition of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments at (a) Dilpur and (b) Karapur Village sections. PAAS and UCC

values after Taylor and McLennan (1985) and NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984) patterns are given as a reference.



and chlorite (not included here). Cu shows positively correlation

with MnO (r = 0.79) and K2O (r = 0.67) and generally weak correla-

tion with MgO (r = 0.29) and Na2O (r = 0.097) probably suggesting

their occurrence in both mafic and felsic minerals (Moosavirad

et al., 2010).

4.1. Trace elements

The results of the trace elements analyses are listed in Table 1.

The UCC normalized patterns of trace elements of Kashmir Valley

are presented in Fig. 4; which are similar to that displayed by PAAS

(Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and NASC (Gromet et al., 1984).

4.1.1. Large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs): Rb, Ba, Sr

A relatively large deal of variability exists in the contents of

LILEs in the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (Table 1). Ba and

Rb are mainly concentrated in mica and K-feldspar whereas Sr is

mainly present in Ca-bearing minerals such as plagioclase, amphi-

bole, pyroxene and carbonate minerals. Therefore, the ratios of

immobile to mobile elements such as Rb/Sr and Ba/Sr ratios in-

crease with increasing weathering (Nesbitt and Young, 1982).

The strong positive correlation between Ba/Sr and Rb/Sr (r = 0.96)

in the studied samples suggests that both Rb and Ba generally re-

mained immobile during weathering. However, slightly lower con-

centration of Ba than the Rb on UCC normalized spider diagram

probably suggests only subtle depletion of Ba during pedogenesis

because Ba is less resistant than Rb (Fig. 4). Sr shows negative cor-

relation against Rb (r = �0.82) and Ba (r = �0.81). This depletion of

Sr is due to its high mobility during pedogenesis. This relationship

is also demonstrated on UCC normalized spider diagrams (Fig. 4).

Likewise, with the increase in chemical weathering intensity, K will

normally show depletion against Rb, thus leading to a lower K/Rb

ratio (Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1989). The elemental ratio of K/

Rb (ppm) below 300 indicates immobility of Rb (Chen et al.,

1998). This K/Rb ratio of the studied samples ranges from 158.5

to 237.72 (Table 1). This corroborates that the Kashmir Loess-

Paleosol sediments are not subjected to intense weathering.

4.1.2. High field strength elements (HFSEs): Y, Zr, Nb, Hf, Th, U

The elements Zr, Nb, Hf, Y, Th and U are enriched in felsic rather

than mafic rocks (Feng and Kerrich, 1990). Additionally, along with

the REEs, these high field strength elements reflect provenance

compositions (e.g., Taylor and McLennan, 1985). In analyzed sam-

ples, Zr has normalized value similar to UCC while Y, Th and U with

the exception of few samples are enriched compared to UCC (Fig. 4,

Table 1). However, Nb and Hf, which are abundant in felsic rocks,

strongly depleted in these sediments.

4.1.3. Transition trace elements (TTEs): Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, V, Co

In the analyzed samples, concentration of Cu, Sc, V and Co is

higher than the UCC (Fig. 4), whereas Zn with the exception of

few samples is higher than the UCC. Ni is also strikingly enriched

than UCC. Vanadium shows very weak positively correlation with

TiO2 (r = 0.20). Positive correlations of Co, Ni, Cu, V and Zn with

both Fe2O3 (r = 0.73, 0.81, 0.73, 0.17 and 0.68 respectively) and

Al2O3 (r = 0.82, 0.82, 0.67, 0.20 and 0.64 respectively) indicate that

these elements are linked with iron oxides and clay minerals

(Hirst, 1962). These trace elements are abundant in the soil devel-

oped on basalt (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Wronkiewicz and

Condie, 1987; Condie et al., 1995; Liu et al., 1996; Zhang et al.,

2007). During weathering and pedogenesis of the ferromagnesian

silicate minerals of the parent basalt, these elements easily re-

moved from the soil and associated with clay minerals. Therefore,

enrichment of transition trace elements in Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments with respect to the average composition of the Upper

0.1

1

10

Sam

ple

s/P

AA

S

(c) Dilpur Village section

DL1 DS1a DS1b DS2a DS2bDS3a DS3b DL2 DS4a DS4bDS5a DS5b DS6b DL3 DS7b

1

10

100

1000

Sam

ple

s/C

hondri

te

(a) Dilpur Villlage section

DL1 DS1a DS1b DS2a DS2bDS3a DS3b DL2 DS4a DS4bDS5a DS5b DS6b DL3 DS7bUCC PAAS NASC

1

10

100

1000

Sam

ple

s/C

hondri

te

(b) Karapur Village Section

KS1a KS1b KS2a KS2b KS3a

KS3b KS4a KS4b KL 1 KS5a

KS5 KS5c KS6a KS6b UCC

PAAS NASC

0.1

1

10

La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Yb Lu

La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Yb Lu La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Yb Lu

La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Yb Lu

Sam

ple

s/P

AA

S

(d) Karapur Village section

KS1a KS1b KS2a KS2b KS3aKS3b KS4a KS4b KL 1 KS5aKS5 KS5c KS6a KS6b

Fig. 5. Chondrite and PAAS normalized REE patterns of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments at (a) Dilpur and (b) Karapur Village sections. PAAS and UCC values after Taylor and

McLennan (1985) and NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984) patterns are given as a reference.



Continental Crust (UCC) suggests significant basic input from the

source terrain.

4.2. Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

The chondrite normalized REE patterns for Kashmir Loess-

Paleosol sediments are similar to that displayed by UCC, PAAS

(Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and NASC (Gromet et al., 1984)

(Fig. 5a, b). It reveals that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments

have fractionated REE patterns, with LaCN/YbCN ratio varying from

11.25 to 14.77, LaCN/SmCN from 3.06 to 4.18 andP

LREE/P

HREE

ratio ranges from 8.78 to 11.23 (Table 1), suggesting moderate

enrichment of LREEs. Total REE (P

REE) abundances are variable

in these sediments, which range from 297.6 to 402.72 ppm (Ta-

ble 1). The GdCN/YbCN ratios (1.93–2.31) which is almost similar

to (GdCN/YbCN = 1–2) ratio of Taylor and McLennan (1985), suggest

relatively flat HREE pattern. The GdCN/YbCN ratios less than 2.5,

suggest that these sediments are derived from the less HREE de-

pleted source rocks (Bakkiaraj et al., 2010).

The Eu and Ce anomalies are expressed as: Eu/Eu� = (EuCN)/

{(SmCN) � (GdCN)}0.5 and Ce/Ce� = (CeCN)/{(LaCN)

0.666 � (NdCN)0.333.

Eu anomaly of the studied samples ranges between 0.73 and 1.01

(average = 0.81). The lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly

(Fig. 5a and b; Table 1) attributes to the partial weathering of pla-

gioclase feldspar, suggesting robustness of REE during weathering.

Ce anomaly ranges from 0.92 to 1.04 (average = 0.99), suggesting

weak post depositional alteration during pedogenesis. On PAAS

normalized REE plots (Fig. 5c, d), these sediments are distinguished

by the slightly higher LREE, depleted HREE and positive Eu and Ce

anomalies.

5. Provenance

Many investigators have demonstrated that chemical composi-

tion of sedimentary rocks is related to that of their source regions

(e.g., Fralick and Kronberg, 1997 and references therein; Cullers,

2000; Alvarez and Roser, 2007; Manikyamba et al., 2008; Spalletti

et al., 2008; Akarish and El-Gohary, 2008, 2011; Paikaray et al.,

2008; Dey et al., 2009; Kalsbeek and Frei, 2010; Mishra and Sen,

2010). In published literature, several major, trace and rare earth

element based discrimination diagrams have been proposed to in-

fer the source/provenance of sedimentary rocks (e.g., Bhatia and

Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch, 1988; Hayashi et al., 1997; Amajor,

1987). In the provenance discrimination diagram of Roser and Kor-

sch (1988), the formulated discriminant functions (i.e., bivariates)

are based on concentrations of both immobile and variably mobile

major elements. On this diagram, the loess-paleosol sediments of

the present study plot in the fields of intermediate igneous and

quartzose sedimentary provenance (Fig. 6). This suggests that the

loess-paleosol sediments are derived from mixed source rocks.

In igneous rocks, Al resides mostly in feldspars and Ti in mafic

minerals (e.g., olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite and ilmenite).

Therefore, the A1/Ti ratios of igneous rocks generally increase with

increasing SiO2 contents (Hayashi et al., 1997). The values of Al2O3/

TiO2 (wt%) ratio increase from (a) 3 to 8 in mafic igneous rocks

(SiO2 content from 45 to 52 wt%), (b) 8 to 21 in intermediate igne-

ous rocks (SiO2 content from 53 to 66 wt%) and (c) 21 to 70 in felsic

igneous rocks (SiO2 content from 66 to 76 wt%). The Al2O3/TiO2

(wt%) ratio of the present loess-paleosol sediments ranges from

20.04 to 22.23 (SiO2 contents from 50.92 to 63.68 wt%) display ma-

fic to intermediate composition. According to Hayashi et al. (1997),

the SiO2 contents of normal igneous rocks can be evaluated from

their Al2O3/TiO2 ratio by the following equation:

SiO2 ðwt%Þ ¼ 39:34þ 1:2578ðAl2O3=TiO2Þ � 0:0109ðAl2O3=TiO2Þ2

Since Al and Ti are immobile and behave similarly during resid-

ual weathering and transportation, the silica content of the source

rocks can be inferred from the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of sedimentary

rocks using the above equation. When Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the

loess-paleosol sediments of the present study are substituted in

the equation of Hayashi et al. (1997), the SiO2 contents of the

loess-paleosol sediments are found to range narrowly from 57.62

to 62.48 wt% (average 61.18 wt%). Average SiO2 contents

(61.18 wt%) indicate that the inferred source rocks are intermedi-

ate igneous rocks. These estimates agree quite well with the actual

SiO2 contents of these sediments, ranging from 50.92 to 63.68 wt%

suggesting intermediate composition.

Amajor (1987) proposed Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) binary plot as a

provenance indicator. The application of this plot on the Kashmir

Loess-Paleosol sediments (Fig. 7) indicates that all the samples fall

along the basalt + ryolite/granite line. This further indicates that

the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived from mixed

source sediments ranging in composition from mafic and felsic

source rocks.

Ratios of both compatible and incompatible elements are useful

for differentiating between felsic and mafic source components.

The immobile elements La and Th are more abundant in felsic than

in basic rocks, whereas Sc is more concentrated in basic rocks than

in felsic rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Wronkiewicz and Con-

die, 1987). These elements are effective in tracing loess provenance

(Liu et al., 1993; Gallet et al., 1996; Sun, 2002a,b; Muhs and Bu-

dahn, 2006). Bhatia and Crook (1986) proposed La–Th–Sc ternary

diagram to study the tectonic setting of sedimentary rocks. Subse-

quently, Cullers (1994a,b) used this diagram to discriminate felsic

and basic provenance of the fine-grained sediments. In this La–Th–

Sc diagram, data of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments fall in a re-

gion of mixed source rocks (Fig. 8). The fact that all the samples

plot close to the values of UCC, PAAS and NASC, indicating large

provenance with variable geographical and geological setting (Gal-

let et al., 1996).

6. Sorting and recycling

Sedimentary recycling processes are accompanied by fraction-

ation and enrichment of heavy minerals, notably Zr. Zircon is phys-

ically and chemically ultra-stable mineral that can indicate the

effect of recycling (McLennan et al., 1993). An example of this

can be illustrated for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediment. In Fig. 9a

Th/Sc ratio is plotted against Zr/Sc ratio. The Zr/Sc ratio is a useful

index of zircon enrichment (sediment recycling) since Zr is

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

DF1

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

DF

2

Mafic igneous provenance

Quartzosesedimentaryprovenance

Intermediateigneous provenance

Felsic igneousprovenance

+ Dilpur Village section

Karapur Village section

Fig. 6. Provenance discriminant functions diagram for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments (discriminant fields are after Roser and Korsch, 1988).

DF1 = 30.6038 � TiO2/Al2O3 � 12.541 � Fe2O3/Al2O3 + 7.329 �MgO/Al2O3 + 12.031

� Na2O/Al2O3 + 35.42 � K2O/Al2O3 � 6.382; DF2 = 56.500 � TiO2/Al2O3 � 10.879 �

Fe2O3/Al2O3 + 30.875 �MgO/Al2O3 � 5.404 � Na2O/Al2O3 + 11.112 � K2O/Al2O3-

3.89.



strongly enriched in Zircon, whereas Sc is not enriched but gener-

ally preserves a signature of the provenance similar to REE (McLen-

nan, 1989). In contrast, Th/Sc ratio is a good overall indicator of

igneous chemical differentiation processes since Th is typically

an incompatible element, whereas Sc is typically compatible in

igneous rocks (McLennan et al., 1993; Borges et al., 2008). In case

of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments, it can be seen that both Th/

Sc and Zr/Sc ratios do not follow a trend consistent with igneous

differentiation being the primary control (i.e., provenance)

(Fig. 9a). In contrast, these sediments clustered close to the pri-

mary compositional trend than the trend involving zircon addition,

suggesting weak to moderate sedimentary recycling. In addition, Zr

preferentially incorporates into HREE relative to LREE and its accu-

mulation would lead to HREE enrichment and a decrease in (La/

Yb)CN ratio with increasing Zr contents. However, there exist weak

to moderate correlation between Zr and (La/Yb)CN ratio (r = 0.43) of

the analyzed samples (Fig. 9b) again suggesting weak to moderate

sedimentary recycling.

The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio is sensitive to sediment recycling and

weathering processes, and Roser and Korsch (1986) have used it

as a signal of sediment maturity, with values increasing as quartz

survives preferentially to feldspars, mafic minerals and lithic

grains. Average values <4.0 characterize immature sedimentation,

while values >5.0–6.0 in sediments are an indication of progressive

maturity and mature sediments with values >6.0 (Roser et al.,

1996). When values exceed 7.0, and peak at >10.0 suggest strongly

mature sediments. The SiO2/Al2O3 values that range between �3.0

and 5.0 characterize immature–weakly mature sediments (Roser

et al., 1996). The SiO2/Al2O3 (wt%) values of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments that range between 3.33 and 4.43 (Table 1), indicate

immature–weakly mature.

Loess deposits can provide us with a natural sampling of large

regions of surficial crust (Taylor et al., 1983). This is because they

are widespread and made by several mechanisms, which produce

silt-sized particles (e.g., glacial grinding, desert weathering and

deflation, ‘‘mountain loess’’ process operating with high-energy

transfer and frequent freeze–thaw conditions) in various sedimen-

tary environments (Gallet et al., 1998; Tripathi and Rajamani,

1999; Wright, 2001). These characteristics make loess suitable

for estimating the average chemical composition of the UCC (Tay-

lor et al., 1983). However, the composition of loess cannot be used

directly to infer UCC composition. Recent studies show that the

geochemistry of loess differs from region to region, depending on

source materials (e.g., Muhs and Bettis, 2003; Sun et al., 2007). In

Fig. 10a, SiO2 and Al2O3 concentrations of the studied samples plot

close to the composition of andesite and basalt (values after Con-

die, 1993) but far from the GAL (global average loess) and AVL

(average loess) (Ujvari et al., 2008) and granite and felsic volcanic

igneous rocks (values after Condie, 1993). The lower SiO2 content

of these Kashmir Loess samples relative to the AVL and GAL might

reflect that these samples had a smaller proportion of silt-sized

quartz than other worldwide loess deposits (Fig. 10a and b). In

Fig. 10c and d, the average composition of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

0 10 20 30 40 500.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Bas

alt

r

Basalt+

yolite/g

ranite

r

Ryolite/g

anite+basalt

Ryolite/granite



TiO

2(w

t%)

Al2O3 (wt%)

Fig. 7. Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) binary plot showing basalt + ryolite/granite composi-

tional field of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (after Amajor, 1987).

La (ppm)

Sc (ppm)Th (ppm)

Clay, silt, sandand gravels from

mixedsourcesTypical Granitic gneisssouces

Amphibolite sources

Clay, silt, sand from amphibolite

source

Metabasic sources



UCC

PAASNASC

Fig. 8. La–Th–Sc ternary diagram showing mixed sources for Kashmir Loess-

Paleosol sediments (fields defined by Cullers, 1994a). UCC and PAAS values after

Taylor and McLennan (1985) and NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984).

1 10 1000.1

1.0

10.0

Basalt

Andesite

Granite

(a)

Zr/Sc (ppm)

Th/S

c (p

pm

)



0 100 200 300

Zr (ppm)

0

10

20

30+ Dilpur Village section


(La/

Yb

) CN

(b)

Fig. 9. (a) Th/Sc vs Zr/Sc plot for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (after McLennan et al., 1993). Samples define much shorter trend and fall along a trend intermediate

between trend involving zircon addition (solid line) and primary compositional trend (dashed line) suggestive of weak to moderate sedimentary recycling. Plot of (b) (La/

Yb)CN vs Zr (ppm) (after Asiedu et al., 2004) showing weak correlation consistent with the weak to moderate sedimentary recycling.



sediments also plot close to the andesite (values after Condie,

1993). Therefore, strong regional variation is detected by compar-

ing the average composition of some individual geochemical

parameters of Kashmir Loess to AVL and GAL (Fig. 10a–d). These

findings indicated that the composition of Kashmir Loess is very

close to the andesite and basalt than the others references

materials.

7. Weathering intensity

Chemical weathering intensity of source rocks is controlled

mainly by source rock composition, duration of weathering, cli-

matic conditions and rates of tectonic uplift of source region

(e.g., Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987). About 75% of the labile

material of the upper crust is composed of feldspars and volcanic

glass and chemical weathering of these materials ultimately re-

sults in the formation of clay minerals (e.g., Nesbitt and Young,

1984, 1989; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Fedo et al., 1995). The

distribution of elements within the profile is used to assess the nat-

ure and degree of weathering (Nesbitt and Young, 1982; McLen-

nan, 1989). Both precipitation and temperature accelerate

chemical weathering in soils and cause depletion of alkali and alka-

line earth elements (Ca, Mg, Na and K) at the expense of refractory

elements such as Ti and Al. Therefore, the concentration of individ-

ual element in the profile is directly influenced by change in con-

centration of other elements. The amount of these elements

surviving in soil profiles and in sediments derived from them is a

sensitive index of the intensity of chemical weathering (Nesbitt

et al., 1997).

The degree of source weathering is quantified variously. Few

indices of weathering have been proposed based on abundances

of mobile and immobile element oxides (Na2O, CaO, K2O and

Al2O3). Among the known indices of weathering, the Chemical In-

dex of Alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982) is well established

as a method of quantifying the degree of source weathering. Source

weathering and elemental redistribution during diagenesis can

also be assessed using Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA; Fedo

et al., 1995) and Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW; Harnois,

1988). The equations of the above indices are:

CIA ¼ Al2O3=ðAl2O3 þ CaO� þ Na2Oþ K2OÞf g � 100

CIW ¼ Al2O3=ðAl2O3 þ CaO� þ Na2OÞf g � 100

PIA ¼ ðAl2O3—K2OÞ=ðAl2O3 þ CaO� þ ðNa2O—K2OÞf g � 100

In the above equations, CaO� is the content of CaO incorporated

in silicate fraction and all major oxides are expressed in molar pro-

portions. The CaO content of the loess-paleosol sediments of the

0 4 8 12 160.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

Granite

Felsic VolcanicKashmir Loess

BasaltGAL

AVL

Andesite

(d)

Th/V

(ppm

)

Zr/V (ppm)

50 55 60 65 70 75 8010

12

14

16

18

Kashmir Loess

Granite

Felsic Volcanic

Basalt

Andesite

AVLGAL

(a)

Al 2

O3

(wt%

)

SiO2 (wt%)

50 55 60 65 70 75 800.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Kashmir Loess

Granite

Felsic Volcanic

Basalt

Andesite

AVLGAL

(b)

TiO

2(w

t%)

SiO2 (wt%)

0 15 30 45 60 75

Ni (ppm)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Kashmir Loess

Granite

Felsic Volcanic

Basalt

Andesite

AVLGAL

(c)

TiO

2(w

t%)

Fig. 10. Scatter plots of (a) Al2O3 vs SiO2 wt%, (b) TiO2 vs SiO2 wt%, (c) TiO2 wt% vs Ni (ppm) and (d) Th/V vs Zr/V (ppm) comparing Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (this

study) with average loess composition (AVL) and global average loess composition (GAL) (values from Ujvari et al. (2008)). Average values of igneous rock compositions

(granite, basalt, felsic volcanic and andesite) (after Condie, 1993) and Chinese Loess composition (values from Taylor et al., 1983), Gallet et al. (1996) and Jahn et al. (2001) are

also shown for comparison.

Al2O3

K2OCaO*+Na2O

Kaolinit, Gibbsit, Chlorite

50

90

100

80

70

60

CIA

Plagioclase

Illite

K-feldspar

Smectite

Muscovite

Predicted weathering

trend



UCC

PAAS

NASC

Fig. 11. Al2O3�(CaO� + Na2O)�K2O ternary diagram for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments (after Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1989), compared to data for Post-

Archean Average Shale (PAAS) and Upper Continental Crust (UCC) given by Taylor

and McLennan (1985); and North American Shale Composite (NASC) given by

Gromet et al. (1984).



present study varies from 1.21 to 11.33 wt% (average = 5.46 wt%).

The P2O5 contents range from 0.087 to 0.156 wt%. There is no direct

method to distinguish and quantify the contents of CaO belonging

to silicate fraction and non-silicate fraction (carbonates and apa-

tite). McLennan (1993) proposed an indirect method for quantify-

ing CaO content of silicate fraction assuming reasonable values of

CaO/Na2O ratio of silicate material. The procedure for quantifica-

tion of CaO contents of silicate fraction involves subtraction of mo-

lar proportion of P2O5 from the molar proportion of CaO. On

subtraction, if the ‘‘remaining number of moles’’ found to be less

than the molar proportion of Na2O, then the ‘‘remaining number

of moles’’ is considered as the molar proportion of CaO of silicate

fraction. If the ‘‘remaining numbers of moles’’ are greater than

the molar proportion of Na2O, then the molar proportion of Na2O

is taken as the molar proportion of CaO of silicate fraction.

Following the procedure of McLennan (1993), the CIA, CIW and

PIA values of the loess-paleosol sediments have been determined

and the results are provided in Table 1. CIA value 50 or less repre-

sents unweathered rocks and soils. CIA value range from 50 to 60

indicates incipient pedogenesis, whereas CIA value range from 60

to 80 indicates moderate degree of pedogenesis. Higher values of

CIA from 80 to 100 indicate intense pedogenesis (McLennan,

2001; Abdou and Shehata, 2007). The CIA values of Kashmir

Loess-Paleosol sediments indicate that the degree of source weath-

ering varies from 67.13 to 75.27 (average = 71.87). CIW values

ranging from 80 to 95 with Sr contents of 75 to 200 ppm suggest

moderate losses of Ca, Na and Sr. In contrast, the CIW values range

between 90 and 98 with Sr contents <100 ppm indicate intense

losses of these elements (Condie, 1993; Nyakairu and Koeberl,

2001). The CIW value of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments ranges

from 79.93 to 87.29 (average = 83.83) and Sr concentration vary

between 94.09 and 167.33 ppm suggesting a moderate loss of

these elements during pedogenic modification (Table 1). The PIA

value ranges from 70 to 90 also reflects an intermediate degree

of weathering (Selvaraj and Chen, 2006). PIA values of loess-paleo-

sol sediments of Kashmir Valley vary from 75.20 to 84.87 (aver-

age = 80.57), which vividly indicate moderate degree of

weathering.

PIA monitors and quantifies the progressive weathering of feld-

spars to clay minerals (Fedo et al., 1995). PIA values of sediments

suggest intense destruction of feldspars during the course of source

weathering, transport, sedimentation and diagenesis. During the

initial stages of weathering of feldspar-bearing source material,

Ca leached more rapidly than Na and K. With increasing weather-

ing, the total alkali content (K2O + Na2O) decreases with increase in

K2O/Na2O ratio. This is due to destruction of plagioclase feldspars

among which plagioclase is preferentially removed than K-feld-

spars (Nesbitt and Young, 1984). Detrital grains of feldspars in sed-

iments can preserve imprints of varied degrees of alteration

witnessed at the source region and during transport, sedimenta-

tion and diagenesis. PIA shows weak positive correlation with

K2O (r = 0.30) and negative correlation with K2O + Na2O wt%

(r = �0.064), Na2O (r = �0.56), MgO (r = �0.042) and CaO

(r = �0.56). This vividly indicates that the weathering has pro-

ceeded to the stage where only mobile elements have been

removed.

Mobility of elements during the progress of chemical weather-

ing and post-depositional chemical modifications of source mate-

rial can also be evaluated by plotting the molar proportions of

Al2O3, Na2O, K2O and CaO� (CaO in silicate fraction) in A–CN–K ter-

nary diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984). In the A–CN–K dia-

gram (A = Al2O3; CN = CaO� + Na2O; K = K2O), the Kashmir Loess-

Paleosol sediments plot above the plagioclase-potash feldspar line

(Fig. 11). The samples fall intermediate between A–CN and A–K

lines, which show removal of Ca and Na to intermediate extent

due to destruction of plagioclase (Buggle et al., 2008). The plots

do not exhibit any inclination towards the K apex indicating that

the loess-paleosol sediments were not subjected to potash metaso-

matism during diagenesis (Moosavirad et al., 2010). Further, the

ratios of immobile elements such as La/Co, Zr/Y and Zr/Hf, show

no correlation with Al2O3 (r = �0.49, 0.00094, 0.076 respectively)

and CIA values (r = �0.58, r = �0.029 and r = 0.051 respectively)

which suggest that these elements are resistant to chemical

weathering.

Some studies suggest that REEs can be fractionated during

chemical weathering and especially in humid climates (Ronov

et al., 1967; Roaldsete, 1973). To see if the intensity of weathering

of loess-paleosol sediments affected REE distributions, the LaCN/

YbCN ratios plotted against the CIA, CaO and Na2O wt% (Fig. 12).

A correlation is not apparent between these parameters, as would

10 12 14 16 18 2065

70

75

80

85

CIA

(La/Yb)CN

(a)+ Dilpur Village section


10 12 14 16 18 200

5

10

15

20

(La/Yb)CN

CaO

(w

t%)

+ Dilpur Village sectionKarapur Village section

(b)

10 12 14 16 18 200

1

2

Na

2O

(w

t%)

(La/Yb)CN

(c)+ Dilpur Village section


Fig. 12. (a) CIA vs LaCN/YbCN, (b) CaO wt% vs LaCN/YbCN and (c) Na2O wt% vs PIA plots for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments suggesting that the REE are not affected by

weathering.



be expected if the REE distributions influenced by weathering. The

LaCN/YbCN ratio of the studied samples do not correlates with the

weathering indices (CIW vs LaCN/YbCN; r = 0.090 and PIA vs LaCN/

YbCN; r = 0.14). This lack of evidence of intense paleoweathering

at the source depicted by the LREE/HREE (LaCN/YbCN) fractionation

suggests that the REEs are not subjected to weathering (Cai et al.,

2008).

PAAS (Post Archean Australian Shale, Taylor and McLennan,

1985) normalized REE patterns of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sedi-

ments are moderately depleted in HREE relative to PAAS (Fig. 5c

and d). Eu and Ce anomalies are higher than PAAS. This suggests

that these elements remained conservative during weathering.

Hence, REE pattern of the studied samples is mainly inherited from

the source provenance.

The use of CIA index in weathering studies assumes that this in-

dex is a measurement of the amount of the chemical weathering

undergone by the studied rocks. However, other factors that may

affect the CIA value and need to be taken into account include sed-

imentary sorting, sediment provenance and post-depositional pro-

cesses that lead to K+ addition (e.g. diagenetic illitization and

metasomatism). Sedimentary sorting can significantly influence

the chemical composition of terrigenous sediments due to grain

size and mineral sorting (Bauluz et al., 2000). For instance, alumi-

num is concentrated in the clays, hence the larger the transport

(i.e. distal regions), the finer the sediments and the higher the Al

concentration (Soreghan and Soreghan, 2007). There is also a ten-

dency of larger grain sizes to concentrate feldspars, which leads to

lower CIA values (Zimmerman and Bahlburg, 2003). Therefore, the

use of the CIA as a weathering index, however, can be limited by

the inheritance of clays from sedimentary rocks in the source area.

However, the geochemical study of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sedi-

ments reveals that these sediments are enriched in rock forming

minerals with significant proportion of clays, indicating that CIA

value to some extent is affected by these clays. In addition, the

A�CN�K diagram (Fig. 11) also indicates that these loess-paleosol

sediments are not subjected to potash metasomatism. Further,

plots of Th/Sc vs Zr/Sc (ppm) and (La/Yb)CN vs Zr (ppm) show weak

to moderate effect of sorting on the studied samples. Therefore,

weathering intensity inferred from the various plots indicating

moderate degree of weathering, probably suggest combined result

of weathering, provenance and grain size effect due to transporta-

tion processes. Hence, on the bases of these geochemical observa-

tions it is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments

experienced weak to moderate degree of weathering. The weather-

ing has proceeded to the stage where only plagioclase feldspar

(both Ca-rich plagioclase and Na-rich plagioclase) are partially re-

moved. Among the trace elements, Sr is the only element affected

by the process of pedogenesis followed by Ba.

Integrating the results of various provenance discrimination

diagrams (Roser and Korsch, 1988), Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) (Amajor,

1987), La–Th–Sc diagram (Cullers, 1994a,b), elemental ratios and

REE contents in these sediments, it reveals that these sediments

preserve the signatures of intermediate igneous or mixed felsic

and mafic source rocks. The presence of significant proportion of

clays in the Kashmir Loess, led earlier workers (e.g. Bronger

et al., 1987) to conclude that these sediments are partly derived

from the distant source and partly from the local source rocks. Ear-

lier, DeTerra and Paterson (1939) on the basis of relatively high

clay concentrations suggested that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments are derived from beyond the Pir Panjal. However, there

is no preferred pathway of deposition of these sediments. During

Plio-Pleistocene, southwestern monsoon does not reach the valley

as Pir Panjal mountain range effectively blocks it out. In addition,

there appear to be no nearby source for the loess nor an effective

mechanism by way of which wind could pass this mountain bar-

rier. However, monsoon was also weaker during the glacial phases

(Duplessy, 1982). Therefore, in the absence of any suitable mecha-

nism of transport, it is proposed that the westerlies are the possible

mechanism. The western disturbances, which enter the Kashmir

Valley from west and north-west during the winter months, are

brought by the westerlies. The westerlies blow toward Asia and

passes over the Asia Minor (Turkey, or the peninsula of Anatolia),

Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, NE Pakistan and then northwestern

India. These westerlies might have brought fine-grained sediments

to Kashmir Valley. However, contribution from the nearby sources

also not excluded, because the katabatic winds blowing down from

the mountain slopes could have also picked up fine material from

the glacial front and redeposited them on valley floor. Therefore, it

is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived

from mixed source sediments, mostly from the distant source re-

gion suggesting large provenance with variable geological settings.

8. Conclusions

This paper reports the first detailed multi-elements geochemi-

cal study to understand the chemical weathering and provenance

of loess-paleosol sediments of the Karewa Group of Kashmir Val-

ley, India. Geochemical studies carried out have revealed the

following:

In comparison with UCC, these sediments are generally en-

riched with Fe2O3, MgO, MnO (with the exception of few samples),

TiO2, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, V and Co. Al2O3 is slightly higher than the UCC

while CaO and U show large variations in comparison with UCC. Rb

is generally similar to UCC whereas Ba is slightly lower than the

UCC. However, the contents of SiO2, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, Sr, Nb and

Hf, which are associated with felsic rocks, are lower than the

UCC. Th, U, Zr and Y with the exception of few samples are higher

than the UCC. Chondrite normalized REE patterns are characterized

by moderate enrichment of LREEs, relatively flat HREE pattern

(GdCN/YbCN = 1.93–2.31), lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly

(Eu/Eu� = 0.73–1.01, average = 0.81) and variable amount of total

REE (P

REE = 297.6–402.72). PAAS normalized REE patterns have

slightly higher LREE and moderately depleted HREE. Eu and Ce

anomalies are relative higher than PAAS. This suggests robustness

of REE during weathering.

Integrating the results of provenance discrimination diagram

(Roser and Korsch, 1988), plot of Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) (Amajor,

1987), La–Th–Sc diagram (Cullers, 1994a,b), elemental ratios and

REE contents in these sediments, it is concluded that the geochem-

ical characteristics preserve the signatures of intermediate igneous

or mixed source from felsic and mafic rocks which apparently have

undergone weak to moderate recycling processes. Probably, the

westerlies have brought these fine-grained sediments to Kashmir

Valley. However, contribution from the nearby sources also not ex-

cluded, because the katabatic winds blowing down from the

mountain slopes could have also picked up fine material from

the glacial front and redeposited them on valley floor. Therefore,

it is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are de-

rived frommixed source sediments, mostly from the distant source

region suggesting large provenance with variable geological

settings.

However, paleoweathering at the source depicted by various

weathering indices suggest that the source experienced moderate

degree of weathering. Plot of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sedi-

ments on A–CN–K ternary diagram also reiterate moderate weath-

ering. This diagram further indicates that the loess-paleosol

sediments are not subjected to potash metasomatism during dia-

genesis. ICV values and Pearson correlation between various major

elements, trace elements and REE suggest that the Kashmir Loess-

paleosol sediments are enriched in both rocks forming minerals

and clay contents, indicating that the values of CIA, CIW and PIA



to some extent are affected by these clays. Hence, the presence of

clay minerals in Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments over estimates

the values of weathering indices. Therefore, weathering intensity

inferred from the various weathering indices, indicating moderate

degree of weathering, probably suggests combined result of weath-

ering and grain size effect due to transportation processes. Further,

ratios of various immobile elements such as La/Co, Zr/Y and Zr/Hf

show no correlation with Al2O3 and CIA values, suggesting that

these elements are not subjected to chemical weathering. Also,

LaCN/YbCN ratio shows no correlation with CaO wt%, Na2O wt%,

CIA, CIW and PIA, indicating that the chemical weathering did

not fractionate LREE from HREE. Hence, it is proposed that the

Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments experienced weak to moderate

degree of weathering. This is further supported by the ratio of

maturity index (SiO2/Al2O3 wt%) ranging from 3.33 to 4.43 and plot

of Zr (ppm) vs (La/Yb)CN which reveals weak maturity of these sed-

iments and likely record a weak to moderate recycling effect from

their source rocks.

Acknowledgments

The author is thankful to Dr. B.R. Arora, Director Wadia Institute

of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun, for providing access to

laboratory and analytical facilities.

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