Paper 1: Communism in crisis (1976 - 1989) USSR

Brezhnev's domestic and foreign policies from 1976 to 1982 Andropov and Chernenko (1982 - 1985) Gorbachev (1985 - 1991): glasnost and perestroika, foreign policies, the collapse of the Soviet Union and

establishment of the new system under Yeltsin 

 Eastern Europe For the Eastern bloc, there's a nice document on the site that lists the key terms/dates/people you need to know for each state. Learn those for the three listed below!

Poland (1976 - 1989) Czechoslovakia (1976 - 1989) German Democratic Republic/East Germany (1976 - 1989)

 The IB syllabus lists those three states by name, so you should give them priority.   China

The struggle for power after the death of Mao Zedong between the Gang of Four,Hua Guofeng, and Deng Xiaoping (1976)

The economic and foreign policies of Deng Xiaoping culminating in Tiananmen Square(1989)

Yes, you should know something about China after Mao. This is the second year they test the new syllabus, so there's a possibility that they might test China again. Don't focus that much on this, but still, know some stuff.

China in CrisisBackground to the events, 1976-89-          Mao leader since creation of PRC in 1949-          Members began to question Mao’s leadership after Great Leap Forward-          New leaders emerged: Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping (General Secretary)Role of Mao after GLF-          Mao replaced by Liu as head of government, but retained position as Chairman of Communist Party-          1961: struggle for leadership of Party and country began-          Mao had a strong cult of personality- used to his advantage in the Cultural Revolution-          1962: Liu allowed peasants to grow on individual plots, program of incentives, more freedom of expression (more capitalist)-          Deng: openly challenged Mao at Party meetings-          Mao: Socialist Education movement

Return to rural roots Mao felt that his authority as leader was being challenged and sought a return to revolutionary ideals

-          Created Red Guards- revolutionary youth, vanguard of new struggle against elites-          1965: army officially egalitarian

Military ranks abolished

The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution-          Jiang Qing: launched assault on Beijing Opera, replace forms of opera w/ contemporary themes and totalitarian values-          Artists and writers asked to explain their works-          Destruction of antiquities that were seen as remnants of China’s imperial and bourgeois past-          The Red Guard

Youth Went to universities to root out those not loyal to the party Schools and universities closed for 4 years as youth participated Party members not loyal to Mao were removed from positions and purged from Party Army had to stop violence and brutality

-          The impact on education- the “Ten Lost Years”

Red Guard actions damaged infrastructure and faculty of many institutions, that they could not reopen Educational system in China interrupted

-          1969: Great Proletarian Cultural Rev declared over

No criticism or repudiation

-          PLA and Party Congress (2/3 military personnel) dominated country, but only temporarilyRenewed challenges to Mao’s power-          Power struggle between-          Gang of Four, Deng Xiaoping & Hua Guofeng Struggle for power following the death of Mao Zedong-          Reminiscent of power struggle that began after Lenin’s stroke (1921) until rise of Stalin (1929)

-          Jiang Qing- Mao’s wife: in unique position of power and influence as Mao grew weaker-          Gang of Four: radicalism needed to be reintroduced to China-          Pragmatists: led by Deng Xiaoping, allow some capitalism to make China a world power-          Hua Goufeng: in the middle, potential successorJiang Qing and the rise of the Gang of Four-          Jiang Qing increasingly took control of the media to control national culture-          Increased level of influence over Mao, esp. during Cultural Revolution-          Nov. 16, 1966: Central Cultural Revolutionary Committee formed, Jiang 1st vice chairwoman-          Gang of Four: Jiang Qing, Yao Wenyuan, Zhang Chunquiao, & Wang Hongwen-          During Cultural Rev: mandate was to uphold the Though of Mao, eliminate bourgeois influences & revisionist tendencies-          Eliminate four olds:

Thought (philosophy) Culture Customs Habits

-          Encouraged Red Guards to destroy cultural icons and make public protests-          After death of Lin: Gang of Four began bid of power in earnest-          Criticized Lin and Liu and Western cultural icons

Aimed mainly at Zhou Enlai

-          Mao: became extremely critical of Gang of Four

However, used them against other members of politburo to prevent any one faction from becoming too strong

Deng Xiaoping and the Pragmatists-          Deng: headed more moderate/pragmatic members of politburo-          Had support of Premier Zhou, who protected Deng when he faced repudiation-          Premier Zhou died in the midst of power struggle (1976)Death of Zhou Enlai and rise of Hua Guofeng-          Gang of Four: wanted Zhang as Premier (more left/radical path)-          Zhou wanted Deng (more moderate)-          Mao: chose Hua Guofeng (neutral)Qingming festival, 1976-          Population spoke out against Gang of Four at festival (March 29- April 4, 1976)-          Public mourning of Zhou-          Criticized Mao and Gang of Four, esp. Jiang-          More people came to criticize-          Protestors beaten and arrested, some beheaded (maybe?)-          Deng blamed for protests, fled to Canton until Mao’s deathThe death of Mao-          Sept. 9, 1976: Mao died from Parkinson’s disease-          Gang of Four planned to seize power using influence over media, urban militia, and universities-          However, Hua had strong support from politburo members and militaryThe defeat of the Gang of Four-          Hua warned Gang of Four during Mao’s memorial service

Criticized Gang for factionalism

Created tremendous support for Hua

-          Gang’s support base diminishing, so planned a coup on Oct. 6

Planned assassination of politburo members, esp. Hua and Ye Hua informed of Jiang’s plans

-          Gang members arrested, expelled from Party & sent for trial-          Jiang “Madame Mao”: portrayed as power hungry-          Charges against Gang of Four mainly related to Cultural Revolution-          Gang members sentenced to life imprisonmentThe reemergence of Deng Xiaoping-          Party purged of Gang by the end of 1976-          Hua’s 3 charges:

Mao’s successor Rehabilitate Deng Engage in modernization

-          Deng reinstated-          10th Central Committee meeting decisions:

Gang of Four’s actions condemned Hua made chairman of Party and military Commission Deng restored to politburo Standing Committee and as vice-chairman of Central Committee

-          Hua: wanted China to focus in industrialization, but through different means-          Deng in charge of Four Modernizations: (agriculture, industry, science & technology, national defense)-          Politburo 3 power groups:

Hua supporters (9 members) Deng (9) Ye (3)

-          Hua- Two Whatevers policy:

Uphold Mao’s policy decisions Follow whatever instructions Mao gave

-          Hua resigned as premier in 1980, resigned as party chairman in 1981-          Succeeded by Zhao Ziyang, Hu Yaobang, and Deng, respectively China under Deng Xiaoping-          1982: Deng had full control over govt. and Party-          Opened up to the West, most helpful to economic reforms

Allowed export of Chinese goods to non-communist countries Allowed some foreign investment in China Gave govt. capital necessary to make improvements

-          Adopted Western, industrial policies but remained firmly communist in political system

Evident in Tiananmen Square massacre (1989)

Economic policies and the Four Modernizations-          Mao: “politics in command”-          Deng: “economics in command”-          Change began under Hua- 10 Year Plan (1978)

Focus on heavy industry, esp. steel industry Extraction of natural resources (ex. oil, petroleum, coal, etc) Public works projects & infrastructure development Improve agricultural output through new irrigation systems and mechanized farming

-          Used incentives and bonuses to increase productivity-          Allowed for production of diversified crops on small plots, surplus produce could be sold at a profit-          Agriculture:

Population increased, so increase in production but not enough to meet consumption requirements 10 Year Plan: shift from traditional & manual farming to mechanized farming to increase yields Set quotas & govt. directives to increase productivity Use of chemical fertilizers, expand water works Household Responsibility System (1979) No private ownership But household received land that they could use however they like Quota would go back to commune in exchange for 15 years of land usage Could keep or sell surplus produce Successful: 90% of households participating by 1983 Increased production by more than 10 Year Plan goals

-          Industry

Looked to West as chief competitor, not USSR Focused on heavy industries: iron, coal, steel and oil production Targets too ambitious, so objectives scaled down in 1979 Industrial Responsibility System Improve attitude of industrial working class Incentives & focus on quality of production “Resolution on Reform of Economic System” Loosened govt. control over enterprises while retaining public ownership

-          Science and technology

Cultural Revolution interrupted education; “Ten Lost Years” China lacking in basic technological expertise Shortage of scientists, doctors, engineers, architects, etc National Scientific Conference (1978) goals Reach 1970 levels of advanced nations Increase number of professional scientific researchers to 800,000 Develop most current centers for experimentation Complete a nationwide system of science and technology research

-          Military

1975 directive: military to withdraw from politics and concentrate on improving national defense and military training

1979: border war between China and Vietnam revealed weaknesses of Chinese army Antiquated technology Military expenditure increased Push for research: somewhat aimed at developing weapons China took years to integrate new technology into military

Foreign capital- the Open Door Policy-          Dec. 1978: Open Door Policy adopted

China needed to engage in trade w/ West to improve Four Modernizations

-          Diversify exports, raise quality levels-          Japan, W. Germany, US, Hong Kong, etc trading partners-          Established Special Economic Zones

Region where economic policies are more liberal/lenient than the rest of the country Reminiscent of treaty ports in China prior to Communist victory in Civil War

Results of Ten-Year Plan-          Economic growth: highly successful-          Annual increase of 11% in industrial and agricultural production-          Old workers resented new younger more trained workers-          Inflation-          Pollution, deforestation-          One-child policy Political changes and their limits-          Economic reforms led to conflict within Communist Party-          3 main power bases

Deng (pragmatists) Hua (the balancer) Ye (military leader)

-          China: period of relative freedom

People imprisoned/exiled during Cultural Revolution released

-          “Democracy Wall” in Beijing: express opinion on China’s progress-          1979: pro-democracy advocates published magazines and pamphlets calling for reform

Ex. Beijing Spring Also addressed human rights, asked for Carter to condemn human rights abuses in China

-          People gathered at Tiananmen Square

Against past injustices and increasingly bureaucratic state

-          Wei Jingsheng: Fifth Modernization- democracy

Sentenced to prison

-          Wall closed down, pro-democracy groups pushed underground-          Govt. less control of news

Allowed journalists to publish about negative aspects of Chinese life

Tiananmen Square, 1989-          Calls for change encouraged by glasnost, perestroika & weakening of communism in Soviet satellites-          Hu died, resulted in people calling for social change-          Students demand for democracy, increased protests-          Publicized to the world-          Govt. sent military to clear square, hundreds killed-          Govt. denied that it killed civilians-          China singled out as human rights abuser-          Economic liberalization encouraged, but-          No political liberalization

POWER STRUGGLE AFTER DEATH OF MAO

Background Mao Zedong’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966—1976) has wiped out the formal apparatus of the

Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This period is known as the “Ten Lost Years.” Without the structure of the CCP to govern China, Mao relies increasingly on the military to maintain order. Lin Biao, minister of defense, was openly acknowledged as Mao’s successor. By 1969, the formal apparatus of the CCP is revived; as public order is restored, Mao felt less need for the

military and curtailed Lin’s powers accordingly. In reality, Mao had felt threatened by the increasing power of the military and Lin’s large following, and

hoped to remove him from office. Afraid that his position as Mao’s successor is threatened, Lin begins to plot against Mao and a power struggle

ensues. The CCP claims that Lin was in charge of Project 5-7-1, a Moscow-sanctioned plot to assassinate Mao. By 1971, it becomes clear that Lin has lost the power struggle. Lin attempts to flee to the Soviet Union by air, but his plane is “mysteriously” shot down over Mongolia. Lin’s defection convinces Mao that he would have to broaden his base of support and begin to readmit non-

Maoists, rightists, and those who had been purged through the Cultural Revolution to the CCP. Example: Deng Xiaoping. Left vs. Right Leftists: Notable leftists: Mao Zedong, Lin Biao, Hua Guofeng, the Gang of Four. Emphasized egalitarian and Marxist attitudes. Wanted to build a decentralized, self-sufficient local economy with an emphasis on agriculture and a short-

list of permitted industrial goods. Attempted to close the gap between rural and city areas and would send 17 million educated young people

into the countryside to this effect. “Politics in command” – put Marxist ideology, not profit, in command. Rightists: Notable rightists: Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaoping, Liu Shaoqi. Wanted to build a strong and wealthy China. Putting “profits in command.” Resented the intellectual repression and stagnant dogma of the radical Left. By the mid-1970s, there was an uneasy balance of leftists and rightists in the CCP.

Mao led the Left and Zhou led the Right. Zhou, while not a belligerent rightist like Deng Xiaoping, had defended some of the people who had been

accused of intellectual dissent during the Cultural Revolution. Zhou was able to moderately represent the rightist elements of the CCP without ever defying Mao. Mao and Zhou were able to keep the two sides in check since they were willing to compromise with each

other. The Gang of Four During the 1950s, Jiang Qing (Mao’s wife) became increasingly involved in governmental affairs. In November 1966, a 17-member Central Cultural Revolutionary Committee was formed with Jiang as first

vice chairwoman. She would include three of her closest associates… Yao Wenyuan – Mao’s chief propagandist Zhang Chunqiao Wang Hongwen – pejoratively referred to as ‘the helicopter’ for the speed at which he had claimed the

number three position in the CCP hierarchy. Collectively, they would be referred to as the ‘Gang of Four.’ During the Cultural Revolution, the Gang of Four had been promoted through the ranks very quickly by virtue

of Mao’s personal favor alone. Despite the ‘end’ of the Cultural Revolution in 1969, Jiang and the Gang of Four retain power in the CCP

politburo. Aims: The Gang of Four personified the radical Left. They were hardline communists and Maoists. Saw it as their mission to uphold the Thought of Mao and eliminate the Four Olds that impeded the

revolution. Thought, culture, customs and habits. Believed that China had veered off course during the 1950s and that the Cultural Revolution should be

continued to reinstitute revolutionary principles. After Lin’s betrayal, the Gang of Four begins its bid for power in earnest. Publically announce that the Cultural Revolution should be ongoing. Criticize Lin and traditional Eastern (e.g. Confucius) and Western (e.g. Beethoven) icons. Their true goal was to criticize Zhou Enlai, who had been instrumental to the opening of China. The deaths of Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong In January 1976, Zhou dies from a lingering illness. With his influence as premier, Zhou had been protecting Deng Xiaoping from the radical leftists who sought

to eliminate him for his moderate/pragmatic policies that favored the restoration of order. People believe that whoever succeeded Zhou would end up deciding the future path for China. Ignoring Zhou’s personal choice of Deng, Mao appointed the neutral Hua Guofeng to the position of premier. Neither the leftists nor the rightists really objected to Hua’s appointment. Continuing their criticism of Zhou, the Gang of Four cuts the traditional period of mourning for his death

short. During China’s traditional Qing Ming festival in which the dead are honored, thousands of people brought

wreaths to Tiananmen Square in honor of Zhou. When the radical leftists remove the wreaths, riots break out. Under Mao’s directive, Hua declares the riots counterrevolutionary movements and orders the military to

break up the riots, repressing the people yet again. Deng Xiaoping is blamed by Mao for the unrest and is purged for the second time. In death, Zhou becomes a symbol of the rightist resistance. Late in his life, Mao became increasingly dependent of his wife, his nephew and his bodyguard. Mao loses confidence in Jiang due to his suspicion that she is controlling his access to knowledge and the

people. Mao implicitly trusts his nephew, Mao Yuanxin, a radical leftist and ally of the Gang of Four who acts as Mao’s

personal liaison to the politburo.

General Wang Dongxin, Mao’s bodyguard, becomes increasingly suspicious of the Gang of Four and begins to plot with others in the politburo against them.

On 9 September 1976, Mao Zedong dies, leaving a power vacuum behind. The power struggle Jiang and the Gang of Four believed that Hua was weak and incompetent, easy to dispose of. They hoped to use their influence over the media, urban militia and universities to seize power. Immediately after Mao’s death, Jiang altered some of his writings to make it seem as if he had chosen her as

his successor. At Mao’s funeral, Hua delivers a eulogy warning the Gang of Four against seizing power, quoting a speech

Mao had delivered that criticized the Gang for factionalism. In so doing, Hua gains the support of the rightists, pragmatists and moderates. Jiang’s attempts to install herself as acting chairwoman of the Central Committee are rebuked. Fearing that they are losing ground, the Gang of Four planned to execute a coup d’état on 6 October 1976. They had the support of Mao Yuanxin, and aimed to assassinate certain members of the politburo and seize

power. They lacked weapons, however, and approached other members of the politburo for support. Instead of helping, they ended up informing Hua of the coup. Hua traps the Gang the day before the coup and arrests them with the support of Wang Dongxin, the

pragmatists and the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). After their arrests, they lose all support and were held for a long time before their trials in the 1980s. All were sentenced to either death or life in prison, even the vilified “Madame Mao.” A new era of change By the end of 1976, the CCP was purged of the Gang and their radical leftist followers. The Tenth Central Committee meeting decides on three things that will shape the politburo.

                i.   The actions of the Gang of Four and the radical Left are condemned                ii.   Hua came to occupy the positions of premier, CCP chairman, and chairman                     of the Party’s Military Affairs Commission.                iii.  Deng Xiaoping is to be rehabilitated to the politburo and made vice                     chairman of the Central Committee.

Hua was charged with three tasks…

                i.   To be Mao’s successor               ii.   To rehabilitate Deng               iii.  To modernize China

Hua’s more leftist-oriented group issues a statement saying that whatever Mao had said must be obeyed and whatever he decided must be upheld.

Critics called the slogan the ‘Two Whatevers’ and referred to its advocates as the ‘Whatever’ faction. Unlike Hua’s ‘Whatever’ faction, Deng and the pragmatists garnered massive public support. Consolidated their position by criticizing the Cultural Revolution and the radical leftist excesses of Lin Biao

and the Gang of Four. They never criticized Mao. In the famous Third Plenum of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party held in December

1978, the recently rehabilitated Deng and the pragmatists establish effective control of the Central Committee.

The unpopularity of the ‘Two Whatevers’ and their association with traditional Maoist dogma, compounded with newfound blame for his permission of the crimes of the Gang of Four leads Hua to resign from his positions from 1980 to 1981, and settle in the vice-chairman position.

Hua is succeeded by two of Deng’s protégés, Zhao Ziyang as premier (1980) and Hu Yaobang as CCP Chairman (1981) with Deng taking the position of chairman of the Party’s Military Affairs Commission.

Why Deng?

Out of all of Mao’s possible successors, Deng Xiaoping, a ‘candidate’ who had not been appointed by Mao and had radically different views, was put into power.

This was due to the excesses of the leftists – the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Maoist zeal had alienated the people and many party members from Mao’s and the leftists’ revolutionary

fervor and toward a pragmatic perspective. The Gang of Four was literally trying to reinstitute the worst of Mao’s revolutionary principles, so they had no

support. Hua Guofeng’s inability to stand apart from Mao’s legacy and failure to embrace the pragmatists’ platform

would lead to his loss of popularity. Deng personified the drive for change and stability that many of the Chinese people so desperately wanted

and needed, so he gains their support and the metaphorical “power behind the throne.”

CHINA UNDER DENG XIAOPING

Background In June of 1981, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party produced an official reevaluation of

the history of the Party. It contained a complete repudiation of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Despite the fact that Mao Zedong had instigated the Cultural Revolution due to his belief that the CCP had

become a bourgeois organization, Mao himself was not repudiated. The Central Committee of 1981 respected Mao’s achievements during the early stages of the revolution, but

not those that gave rise to the Cultural Revolution. Stated that the Mao Zedong Thought (Thought of Mao) consisted of only Mao’s earlier correct ideas and not

his incorrect personal beliefs of the last decade of his life. This way, the Central Committee could use Mao as a symbol for their rule while co-opting him from the

leftists, depriving them of a rallying point. The emergence of Deng Xiaoping The third plenum of the 5th National People’s Congress (NPC), held from 29 August to 10 September 1980,

approved the CCP’s reorganization and the transfer of power from ideologue Hua Guofeng to pragmatist Deng Xiaoping.

By 1982, Deng had full control the government and the CCP. This marked the official commitment of the CCP and the government to the modernization of China so that it

could fully compete with and even surpass the West. The fulfillment of the rightist belief of putting “economics in command.” Economic policies and the Four Modernizations Hua, like Deng, had advocated policies that would lead to the modernization of China. In February 1978, while Hua was still in power, a new Ten Year Plan was announced. Focused on the buildup of heavy industry. Set many goals: Improvements were projected in the steel industry, natural resource extraction, electricity, railroad and

water transportation, and agricultural production through new irrigation systems and mechanized farming. In 1979, the Plan was deemed too ambitious and readjusted their goals. Over 350 projects were terminated. Deng was put in charge of these reforms. Deng himself was quite ambitious—he announced that 100,000 projects costing approximately 54 billion

yuan would be undertaken. The CCP reduced the amount of projects to those that could be completed quickly and draw the most foreign

capital. Deng adopts a system that is thought to be reminiscent of Lenin’s New Economic Policy and Stalin’s

Stakhanovite movement. Used the prospect of incentives and bonuses to increase productivity and encourage individual initiatives

and problem-solving.

Because the Ten Year Plan was deemed too costly (it was initially projected to take up approximately 37% of the PRC’s GDP), the economic reforms would have the Four Modernizations as their opus.

The Four Modernizations Agriculture Deng’s first challenge was how to make the agricultural sector efficient enough to support both the other

modernizations and the ever-burgeoning population. 80% of the population lived in the rural areas, so agriculture was considered the cornerstone of the Chinese

economy. Thus, Agriculture was designated as the most important sector for modernization. The reforms of the agricultural sector were composed of two tiers:

  i.            Central Planning

Set quotas and put forth government directives on how increases in productivity would take place. Centralized planning goals included: 4-5% growth per year in agricultural production Increase in food output to 400 million tons by 1985 Mechanization of 85% of farming tasks Promotion of the use of chemical fertilizers Expand water works to improve farmers’ access to water To better distribute and regulate food production, 12 commodity and food base areas would be created

throughout China.

ii.            Profits and incentives

Realizing that the farmers had no personal stake in increasing productivity, Deng promulgates the Household Responsibility System (1979).

Each household was given a private plot of land to use as they saw fit. They would give a certain amount of the crops to the commune and government, but were able to keep or

sell all surplus goods. The system was so successful and desirable that by 1983, 90% of farmers were participating. So wildly successful that it exceeded the goals of the Ten Year Plan. Industry The Ten Year Plan was the vehicle that the CCP hoped would lead to improved infrastructure and

industrialization that equaled or surpassed those of the Western nations. Focused on capital construction and improvements in heavy industries. Iron, coal, steel and oil production had a total of 54 million yuan invested by the government. The government established two phases to the industrial reform: Phase 1 (1978—1984): meant to improve the attitude of the industrial working class by moving away from

central planning and merely providing guidelines. Created the Industrial Responsibility System Established the guidelines under which State-Owned Enterprises (SOE) were allowed to keep surplus

revenues. To avoid shoddy quality like in other communists systems, the Industrial Responsibility System also had a

section on quality control. Very successful; by 1980, there were 6600 SOEs. Economic readjustment of 1981 calls for a deliberate scale back of capital construction to allow for more

production of consumer goods. Very successful. Phase 2 (1984): loosened government control over enterprises while still maintaining state ownership. Done through the “Resolution if the Reform of the Economic System.” Established a separation between ownership and management Gave management more autonomy and allowed individuals to lease medium-sized corporations.

Science and technology The Cultural Revolution had devastated the academic community of China. There was a dearth of scientists, doctors, engineers, architects, and other learned intellectuals. Goal: China’s science and technology would be only a decade behind the West by 1985. In education there was a renewed stress on academic achievement and a downgrading of egalitarian ideals. Academic standards were raised. Secondary school graduates were allowed to proceed directly to the university level instead of spending time

working. All of these factors were attempts to emphasize the importance of the intellectual professions. In March 1978, the National Scientific Conference states that there were four goals that needed to be

achieved:

                          i. To reach 1970 levels of advanced nations                         ii.To increase the number of professional scientific researchers to 800,000                         iii. To develop the most current centers for experimentation                         iv. To complete a nationwide system of science and technology research

Military The PRC’s military technology was antiquated. In 1979, a border war between the PRC and Vietnam revealed a number of weaknesses in the People’s

Liberation Army (PLA). While the PLA was the largest in the world at 4 million members, it lagged behind many of the world’s armies

in military technology. The PRC had developed nuclear bombs (1964), ballistic missiles and hydrogen bombs, but Mao’s emphasis

on “spirit over weapons” and the Cultural Revolution ceased arms research. Deng, as head of the Central Military Commission, called for increased expenditures in defense spending. There are various explanations for this. Deng wanted to prove to the West that the PRC’s military was on par with theirs. With the Sino-Soviet split, Deng feared that the Soviet Union might engage in aggressive action against the

PRC and needed a modern military to counter it. In the end, over 10% of China’s GNP was spent on improvements and purchasing new technology. Funding the Ten Year Plan China did not possess the means to fund its own ambitious Ten Year Plan. In December 1978, Deng promulgated the Open Door Policy to establish firm trade relations with foreign

countries. In order to make trade with China more attractive to foreign nations, the government embarked on a policy

that would diversify exports, raise quality levels, devalue the yuan and build up currency reserves. To acquire these funds, Deng turned to foreign capital and the largest source of it—the United States and its

hefty influence on the World Bank. The United States, eager to further exploit the Sino-Soviet split that Nixon and Kissinger had started by

meeting the PRC’s anxiety for an ally to counterbalance the threat of the Soviet Union, sends National Security Advisor Brzezinski to meet with Deng.

An agreement is reached in 1979—the United States opens up full diplomatic relations with the PRC and ends its recognition of Taiwan.

Deng becomes the first PRC leader to visit the United States. Once in the United States, Deng meets with President Carter to discuss trade agreements. Trade relations establish a firm influx of American and Western technology and capital into China. Japan and Germany follow suit. In 1981, China becomes a creditor nation. To provide areas where the foreign investors can establish joint-ventures with the Chinese, Deng establishes

a number of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) along the eastern coast of China. All joint-ventures must be 50% Chinese so that the Chinese can retain influence over them.

Concern breeds in the CCP that China is becoming capitalist and a pawn of the West; Deng faces Party opposition in regards to the SEZs that he must confront.

The results of the Ten Year Plans The results were mixed… According to official governmental accounts, the Plan was highly successful and characterized by great

achievements. According to governmental statistics, the average annual growth rate was 11% for agricultural and industrial

production. Heavy industry met much growth and success. By 1985, GNP was up to 778 billion yuan. Investment in publically-owned industries was up to 530 billion yuan. Problems included… Young specialists who had studied abroad in state-of-the-art conditions returned to China and had to

integrate into an outdated system. The older workers, victims of the “Ten Lost Years,” were resentful of the fact that the new workers did not

defer to them as elders and were fearful that they would be phased out. Inflation was rampant. Quality of life concerns were largely ignored. The full security system that had characterized Mao’s regime was beginning to fade away as Deng and the

pragmatists revealed that they were unprofitable. The one-child policy is implemented. CCP elites were exempt from these policies, ensuring that their families received perks and that their

children, with top-of-the-line education available to them, would become the future of the Party. Corruption between the economic sector and the CCP skyrockets.

 

Political changes and their limits China was undergoing a period of relative freedom. Many that had been imprisoned, exiled, purged or sent to labor rectification camps during the Cultural

Revolution. By January 1980, Deng claimed that 2,900,000 people had been rehabilitated. In 1978, a brick wall on Xidan Street became a place to express political dissent. This was during the time that Deng was poised to gain the favor of the power struggle occurring between

him and Hua in the CCP. Originally, the posters were placed there by former Red Guards and people who had missed out on a formal

education during the “Lost Ten Years.” Criticized the excesses of the leftists, especially of the Gang of Four and even Mao. Deng allowed this to happen because he felt as if the dissenters were political allies he could use as

supporters as he struggled with Hua for control of the CCP. As time went by, however, dissenters grew bolder and began to criticize the CCP and the government. The wall became known as the “Democracy Wall.” Political dissent was also expressed in a number of pamphlets and underground magazines, some of them

with pro-democracy sentiments. It should be noted that the welling up of tension that would result in Tiananmen was not due primarily to pro-

democracy sentiments, but the corruption that proliferated the local levels of the CCP because of the capitalist reforms.

Most notable: Wei Jingsheng’s Fifth Modernization. Heavily criticized Deng as a quickly developing fascist dictator and the CCP itself, claiming that if any of their

Four Modernizations were to be effective, they would have to implement a Fifth Modernization, namely Democracy.

Wei is arrested and tried in 1979, where he is sentenced to fifteen years in solitary confinement; once released, he criticized the government again and is jailed, again.

Is eventually deported to the U.S. In response to the dissidence, the CCP announced that the four fundamental principles under which the PRC

operated were:

i.      the socialist road ii.            the dictatorship of the proletariatiii.            the leadership of the CCPiv.            Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought

“Any word or deed which denies or undermines these four principles cannot be tolerated” –the Central Committee.

In December 1979, the Democracy Wall is shut down and posting posters is made illegal, forcing the pro-democracy advocates and reform-minded communists underground.

Background to the protests In 1981, the pragmatists are firmly in power and are deeply committed to economic reforms. Secretary-General of the CCP =  Hu Yaobang Premier = Zhao Ziyang Chairman of the Party’s Military Affairs Commission = Deng Xiaoping Had the most influence and power by virtue of his prestige. Many hoped that the new regime would reform China’s political scene to a more democratic system. While Hu and Zhao were sympathetic to the pro-democracy movement, Deng was not. Some of the leftists in the CCP feared that by opening to the West and emulating some aspects of their

economic system, that China was becoming capitalist. Deng and the pragmatists insisted that they were not adopting capitalism, but were instead adopting

Chinese-style socialism. Deng starts moving away from the traditional communist emphasis of Marx and Engels. Tried to strike a precarious balance between adopting the West’s technology and managerial methods while

maintaining their own culture and status as a communist state. “Poverty is not socialism. To be rich is glorious.” –Deng Xiaoping In 1986 and 1987, student-led demonstrations spread like wildfire in China, culminating in a protest in

Tiananmen Square. The CCP did not retaliate against the protestors themselves, but several of their ringleaders. Most prominently, Hu Yaobang is forced to resign his position as Secretary-General for being “too lenient

with the protestors.” He is replaced with Li Peng, who is not at all sympathetic to the demonstrators. Tiananmen Square (1989) In April 1989, Hu Yaobang dies of a heart attack. Remembering how Hu had been forced to resign for his democratic sympathies, students flood into

Tiananmen Square to protest for social change in his honor. Similar to what the people did when Zhou Enlai died in 1976 during the Qing Ming festival. The movement spreads throughout China, not just limited to Beijing or Shanghai. The movement starts with privileged elite students, but grows to include other elements of the Chinese

people. The students draw up a list of seven demands of the government:

i.            to correct its evaluation of Huii.            to permit freedom of the pressiii.            to release details on the assets and incomes of high-ranking leaders and their childreniv.            to control inflationv.            to promise that there would be no reprisals of the demonstrationsvi.            to release honest accounts of the demonstrationsvii.            to open a dialogue with the students

The government rejects the initial demands and tries to suppress the students. The movement only grows and the demands grow more radical, such as replacing communist rule with a

democracy. Most protesters did not know what this really meant. Turning point: when Mikhail Gorbachev visits the PRC in May, many of the planned events that revolved

around Tiananmen Square had to be canceled. The world’s media was present for the visit; the PRC’s humiliation was made known to the world. The party officials are incensed by this. Zhao sympathizes with the protesters. Is placed under house arrest and purged. Li and Deng favor a hardline with the students. On May 18th, the Li sits down with the students for televised talks. Li will not make any concessions; the students behave arrogantly and embarrass the CCP, again in front of

an international audience. On May 19th, the Party orders the troops in to impose martial law. At first, the people halt the incoming troops and refuse to allow them into the square. Is relatively peaceful. This humiliation is what prevents Li and Deng from allowing the protests to fade out naturally; if the protests

ended with the students having the last word, the next movement would occur soon and would be significantly larger.

On June 3rd, Deng orders the PLA into the square to forcibly break up the protests and take control of the square by any means necessary.

Unlike the events that transpired on May 19th, these are decidedly violent. Full-out fighting between the soldiers and the protesters occurs. Hundreds are killed when they remain in the square. Consequences and implications: Demonstrates that while the new regime encourages economic liberalization, the CCP remains entrenched as

the sole political power in the PRC. Earns international condemnation for China’s human rights abuses. Creates a severe atmosphere of repression in which government officials hunt down student leaders. Many are not put on trial until 1991. Deng is purged temporarily by the leftists (backed by Jiang Zemin, Zhao’s replacement) who utilize

Tiananmen as evidence for the failure of Deng’s reforms and enjoy a resurgence of influence and power. In 1991, Deng, gaining the support of the PLA and the SEZs, acts outside the influence of the Party and

forces Jiang’s hand into supporting him, regaining his position in the CCP and reinstating the policies the leftists  had reversed.

Economic reform and the Open Door Policy survive the Tiananmen fallout.

MORE DETAILS ABOUT DENGDeng Xiaoping and the Reform Era(1978-1992) -Deng’s leadership was formally recognized at the Third Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee-His program of reforms were launched under the banner of the FOUR MODERNIZATIONS and TEN YEAR PLAN 1. Agriculture

The goal was to increase the yields of farmers The government wanted farmers to move away from traditional farming methods, introducing mechanized

rather than manual farming. Irrigation systems

Diversified types of crops grown There where set quotas A big turning point was the implementation of the Household Responsibility System Under this system even though there was still no private ownership of land, each farming household

received a plot of land  The farming households could use this plot of land as they wanted They would have a contract with the local commune in which they had to hire a certain amount of workers

and plant a specific amount of crops The farming households had control over the labour within their households and could distribute this labour

however they wished Also all farming household surplus could be either sold or kept which was a great benefit to farmers In exchange for using the land for a period of 15 years a quota that had been predetermined would go back

to the local commune The Household Responsibility System was very successful, by 1989 90% of households where involved in the

system China became the largest agricultural producer Due to this increased productivity, factories where built and the communes saw the revival of local crafts This meant that farmers could leave their family plots and work locally in the factories

2. Industry  -The main focus was on capital construction and improving heavy industries-Attention was drawn to steel, iron, coal and oil production, 55 billion Yen was invested into these-There was a total of 120 projects to be completed however the plan proved to be too ambitious and so in 1979 it was readjusted-The Industrial Responsibility System was introduced-Under this system, the supervisory body of a State Owned Enterprise (SOE) would have a contract in which a percentage of the production and/or profit would go to the state and the SOE could keep the surplus, quality of production became a factor in the later stages-This improved the attitude and motivation of industrial workers, increasing productivity-In October 1984 the Resolution on the Reform of the Economic System was introduced-Public ownership was not allowed however the government gave more freedom to enterprises-The management of these enterprises was a lot more free-In doing so the government hoped to increase production3. National Defense

China had the largest army in the world however it seriously lacked in military technology Nuclear research had come to an end Science and military modernisation had a direct link The centres of research that were being either built or improved made it possible to develop new weapons It was estimated that the government spend up to 10% on developing and buying new technology

4. Science and Technology

The Cultural Revolution had devastating effects on education China was lacking even the basic technology that was standard in all other developed countries There was a need for more scientists, doctors, engineers and architects A number of goals were put forward The government wanted to be able to compete with the developing countries my repairing the damages

caused by the Cultural Revolution By 1985 the government wanted to be only ten years behind the developing countries The goals included to increase the number of scientists, develop the centers used for experiments and to

complete a nation wide system of science and technology research

 Results of Ten Year Plan-Mixed results, the plan succeeded in some ways but not in others-According to government statistics industrial production and agriculture had an average annual growth of 11%-Growth rates where even higher in the production of coal, steel, electricity and oil-The GNP reached 778 billion in 1985There was also success in the regions of infrastructure development and -construction-There was also tremendous improvements in science and technology-However there were problems with the workforce-Young workers often trained abroad with modern equipment and then had to reintegrate themselves on their return within an outdated system-Also, older workers who had suffered from a lack of education due to the cultural revolution felt threatened by the younger workers as they were scared of unemployment and the younger workers did not respect them as elders-The increased production brought about inflation-The plan focused on modernisation, economic growth and the availability of consumer goods however other issues affecting the quality of life where not payed attention to-Beijing became very polluted and China suffered deforestation on a big scale-The one child policy was put into place which penalised families with more than one child-Corruption occurred as the Party members were spared from the policy-Also, the children of Party members had many benefits, they were automatically accepted into universities and did not have to serve in the military  Political Changes

With economic development came a wish for political change Political opinions where expressed which varied from those previously The economic changes led to conflicts within the Party There were three main power bases which were Deng (pragmatists), Hua and Ye (military leader and the

balancer) The leftist members worried that China's socialist goals would be lost by the new economic changes and the

trade with the West The difficulty of the leadership was to keep their own culture while taking on board Western technology and

managerial methods Deng made it clear that China would remain socialist even though some of the new policies allowed more

freedom, China was certainly not capitalist, instead Deng described it as a Chinese-style socialism China was going through a time of relative freedom Many of those who had been sent to prison or to the country side during the Cultural Revolution where freed  Deng was rehabilitated and so were a number of Party Officials On a brick wall in Beijing in 1978 posters and characters were put up This wall became known as the Democracy Wall It became a place where people took up the government's movement to "seek truth from facts", expressing

their opinion  These people were former Red Guards and people who had missed out on education due to the Cultural

Revolution  Their militant expertise meant that they had good skills in organisation and collaboration which made the

movement gain support and gave a voice to those that had been repressed during the Cultural Revolution  They criticised Mao and the Gang of Four Deng supported this criticism as it came at a time when there was conflict within the Party Deng saw these people as potential allies for his principles 

 Pro-democracy Groups

In 1978 and 1979 many pro-democratic supporters published pamphlets and started underground magazines in which they put forward the need for reform in the country

They wanted freedom and political self-determination They spoke about human rights which had previously been taboo in China The most famous of the pamphlets was the Fifth Modernisation by Wei Jingsheng  The Fifth Modernisation which Wei thought was vital was democracy Wei criticised Deng in articles and stated that Deng was becoming a fascist dictator  Wei was arrested in March 1979 and was later sentenced to 15 year imprisonment for treason This was a warning for all other pro-democracy groups The wall was closed down in December and it became illegal to put up posters The pro-democracy groups were once again suppressed but they would resurface from time to time

 China Opening Up

Deng at the time was looking to increase his power within the politburo and the Central Committee  His focus was on economic growth and the Four Modernizations  He spent much of his time abroad trying to find new markets and aligning China with developing countries Japan was China's main investor and the US was starting to increase its investment in China as well China was starting to open up to the outside world

 Contradictions 

In the 1980's there were disagreements between the Party and the government due to contradictions Political liberalisation was supported however there was no place for bourgeois values The government allowed more freedom within the media Stories could be published which portrayed the negative aspects of Chinese life Many Party members criticised the corruption that was taking place within the Party however maintained

that they were loyal to the Party

 Student Demonstrations

In 1986 there were demonstrations that encouraged students to get involved in local government The demonstrators were also looking for improved living conditions and more freedom  The government sought to disperse the demonstrations instead of arresting people In 1987 Hu Yaobang who was the General secretary of the Part and had been an advocate for political

liberalisation resigned from his post as he declared that he had made uncorrectable mistakes  The students demonstrations were not joined by workers and so when exams came around the

demonstrations faded  Deng was starting to worry about another power struggle within the Party, he was getting old but had no

intentions of handing over his leadership 

Tiananmen Square: 1989 Hu died in April 1989 and this lead to a number of rallies

These rallies where mainly in Beijing and Shanghai 

They were in favor of social change  All kinds of people joined in and this led to demonstrations in Tiananmen Square in front of the Communist

Party headquarters Zhao Ziyang who was Hu's successor tried to prevent violence from the governments side by working with

the pro-democracy groups However this did not work as the demonstrators went on a hunger strike and created the Goddess of

Democracy as symbol for their movement More and more of the population started to take sides with the demonstrators Martial law was announced but not carried out In Beijing the people were disarming the PLA as the soldiers were sympathetic and did not want to cause

violence The government tried to wait out the demonstration At the time Gorbachev was visiting China and so the media was there to cover his visit, this made the

demonstrations public to the world Deng then ordered the military to take all necessary measures to seize control of the square Troops and tanks were sent to the square on the 3rd and 4th of June 1989 They were ordered to end the demonstrators by clearing the square and arresting those who protested  Some demonstrators tried to fight back and the ones who remained in the square were shot  Hundreds of demonstrators were killed although the government denied killing any civilians  The problem was that the demonstrators had not stated any clear objectives and had no real leadership They desired freedom and the Party to reform however they were unsure of what else they desired Zhao was then replaced by Jiang Zemin who was loyal to Deng Deng gave up his position as chair of the Central Military Commission in 1989 but remained as the leader for

Chinese policies until his death in 1997 The outside world had supported the demonstrators and China was put forward as a human rights abuser by

organizations such as Amnesty International 

 ------------------------------------------------

The USSR in CrisisBackground to the Brezhnev era-          Khrushchev’s policies dominated during 1956-64-          Regime plagued by problems from Virgin Lands and corn programs

Intended to produce more meat for Soviet state Encourage people to grow maize for food to increase livestock yields

-          Khrushchev’s removal from power not bloody-          1964: Triumvirate

Leonid Brezhnev- General secretary Alexsei Kosygin- prime minister Nikolai Podgorny- chairman

 Domestic and foreign policies and the problems faced by Brezhnev-          Domestic:

Planned economy failed to produce consumer goods or agricultural surplus Intellectuals openly challenging regime Economic stagnation Dissent Political stagnation

-          Internationally:

Continued dominance over client states Détente (ex. SALT negotiations) Brezhnev era ended w/ Afghanistan & economic decline Provoked desire for reform & rise of Gorbachev

Domestic problems-          Economic stagnation

1972: crop failures that led to food shortages USSR spending large sums of money on military Cuban Missile Crisis, Soviet navy upgrade, space program, etc Initially tried reforms to increase production, but blocked by hardliners who feared it was too capitalistic However, successful in reversing some effects of collectivization Gave farmers incentive to keep or sell surplus product Availability of consumer goods remained limited 1970s: USSR struggled to increase oil production to take advantage of high demand for oil Govt. more openly criticized

-          Dissent

Stalinist brutality not returning So intellectuals more open in criticizing government Ex. Solzhenitsyn’s The Gulag Archipelago- exiled for his work Publications to make perspectives known National minorities voicing opinions- ex. Jews wanted to emigrate to Israel Baltic: nationalists began to protest influx of ethnic Russians

-          Political stagnation

Brezhnev showed very little interest in reforming the govt. or party structure Need for reform increasing Hardliners and traditionalists aging and dying

Foreign Policies and problems-          Khrushchev

Criticized for failure in Cuban Missile Crisis But: signed Test Ban Treaty (1963) US, UK, USSR: no longer explode nuclear bombs in air or underwater 1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

-          The Brezhnev Doctrine

1968: Prague Spring Czechoslovakia- increased dissatisfaction Communist Party leader Novotny replaced by Alexander Dubcek, who placed reforms Aug. 1968: Soviet troops invaded and reverse reforms Dubcek removed from his position, expelled from Party Nov. 1968: Brezhnev Doctrine USSR was determined to keep in place communist regimes that existed and would not allow for them to be

overthrown internally or externally

-          Détente

1969: SALT talks began w/ Nixon Showed that both sides wanted to avoid nuclear war 1973: Paris Peace Accords- US ended involvement in Vietnam Helsinki Final Act (1975) Post-war frontiers of Eastern and Central Europe finalized Soviets agreed to adhere to international human rights conventions

-          Revolution and dissent

Revolution: Angola: Marxist groups received Soviet & Cuban assistance Ethiopia: Soviets helped overthrow Haile Selassie, put into place communist government Dissent: Political and labor movements rising in Eastern Europe Solidarity in Poland

-          Afghanistan

Dec. 1979: Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan to give support to socialist govt., 70,000 Soviet troops by Dec. 27 However, no clear idea on how to fight situation/ no desired outcomes 10 year intervention cost Soviet Union billions of dollars and 10s of thousands of lives Led to international condemnation US: limited grain sales to USSR Boycotted 1980 Moscow Olympics Carter: Assisted anti-socialist forces Allowed CIA to conduct covert operations in Afghanistan

Entr’acte: Andropov & Chernenko-          Brezhnev: died in Nov. 1982-          Political leadership aged and stagnant-          Andropov

Economically Charged many in Brezhnev camp for corruption Made economic stagnation more public Proposed solution: people needed to work harder and increase individual productivity Politically Tried to remove Brezhnev’s followers & Chernenko’s supporters Replace them with group of nomenklatura (political elites in Soviet society who held positions of power via

the Communist Party), more likely to promote changes needed in stagnant Soviet system Tried to replace elder Party members Afghanistan: main source of discontent Poland under martial law Soviets supported Jaruzelski in his suppression of opposition movements and continued loyalty to the

Warsaw Pact Wanted Gorbachev to succeed him, but Chernenko took over

-          Chernenko

Very few changes Domestic and foreign policies remained the same Relied on Gorbachev to chair meetings and make his ideas known

 Gorbachev and his aims and policies-          Came to power in 1985-          Recognized need for reforms to try and compete w/ West and emerging ChinaDomestic policies- glasnost, perestroika and demokratiztsiya-          Faced ethnic unrest and political opposition-          Main problem: economy-          Economic restructuring proposed as early as 1960s, but blocked by Party hardliners who feared change would lead to capitalism-          Alcohol

Restrictions to increase individual productivity & battle absenteeism Prices raised on wine, beer, vodka Time & place restrictions for selling alcohol Reduce production But alcohol remained available through black market

-          Perestroika (economic restructuring) 1986

End price controls by state Allow some degree of self-management w/out losing ownership of factories and other business enterprises

-          Chernobyl, Ukraine: explosion of nuclear facility (1986)

Revealed weaknesses of system Soviets downplayed disaster for fear of repercussion Slowed rate of evacuation from affected areas Sweden made it known Increased dissatisfaction

-          Andrei Sakharov released from exile

Began presenting information on repression of USSR citizens, conditions of Gulags More popular abroad than within USSR

-          Glasnost (openness)- 1988

Open debate on past government actions (ex. forced collectivization and Party purges) Former enemies of state rehabilitated Led to further questioning of socialist economic policies, esp. central planning Govt. paved way for agricultural reform & wider economic changes End of collectivization and transition to privatization

Foreign policies-          Gorbachev sought to distance USSR from its satellite states-          Encouraged states to be less reliant on USSR-          USSR would engage in non-intervention in Warsaw Pact countries (negated Brezhnev Doctrine)-          Withdrawal from Afghanistan (against Brezhnev Doctrine as well)

1988: Soviets agreed to full withdrawal 1989: all Soviet troops left

-          Meetings between Gorbachev and Reagan

Improvement of USSR-US relations Renewal of talks of arms reduction 1986: Reykjavik summit failed No agreement or framework established December 1987: Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty Eliminated intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe START (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) Agreement to reduce nuclear arms Finalized in 1991

-          Problems:

Economic decline Chernobyl Withdrawal from Afghanistan Political freedom

 The consequences of Gorbachev’s policies for Eastern Europe

After Gorbachev announced he would no longer pursue Brezhnev Doctrine E. European countries challenged dominance of Communist Parties Gorbachev unwilling to send troops to challenge Communist regimes End of 1989: multiparty states replaced single-party states

-          Revolutions of 1989

Result of long period of struggle against domination of Soviet Union and Communist parties

-          Gorbachev wanted to relieve USSR of problems (economic instability, lack of consumer goods, etc)-          Promised reforms-          Rejected Brezhnev Doctrine

Brezhnev thought Eastern Europe was critical, Gorbachev wanted to release USSR from role of patron

-          Glasnost- encouraged opposition in Eastern Europe-          Revolutions: opposition passive resistance, Communist Party leadership didn’t use terror/ intimidation-          Exception: Romania

Bloody Ceausescu executed

Poland in the Gorbachev era-          1987: Solidarity reconstituted itself

Encouraged by glasnost and perestroika

-          Solidarity

Formed in 1980 in response to economic crises facing Poland Led by Lech Walesa, who later became president of Poland

-          Situation dictated by Poles themselves-          July 1989 elections: out of grip of communism-          Successful transition to democracy mirrored by other satellite states-          By end of 1989: only Albania would be last communist countryEast Germany’s revolution and the fall of the Berlin Wall-          German revolution: most televised and best known of revolutions-          GDR

Most loyal of all satellite states Stasi (secret police)- most feared of all Eastern European political police Received benefits from FRG through Willy Brandt’s policy of ostpolitik Meant to build bridge between GDR and FRG 1984: GDR and FRG agreed for cultural exchange and removal of mines on borders Policy began w/ Helsinki Final Acts during Brezhnev era Erich Honnecker (East German leader)- ignored perestroika, etc Firmly loyal to Communist Party Wanted to keep GDR single party May 1989: Hungary opened border w/ GDR 60,000 East Germans left for Hungary, crossed to the West October: full-fledged dissent Encouraged by opposition groups in other Eastern European countries Criticized repressiveness and lack of reforms under Honecker Honecker remained unmoved More demonstrations, esp. in Leipzig Politburo forced Honecker’s resignation Honecker replaced by Egon Krenz Krenz announced hat GDR would implement democratic reforms, endorsed Gorbachev’s ideas Czechoslovakia opened the border 30,000 East Germans left

Increased demands by East Germans Entire Politburo resigned Nov. 9: foreign travel & free transit through border crossings into West Germany Dec. 1: govt. changed constitution Eliminated Communist Party dominance in govt. Krenz and central committee resigned Germans wanted reunification Oct. 3, 1990: GDR & FRG unified

Czechoslovakia-          Open opposition to regime encouraged by

Rise of Gorbachev Resignation of aging Gustav Husak (1987)

-          Soviet troops remained in the country-          However, Gorbachev made it clear that USSR would pursue non-intervention in Warsaw Pact countries-          Velvet Revolution (1989): peaceful transition from authoritarianism to democracy-          Collapse of Berlin Wall encouraged students to speak out-          Elections held-          Dec. 28: Vaclav Havel elected presidentRevolutions of 1989 considered-          Gorbachev attempted to correct economic problems of communism-          Result: revolution and end of communism in Europe-          Reasons:-          “Domino theory”

One country’s successful rejection of communism led other states to follow suit

-          International media:

Changes in communication Totalitarian regimes couldn’t repress flow of information Eastern Europe see what was happening in other countries

-          Gorbachev

Sinatra Doctrine: allow Warsaw Pact countries to determine their own national affairs Showed countries that they no longer had to fear troops from Moscow if they revolted

-          Leadership: aging and dying

New leaders: younger generations who didn’t share horrors of WWII Repressed by Warsaw Pact governments

-          Students: wanted capitalism and democracy.-          Protestors: passive resistance

Influenced by civil disobedience from Gandhi and US Civil Rights movement Rejection of violence exposed secret police and government’s reliance on use of force to impose will on

people

-          Contrast w/ China

Deng used force against protestors China made economic reforms that allowed for material prosperity, but regime continued Eastern Europe: economic reforms made situation worse & caused collapse of communism