paleopathology and health of native and introduced animals

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. (2009)Published online in Wiley InterScience

074
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1
* Correspondence to: DepartFlorida, P.O. Box 117305, Ge-mail: [email protected]

Copyright # 2009 Joh

Paleopathology and Health ofNative and Introduced Animalson Southern Peruvian and BolivianSpanish Colonial Sites

S. D. DEFRANCE*

Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, P.O. Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611,

USA

ABSTRACT Spanish colonial sites in southern Peru and Bolivia contain remains of native camelids andintroduced bovids with examples of degenerative paleopathologies that are interpreted asreflecting changes in herd management, animal use and animal health following the Spanishconquest. The archaeological contexts include three Spanish colonial wineries from Moque-gua in southern Peru and the nearby colonial village of Torata Alta where indigenous peoplewere forced to resettle under Spanish control. Also from Peru is faunal material from the 14th to16th century rural agropastoral village of Pillistay located near Camana. Animal remains withbone abnormalities are also present in residential, commercial and industrial sites associatedwith Spanish silver mining near Potosı, Bolivia at Tarapaya and Cruz Pampa. Eighteenpathological specimens are described including examples of degenerative changes tophalanges, vertebrae, tarsals, limb elements and ribs. Paleopathologies present includeexostoses, osteophytes, porosity, grooving and eburnation. Examples of phalangeal exo-stoses on bovid phalanges indicate the use of these introduced animals as draught cattle.Exostoses on camelid first phalanges suggests their use as cargo animals as do thoracicvertebrae with severe cases of degenerative pathology. Introduced caprines contain fewpathologies indicating their primary use as food animals. The bone abnormalities from colonialsites are more severe than those reported for prehispanic faunal assemblages. These dataprovide insights into the health and work behaviour of indigenous Andean camelids andintroduced Eurasian animals following the Spanish conquest. Copyright� 2009 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.

Key words: paleopathology; zooarchaeology; Peru; Bolivia; Spanish colonial period;

degenerative abnormalities; exostoses

Introduction

Spanish colonisation of the Americas and theintroduction of Eurasian animals changed localsystems of economic organisation and productionin many regions. Beyond the use of animals forfood and food products, animals were employed

ment of Anthropology, University ofainesville, FL 32611, USA.

n Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

in work-related tasks, particularly transport andtraction. In most areas of the Americas, there wereno domesticated mammals that served for workexcept in the Andean region of South Americawhere llamas and alpacas were the foundation of awell-established pastoral economy. Neither ofthese animals was used for traction nor ridden fortransport; however, the larger sized sure-footedllama was used as a beast of burden in themountainous terrain to move products from oneelevation to another. Also, in the prehispanic past

Received 21 October 2008Revised 27 January 2009Accepted 3 February 2009

S. D. deFrance

both llamas and alpacas were reared for fibre, avaluable secondary product (Wheeler et al., 1995).When Spaniards colonised the Central Andes inthe 16th century they introduced a variety ofEurasian domesticates of which cattle and equids(horses, burros or mules) performed the greatestamount of work. Camelid herds also experiencedcatastrophic declines in numbers following theSpanish conquest (Wheeler et al., 1995). Theeffects of Spanish economic changes are reflectedin the skeletal health of some animal remains fromcolonial sites.In this paper, I describe pathologies present on

various skeletal elements of bovid, camelid andcaprine remains from colonial sites located in andnear Moquegua and Camana in far southern Peruand sites outside of Potosı, Bolivia where Spanishsilver mining was an economic focus (Figure 1).Wine and brandy produced in Moquegua weretraded to Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) where themining industry was centred. The colonial eco-nomy included significant contributions of workby both introduced and native animals. Muchpathology present on phalanges and vertebrae ofintroduced cattle and native camelids fromcolonial sites suggests that these bone abnorm-alities are degenerative pathologies associatedwith work activities. Other pathologies may haveresulted from multiple causal factors. Compari-sons with skeletal pathologies reported on faunal

Figure 1. Location map of study regions in Peru andBolivia.

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

remains from prehispanic sites from southernPeru and elsewhere in the Andean region indicatethat prior to Spanish colonisation skeletalpathologies were less frequent and less severe,but included numerous congenital abnormalities.More systematic analysis and reporting of skeletalpathologies in other geographic regions wouldcontribute to our understanding of the con-sequences of Spanish colonisation on localeconomic systems and animal use.

The archaeological contexts

Moquegua Peru: Spanish colonial wineriesand Torata Alta

Locumbilla, Chincha and Yahauy wineriesSpanish colonisation throughout the Americasincluded the transformation of rural infrastructureto provide familiar foodstuffs and meat productsfor colonists. Plants and animals of old worldorigin were introduced throughout the colonies;however, the successful propagation of crops andthe rearing of Eurasian animals were dependenton local geographic and environmental con-ditions. The arid, low elevation (less than 1500m)coastal valleys of the Central Andes wereconducive to the production of many old worldcrops and animals. Grape stock for the pro-duction of wine was one of the crops that thrivedin the Andean region. During the mid-16thcentury Spaniards established a productive wineindustry in many of the coastal river valleys ofPeru and Chile (Cushner, 1980; Keith, 1976).Wine was an essential element of Iberian cuisineand for Catholic sacraments. The process ofdistillation, also a Spanish introduction, was usedwidely to produce brandy with a higher alcoholcontent.Wine production was carried out in largelanded-estates (bodegas) where grape processing,fermentation and storage for transport took place.In addition to areas for producing wine andbrandy, these estates commonly had animalcorrals and ‘staging areas’ for packing productsfor transport as well as residential areas wherelandlords or overseers lived (Rice & Smith, 1989;Smith, 1991).

The Moquegua Bodegas project was a multi-year programme of archaeological survey, exca-

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. (2009)DOI: 10.1002/oa

Paleopathology of Animals on Spanish Colonial Sites

vation and analysis of wineries in the Moqueguavalley of far southern Peru. In the short, steep,28 km long, Moquegua drainage, Spaniardsestablished 130 wineries or bodegas (Rice &Ruhl, 1989). A team of researchers completedexcavation of archaeological deposits at four ofthe wineries where historical research and pre-liminary archaeological testing indicated 16thcentury deposits (Rice & Smith, 1989; Smith,1991). Pathological specimens of bovid (n¼ 4)and camelid (n¼ 4) remains are present at three ofthe wineries: Locumbilla (central valley), Chincha(south end of valley) and Yahauy (north end ofvalley) (Figure 2).

Torata AltaThe site of Torata Alta is located approximately16 km north of Moquegua in the agriculturallyrich Torata Valley at an elevation of 2700masl(see Figure 2). Torata Alta was a rural village ofdomestic and public space. Surviving architecture

Figure 2. Location of the Moquegua wine region,Chincha, Locumbilla and Yahuay bodegas and TorataAlta in southern Peru.


includes 24 rectangular room blocks separated bynarrow streets (Van Buren et al., 1993, p. 137).The majority of the structures are residential; how-ever, also present is communal architecture includ-ing a plaza, church and other public buildings.Gridded community layouts were a characteristicof Late Horizon, Inca-period communities as wellas early Spanish settlements, particularly reduc-ciones, where indigenous peoples were resettledunder Spanish control to aid in the religiousconversion of the population and the extractionof goods and services. It has not been possible touse architecture and site deposits to determine ifTorata Alta was constructed during the LateHorizon or exclusively during the colonial period(Van Buren et al., 1993). However, the shallowdeposits and material culture present indicate thatthe site was not occupied for very long and thatthe majority of the deposits date to the 16thcentury and early 17th century. Present at the siteare Spanish colonial material goods and remainsof introduced Eurasian animals. Archaeologicalevidence (e.g. weaving paraphernalia such asspindle whorls) from the 16th century supportsthe contention that the site functioned as a colonialreduccion where the population was resettled andrequired to provide Spanish overlords with textilesand other marketable goods (Van Buren, 1993).Excavations consisted of exploratory trenches

throughmidden deposits as well as the excavationof complete structures. Temporal placement ofthe Torata Alta deposits is based on the presenceof a thick lens of ash from the February 1600eruption of the Huaynaputina volcano. Thepathological camelid specimens (n¼ 4) fromTorata Alta are from the 16th century deposits(i.e. below the ash-fall) in two of the exploratorytrenches.

Potosi, Bolivia: Tarapaya and Cruz Pampa

The community of TarapayaBeginning in the 16th century the city of Potosıand its environs were the focus of Spanish silvermining. Surrounding the city were outlying minesand support communities for the urban centre.The community of Tarapaya is located approxi-mately 15 km (9miles) northwest of Potosı at anelevation of 3300m (10,800 ft) (Figure 3). Just


Figure 3. Location of Potosı and Porco, Bolivia and sitesof Tarapaya and Cruz Pampa.

S. D. deFrance

north of the village are a set of warm springs and acircular lake that were used therapeutically in Incaand colonial times. During the colonial periodTarapaya was the location of a private inn andresidence of a wealthy Spaniard and localadministrator (Arzans de Orsua y Vela, 1965[Volume II Book IX]).Van Buren (1999, pp. 112–115) completed

archaeological mapping, testing and excavationsat Tarapaya. Faunal remains are fromunits associa-ted with the inn adjacent to the large circular lakeand from the residential area located near thesmaller springs. The material culture and histori-cal record suggest that the deposits date primarilyto the first half of the 17th century, although thetime range of occupation may have been greater(Van Buren, 1999, p. 114). Animal use at Tarapayaprimarily served the dietary needs of affluentindividuals housed in the inn and the residentialbuildings. In contrast to other geographic regionsof Spanish colonial settlement, the use of animalsat Tarapaya was highly Iberian in character withabundant use of introduced caprines and chickens(deFrance, 2003). Two caprine specimens withminimal pathology are present.

Cruz PampaThe colonial centre of Porco located approxi-mately 50 km (31miles) southwest of Potosı at an


elevation of 4100m (13 400 ft) was a productivecolonial silver mining community. Spanish claimsto the rights of the mines of Porco were amongthe earliest in the region. During the initial yearsof silver exploitation Spanish-owned silverdeposits were processed by native residents usingindigenous Andean technology (Van Buren &Mills, 2005). Numerous 16th and 17th centurysites are located in and near Porco. Excavationand analysis of various colonial sites in the regionis ongoing by Mary Van Buren (2004, ProyectoArqueologico Porco-Potosı; http://lamar.colosta-te.edu/�mvanbure/index.htm; Van Buren &Mills,2005).

Thus far, the best-preserved faunal material isfrom the site of Cruz Pampa located 300msoutheast of Porco. Excavations over multiplefield seasons indicate that the deposits from CruzPampa are midden material from domesticstructures. One structure contained an indigenousstyle hearth or k’oncha in the floor suggesting thatan indigenous female resided at the site. The sitedeposits also contained a men’s leather shoe inEuropean style, a pipe and some jewellery suggest-ing that the male resident was either a relativelyhigh status indigenous, possibly a yanacona (Indianservant), or a lower status Spanish male. Accordingto Van Buren (Van Buren, 2004), this householdoccupied managerial or supervisory positions inmining production. The deposits dates fromapproximately 1600 to 1650 and are thereforecontemporaneous with the faunal material fromTarapaya and the winery deposits. The CruzPampa deposits contain two pathological cattlephalanges.

Camana, Peru: Pillistay

Pillistay is a rural agropastoral site located in thecoastal valley of Camana in the department ofArequipa north of Moquegua (see Figure 1).Pillistay consists of the ruins of a series of stone-walled buildings with courtyards as well as lesselaborate buildings made of organic materials(Owen, 2007; Tantalean & Owen, 2007). Storageareas are present in the patio, possibly for agricul-tural products. The site appears to have beenconstructed in the 14th century, with occupationcontinuing after the Spanish port town of Camana



was founded in 1539, until the volcanic eruptionof Huanaputina in AD 1600. The site may havebeen inhabited by 2–3 dozen families, possiblyextended families (Owen, 2007). Ash fall fromthe eruption of the Huaynaputina volcano coversrich organic site refuse. After the ash fall, the sitewas abandoned and never reoccupied.Archaeological investigations completed in

2006 consist of site mapping and a series of testexcavations (Owen, 2007; Tantalean & Owen,2007). Owen and his crew recovered a few glazedcolonial pottery sherds from the surface, but noother European materials. My analysis of thefaunal remains indicates that no remains ofEurasian animals are present at Pillistay; however,I identified five caprine specimens representingone individual from the site of Soto, another 16thcentury site in the region. Although Pillistay wasoccupied from the 14th to the 16th centuries andwas located only about 30 km from the Spanishtown of Camana, the extent to which theresidents were involved in the colonial economyis unclear because so few remains of Europeanorigin were recovered from the site. Pathologicalfaunal remains from Pillistay include two camelidfirst phalanges from two different individuals thatexhibit degenerative abnormalities on the boneshafts. The two phalanges are from an artefact-rich midden fill excavated between two preparedfloor surfaces; therefore, these two camelids arecontemporaneous.

Description of skeletal pathologies

The paleopathology of zooarchaeological remainsare less systematically reported in the archae-ological literature than those occurring on humanremains (Baker & Brothwell, 1980; Thomas andMainland, 2005; Siegel, 1976; Vann & Thomas,2006).While some standards for reporting animalskeletal pathologies, particularly for draughtcattle (Bartosiewicz et al., 1997; Johannsen,2005) are available, standards for other animalsare less uniform than descriptions of skeletalpathologies common in human remains (such asBuikstra & Ubelaker, 1994), particularly for faunalassemblages from sites in the Americas. In thissection, I describe the pathologies present. Theseverity of all camelid and caprine elements is


described as mild, medium or severe. I use thestage scoring system of pathology developed byBartosiewicz et al. (1997) to provide an additionalestimate of pathological severity for the Bos taurusphalanges. After describing the pathologiespresent, the skeletal elements affected, and thetaxa exhibiting pathologies I present a discussionin which I assess the varied roles that bothindigenous and introduced animals of Eurasianorigin played in Spanish colonies in Peru andBolivia. Although paleopathologies can resultfrom different aetiologies, these colonial examplesdemonstrate some patterns in the types ofabnormalities present that are interpreted as workrelated while others are attributed to unknowncauses.Eighteen specimens from seven colonial sites

exhibit pathologies (Table 1). For the majority ofthese sites, the pathological specimens constituteless than 1% of the total assemblage by taxa andtime period. Skeletal pathologies are present onremains of Caprines (sheep or goats, n¼ 2), Bostaurus (cattle, n¼ 6) and Camelidae (Lama/Vicugnasp., Lama cf. glama probable domesticated llama oralpaca, n¼ 10) (Figures 4–6). Pathologies aremost common and most severe on phalanges(n¼ 10) followed by vertebrae (n¼ 4) (Table 2).Other pathological elements are the rib, tarsal(entocuneiform), radius and humerus. The abnor-malities present include lipping (osteophytes),exostoses (the growth of additional bone),porosity (pitting of bone surfaces), groovingand eburnation (degeneration of articular carti-lage and resulting change to bone density oftenmanifest as polished bone, especially of articulat-ing surfaces). The most common abnormalitiesare lipping (osteophytes) on vertebral centra andexostoses on phalanges. Thoracic vertebrae exhibitthe greatest degree of pathology; although onecervical vertebra has minimal osteophytes. Onecamelid rib exhibits lipping on the proximalarticular facet. Limb bones are relatively free ofpathology. The two caprine specimens withpathology are both forelimb elements: a radiuswith osteophytes on the proximal surface and adistal humerus fragment with light exostoses.Phalangeal exostoses involving the first and

second phalanges of horses are known as ring-bone regardless of the size, extent or location ofthe bony growth (Lacroix, 1916, p. 118). Baker


Table

1.Summary

ofpathologiespresentonspecim

ensfrom

colonialsitesin

Peru

andBolivia

Site

Context

Tim

eperiod

Taxon

Element

Pathology

Site

Pathological

severity

aTaxon

NISPfor

time

period

%with

pathology

Locumbillawinery

984N/1032.5E

AD

1600–1775

Camelid

ae

Thoracic

vertebrae

Osteophytesoncentrum

Medium

122

1.6

Locumbillawinery

Unit10

AD

1600–1775

Camelid

ae

Phalanx-1st

Lateralexostosis,

hypertrophic

shaft

Medium

Locumbillawinery

Unit10

AD

1600–1775

Bostaurus

Entocuneiform

Osteophytes

Mild

341

0.6

Locumbillawinery

Kiln

context

AD

1600–1775

Bostaurus

Phalanx-1st

Exostosis

onproxim

aland

distalsurfaces

Medium,stage3

Chinchawinery

1017N/1009E

AD

1600–1775

Bostaurus

Phalanx-3rd

Exostosis

onproxim

al

articularsurface

Mild

,stage2

758

0.1

Chinchawinery

1034.5/1004E

Post-AD

1775

Camelid

ae

Rib

Osteophytesonproxim

al

articularsurface

Mild

1100.0

Chinchawinery

1087N/1048E

Post-AD

1775

Lamasp.

Cervicalvertebrae

Osteophytesoncentrum

Medium

1100.0

Yahuaywinery

990N/958.5E

Post-AD

1775

Bostaurus

Phalanx-3rd

Exostosis

onproxim

al

articularsurface

Mild

,stage2

216

0.5

Torata

Alta

TrenchM

Pre-AD

1600

Lamasp.

Phalanx-1st

Lateralexostosis

Severe

863

0.5

Torata

Alta

TrenchM

Pre-AD

1600

Camelid

ae

Phalanx-3rd

Exostosis

onproxim

al

articularsurface

Medium

863

Torata

Alta

TrenchG

Pre-AD

1600

Camelid

ae

Thoracic

vertebrae

Osteophytesoncentrum,

eburnation,porosity

Severe

863

Torata

Alta

TrenchG

Pre-AD

1600

Camelid

ae

Thoracic

vertebrae

Osteophytesoncentrum,

porosity,grooving

Severe

863

Tarapaya

Unit1

AD

1600–1650

Caprinae

Radiusandulna

Radius-proxim

alwith

osteophytes

Mild

1356

0.1

Tarapaya

Unit9

AD

1600–1650

Caprinae

Humerus

Osteophytes,distalarticular

surface

Mild

1356

CruzPampa

Unit10

AD

1600–1650

Bostaurus

Phalanx-2nd

Exostosis

onproxim

al

articularsurface

Mild

,stage2

44

4.6

CruzPampa

Structure

3AD

1600–1650

Bostaurus

Phalanx-3rd

Exostosis

onproxim

al

articularsurface

Mild

,stage2

44

Pillistay,Camana

Unit002

Pre-1600

Camelid

ae

Phalanx-1st

Lateralexostosis

Mild

n/a

b

Pillistay,Camana

Unit002

Pre-1600

Camelid

ae

Phalanx-1st

Lateralexostosis

Medium

n/a

b

aStagesofpathologyforBostaurusphalangesfollowsBartosiewiczetal.(1997).

bIcompletedaninventory

ofthetaxapresentin

thePillistaytestexcavationsto

determ

ineifEurasiananim

als

were

presentandanydistinctivefeaturesofthe

assemblage.Thefaunalremainswere

notquantifiedbytaxon.

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. (2009)DOI: 10.1002/oa

S. D. deFrance

Figure 4. Camelid skeleton showing pathological elements from all sites.


and Brothwell (1980) describe ringbone asoccurring on the articulating surfaces of pha-langes wherein high ringbone affects the firstinterphalangeal joint; low ringbone affects thesecond joint. Exostosis on the shaft of the firstphalanx is known as false ringbone. Although thejoint is not immediately impacted, the lesions canspread along the shaft and result in varyingdegrees of ankylosis (Baker and Brothwell, 1980,p. 120). The varieties of ringbone result primarilyfrom some aspect of concussion of the footparticularly when walking on uneven surfacesalong with the inability of the limbs to absorb theshock; however, the entrance of foreign matterfrom a lacerate wound can also cause the reaction(Lacroix, 1916). All varieties of this pathologycan result in lameness. Although ringbone is aterm generally used to describe bony growth on


horse phalanges, the aetiology of the condition isthe result of damage to the periosteum and theabnormal growth of bone on the phalanx;therefore, the term ringbone can be applied toother large mammals with this condition.Phalangeal exostoses (i.e. ringbone) are presenton bovid and camelid specimens.One Bos taurus first phalanx from the Locum-

billa bodega exhibits exostoses on both theproximal and distal articulating surfaces indicat-ing that both high and low ringbone was present(Figure 7). The majority of pathology is onthe proximal and anterior surface, although thelateral/medial surface is also affected to somedegree. There is no indication of eburnation oneither surface, particularly on the proximalsurface that articulates with the distal metapodial;therefore, it does not appear that the animals


Figure 5. Caprine skeleton showing pathological elements from Tarapaya near Potosı, Bolivia.

S. D. deFrance

suffered considerable lameness. Using the scoringscale developed by Bartosiewicz et al. (1997) fordraught cattle this specimen is stage 3 ofpathology. Four other Bos taurus phalanges exhibitstage 2 pathology. At the site of Cruz Pampa

Figure 6. Bos skeleton showing pathological elements from


outside of Potosı, Bos taurus second and thirdphalanges have minimal exostoses on thearticulating surface. At the Chincha and Yahuaywineries Bos third phalanges also exhibit minimalexostoses.

all sites.


Table 2. Skeletal pathologies by taxon, element and type of pathology for colonial sites

Skeletal Pathology by TaxonTaxon #Caprinae 2Bos taurus 6All Camelidae 10

Skeletal pathology by element and taxonSkeletal element Taxon #Radius, ulna Caprinae 1Humerus Caprinae 1Rib Camelidae 1Vertebrae-cervical Lama sp. 1Vertebrae-thoracic Lama sp. 3Entocuneiform Bos taurus 1Phalanx-1st Lama sp. 4Phalanx-1st Bos taurus 1Phalanx-2nd Bos taurus 1Phalanx-3rd Bos taurus 3Phalanx-3rd Lama sp. 1

18

Types of Pathology #Osteophytes 6Osteophytes, Porosity, Eburnation 1Osteophytes, Porosity 1Exostosis proximal/distal articular surfaces phalanges 6Exostosis lateral/medial shaft 1st phalanx 3Exostosis and hypertrophic bone 1

18


The most dramatic examples of pathology arefour cases of exostosis (false ringbone) on the firstphalanges of camelids. One specimen from the16th century deposits at Torata Alta in theMoquegua valley has severe pathology withextensive lateral bone growth on the shaftindicating the tendon was partially encased inbone (Figures 8 and 9). The pathology wouldhave resulted in significant pain. The secondspecimen from the Locumbilla winery exhibitsless severe bony growth; however, the diaphysisshaft is hypertrophic, indicating probable addi-tional pathological reaction of the bone (Figures 10and 11). Two specimens from Pillistay locatednear Camana, Peru also exhibit phalangeal exos-toses; although both are less pathological thanthe examples from Torata Alta. One specimen hasa rounded trough on the lateral surface indicatingpossible involvement of the tendon (Figure 12).The second specimen contains a very mildexostosis on the lateral surface (Figure 13).The taxa of the pathological camelid speci-

mens may represent the two domesticated speciesof South American camelids, llama and alpaca.Dimensional measurements of the lateral-medial


breadth of the proximal surface are used to iden-tify the taxa represented (Table 3). The specimenfrom Torata Alta is in the size-range of llamas.The Torata Alta specimen measuring 21.4mm isslightly larger than the Locumbilla specimenwhich measures 20.1mm. The size range of theproximal lateral-medial breadth of the first phalanxof modern llamas is 20.8–21.9mm. (n¼ 22)(Miller, 2003, p. 31). Although the Locumbillaspecimen is somewhat smaller than the moderncomparative llama assemblage, it is slightly largerthan the size range reported for alpacas (16.3–19.8). Of the two specimens from Pillistay one isin the size range of a large alpaca (Vicugna pacos)(see Table 3). The second specimen is larger thanthe comparative alpaca specimens and mayrepresent a small llama; however, species identi-fication is inconclusive.Four camelid vertebrae exhibit pathologies.

Two camelid thoracic vertebrae from Torata Altaexhibit severe osteophytes along with porosityand eburnation of the centrum (Figure 14). Thepathology of the illustrated specimen extends tothe posterior articular surfaces and to the dorsalprocess. The second thoracic vertebra has


Figure 7. Bos taurus first phalanx from Locumbilla withexostosis on proximal and distal articular surfaces (photoby author). This figure is available in colour online atwww.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.

S. D. deFrance

osteophytes along with extensive grooving on theposterior surface of the centrum body (Figure 15)A third camelid thoracic vertebra from theLocumbilla bodega has mild osteophytes on

Figure 8. Camelid first phalanx from Torata Alta withsevere exostosis, lateral view (photo by Pat Payne). Thisfigure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


the ventral surface of the centrum (Figure 16).One camelid cervical vertebra from the Chinchawinery also has osteophytes on the centrum.

Other skeletal elements with mild pathologyinclude one Bos taurus entocuneiform (Locumbillawinery), the proximal rib of a camelid (Chinchawinery) and the proximal radius and distalhumerus of Caprinae specimens from Tarapaya,Bolivia.

Discussion

The range of specimens and taxa with pathologiesare used to examine if Spanish colonial changes inanimal use had an effect on the skeletal health ofeither indigenous mammals or introduced ones.Although the pathologies might arise from avariety of aetiologies, the frequency of degen-erative foot and vertebral abnormalities suggestthat several of the osteological changes resultedfrom work-related causes and from working olderanimals. A few specimens exhibit bone changesthat may have derived from one or more factors;however, none of the colonial specimens exhibitcongenital pathology, fractures, metabolic dis-ease, neoplasmas, nor dental pathology (asdescribed by Siegel, 1976, pp. 352–353).

Degenerative joint disease is evident in Bostaurus phalanges. First, second and third pha-langes from four sites (three wineries: Locumbilla,Chincha and Yahuay as well as the silver

Figure 9. Camelid first phalanx from Torata Alta withsevere exostosis in comparison to modern normal firstphalanx, anterior view (photo by Pat Payne). This figure isavailable in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


Figure 12. Camelid first phalanx from Pillistary with inter-mediate degree of exostosis (photo by Bruce Owen). Thisfigure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.

Figure 10. Camelid first phalanx from Locumbilla withintermediate degree of exostosis and hypertrophic shaft(photo by Pat Payne). This figure is available in colouronline at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


production site and residential area of CruzPampa) exhibit varying degrees of exostoses. Allof these pathologies appear to be related to theuse of introduced cattle as draught animals (seeBaker & Brothwell, 1980; Bartosiewicz et al., 1997;

Figure 11. Camelid first phalanx from Locumbilla withinflammation of bone shaft, lateral and anterior views(photo by author). This figure is available in colour onlineat www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


de Cupere et al., 2000). The Cruz Pampapathological cattle phalanges indicate that wholeanimals were processed near the site and alsosuggest that work animals were consumedpossibly after their utility had declined.

Table 3. Dimensional measurement of first phalanx (lat-eral-medial breadth) of Torata Alta and Pillistay specimenswith phalangeal exostoses

Sample n Range (mm)

Alpaca, comparative 54 16.3–19.8Llama, comparative 22 20.8–21.9Torata Alta 1 21.4Locumbilla 1 20.1Pillistay 1 18.7Pillistay 1 19.9

Comparative measurements of modern llama and alpacaare from Miller (2003, p. 31).

Figure 13. Camelid first phalanx from Pillistary with milddegree of exostosis (photo by Bruce Owen). This figure isavailable in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


Figure 14. Camelid thoracic vertebrae from Torata Altawith severe pathology, posterior view of thoracic vertebraewith osteophytes, eburnation and porosity (photo by PatPayne). This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.

Figure 15. Camelid thoracic vertebrae from Torata Altawith degenerative pathology, posterior view of centrumwith osteophytes and arrow indicating grooving on cen-trum body above osteophytes (photo by author). Thisfigure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.

Figure 16. Camelid thoracic vertebrae from Locumbillawith degenerative pathology, ventral surface of centrumwith exostosis (photo by author). This figure is available incolour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.

S. D. deFrance

In the Moquegua wine industry corrals andopen staging areas where animals were housed area common feature of many of the wineries (Rice,1996a). People may have used cattle to preparelands for planting grape stock, but there was littleagricultural production other than viticulture inthe valley. Animal-powered machinery was notcommon. At those wineries that distilled brandythe huge quantities of firewood needed for thedistillation process may have been transportedwith carts pulled by cattle; although mules andburros may have served for this purpose as well.In addition, cattle or oxen would have been usedto pull carts and probably to transport wine inceramic vessels or botijas over short distances.Cattle may also have been used to transport thelarge ceramic tinajas or fermentation and storage


jars that held approximately 1400 L and were 1.5–2m high (Rice, 1994, 1996b). Historical sourcesindicate that wine products were transportedprimarily via mule trains or camelid caravans(Cushner, 1980); therefore, cattle were notinvolved in long-distance transport of wine andbrandy. At Cruz Pampa, cattle were probably notused in agricultural activities due to the restricted



range of crops produced in the high elevationsetting, but cattle could have been used in avariety of work-related tasks in the silver miningindustry. Animal-powered machinery was alsonot a common feature of the 16th and 17thcentury silver industry.The only other bovid element to contain patho-

logy was an entocuneiform from the Locumbillawinery. This abnormality may indicate that theanimal suffered from spavin, a disease of the tarsus(Baker & Brothwell, 1980, pp. 117–118). Exostosisof the small tarsal bones, including the entocunei-form, can affect locomotion. Spavin can result fromboth hereditary factors and work-related factors,such as severe concussion that results from heavywork or working on hard surfaces. The small tarsalbones are stimulated to form new bone growthwhen the ligaments are pulled and the membranecovering the bone (periosteum) is lifted away fromthe bone. Interestingly, no bovid vertebrae or otherelements contain pathologies. Bovid pathologiesare not reported for Spanish colonial assemblageselsewhere in the Americas including sites wherelarge quantities of cattle remains are present such asPuerto Real on Hispaniola (Ewen, 1991; Reitz andMcEwan, 1995; Reitz, 1986), Spanish missions inTexas (deFrance, 1999) and elsewhere in NorthAmerica (Pavao-Zuckerman & Reitz, 2006).The pathologies present on caprines appear

to be the least work related; although their causeis difficult to determine. At the site of Tarapayacaprines are the most abundant taxon in thefaunal assemblage. These deposits are associatedwith an inn and the residence of a wealthy Spaniard(Van Buren, 1999). The remains representing twocaprine individuals are interpreted as food refuse(deFrance, 2003). These two individuals are theonly specimens that exhibit abnormal limbelements. The ages of the animals are also oflimited utility in identifying the cause of thesepathologies because both the proximal radiusand distal humerus fuse early in life. Accordingto fusion data, these individuals were at least10 months of age (Silver, 1969); however, theirage at death is unknown. There is no indicationthat caprines were used for work or kept until oldage for secondary products.Considering the long history of research on

camelid domestication and husbandry in theAndean region, relatively few examples of


camelid pathology are noted in either thearchaeological or ethnoarchaeological literature.Moore (2008) presents examples of pathologyincluding degenerative, congenital, dental, trau-matic or infectious lesions and healed breaks forthe Formative period highland Bolivian site ofChiripa in the Lake Titicaca basin. In recentexcavations at Chiripa Moore (2008) found22 cases of degenerative pathology includingexostoses and bone growth, osteoarthritis, ebur-nation and grooving. Pathological specimensaccount for 2.7% (n¼ 809) of the camelidremains from an assemblage that containedpredominantly domesticated camelids, but also,remains of both wild guanacos and vicuna. Due tofragmentation Moore (2008) was able to assignclass sizes to only 13 of the pathological speci-mens. Medium and large-sized camelids (prob-able llamas) (n¼ 10) exhibited greater pathologythan the smaller, alpaca-sized and possiblevicuna-sized animals (n¼ 3). Affected skeletalportions include axial elements, fore and hind-limbs, especially the proximal femur, and thefoot. Thoracic vertebrae centrae demonstrateconsiderable lipping indicating their probable useas cargo animals (Moore, 2008).Also present on some highland sites are

specimens with polydactylism. Moore (2006,2008) documents three metapodials (n¼ 42, 7%)with polydactylism. Webster (1993, p. 257) alsoreports the presence of two metapodials withpolydactyly at more recent sites dating to theMiddle Horizon (Tiwanaku culture) from theTiticaca basin. Moore (2008) summarises otherprehispanic occurrences of multiple-toed came-lids elsewhere in the Andean region. Interest-ingly, none of the colonial specimens exhibit thiscongenital abnormality.In addition to inherited deformities, Webster

(1993, p. 25) documents 26 examples of patho-logical bone including exostoses and osteoar-thritis present on phalanges, podials, metapo-dials, rib, vertebrae, scapula and the maxilla. Thepathological specimens are from remains repre-senting at least 132 individuals; neither sampleNISP nor size data for the pathological specimensare presented by Webster (1993) for the TiticacaBasin samples. Additionally, illustrations of thesespecimens are not provided; therefore, it is notpossible to determine the severity of the


S. D. deFrance

conditions. Park (2001) also reports degenerativeabnormalities on camelid phalanges and otherelements from the Tiwanaku site of Iwawi alsolocated in the Titicaca basin. Although the patho-logical specimens are not identified to species, themajority of the camelids are interpreted as llamasbased on both morphometric and other criteria(Park, 2001). Of the 70 pathological camelidspecimens identified (total sample n¼ 2810), 45elements exhibit evidence of stress or jointdisease pathology. The first phalanx (n¼ 11)and second phalanx (n¼ 14) exhibit the greatestdegenerative pathology followed by rib (n¼ 6),humerus (n¼ 6), astragalus (n¼ 2), innominate(n¼ 2), scapula (n¼ 1), lumbar vertebra (n¼ 1),calcaneus (n¼ 1) and third phalanx (n¼ 1). Stressand joint disease pathology are viewed asevidence of weight bearing activities of llamasused to transport cargo. The remainder of thepathological specimens (n¼ 25) exhibit infec-tious lesions, dental disease, trauma or auditoryexostosis. An illustrated pathological first phalanxfrom Iwawi is intermediate in comparison tothose for the Moquegua specimens.Formative period sites in Argentina contain

evidence of pathological camelid remains. Izetaand Cortes (2006) provide information on twodiseased (osteoarthritic) second phalanges of twolarge-sized camelids (probably a llama and aguanaco) from the site of Loma Alta located innorthern Argentina. The pathologies of theArgentina samples are very mild in comparisonto the majority of the colonial examples.At theMiddle Horizon site of Cerro Baul (Wari

culture) in the Moquegua valley mild versions ofphalangeal exostosis are present on second andthird camelid phalanges (n¼ 2) and first pha-langes (n¼ 2). In addition, one camelid rib hasmild osteophytes on the articulating surface or‘rib head’ (deFrance unpublished data).Camelid pathologies in colonial samples are

most common on elements of the foot andvertebrae. In comparison to prehispanic pathol-ogies previously reported and summarized here(Izeta & Cortes, 2006; Moore, 2008; Park, 2001;Webster, 1993) the colonial specimens containmore severe examples of bone deformities thanthose present in preconquest contexts. One firstphalanx with extensive exostosis and two arthriticthoracic vertebrae are severely abnormal. These


extreme examples suggest that some animalsdeveloped degenerative pathology as a result ofprolonged improper physiological stress duringthe colonial period that was unlike that experi-enced by animals prior to the Spanish conquest.The data presented here suggest that Spanishherd management policies and the probable useof animals in work-related tasks during thecolonial period was demanding and affectedthe skeletal health of some individuals.

The three most severe skeletal specimens arefrom the 16th century contexts at the site ofTorata Alta. Although Torata Alta was incorp-orated in the colonial economy and a centre oftextile production (Van Buren, 1993), interpret-ations of secondary historical documents suggestthat both the wine and silver industry sites wereassociated more strongly with the movement ofcommodities, and thus, the probable greater useof indigenous camelids for transport than wasTorata Alta. These osteological data suggest thatTorata Alta probably had a significant role in thecolonial economy and that camelids were thepreferred beast of burden. Although feet elementsand vertebrae may be affected independently, theoccurrence of severe pathology on both portionsof the skeleton supports the view that theseanimals were used in heavy weight-bearing tasks.In addition to the camelid remains, the pathologypresent on bovid remains also supports theinterpretation that cattle were used as draughtanimals and possibly in other work-related tasksduring the colonial period. Interesting, remains ofburros and mules are uncommon on these AndeanHispanic archaeological sites, but none foundthus far contain pathologies (deFrance, 1993,1996, 2003); therefore, equids apparently did notreplace camelids as the most widely used cargoanimal.

The relationship of pathology to camelid breedis difficult to interpret. The size of the camelidsfrom Pillistay is somewhat anomalous. ThePillistay specimens are at the large end of thealpaca range andmay represent small-sized llamasor hybrids (see Table 3). The antiquity anddiversity of camelid hybrids are not well under-stood (Miller, 2003; Moore, 2006; Miller andGill, 1990; Wheeler et al., 1995). Alpacas are notused for transporting goods; therefore, they areusually not travelling long distances and would be



unlikely to develop foot pathologies related torepeated impact of the foot on hard surfaces. Ifphalangeal exostoses develop through otheraetilogy, such as a product of age-related stressor genetic factors, the presence of pathologies onthese smaller-sized camelids may indicate thatthey were older animals reared for secondaryproducts, such as fibre. Alternatively, the animalsmay have been moved seasonally from the coastalvalley to graze in other habitat; therefore, thepathology resulted from some form of migratorylifestyle. The Locumbilla first phalanx is alsosmaller than the size range of modern llamas.However, the industrial nature of Locumbillaalong with the presence of probable draughtcattle with pathologies supports the interpret-ation that this individual is a smaller-sized llama,possibly a hybrid that developed foot pathologyfrom use as a cargo animal.The most severely pathological phalanx from

Torata Alta is within the size range of the llama.Overall, the Torata Alta camelid assemblage has avery diverse age and size range including largeas well as smaller-sized individuals (deFrance,1993). The presence of other elements (e.g.thoracic vertebrae) with degenerative pathologyfrom larger sized individuals suggests thesepathologies resulted from utilitarian activities.This analysis suggests that during the Spanish

colonial period beginning in the 16th century theCentral Andean region implemented some changesin how people used animals, but that peoplecontinued to use native animals for transportinggoods. Both indigenous and recently introducedmammals were used for work-related tasks andpossibly late into life. Camelid pathology appearsto be more severe in the colonial era than inpreceding periods thus reflecting a probabledecline in herd health in some regions. Only withmore systematic reporting of camelid pathologyin both prehispanic and other colonial contextswill we be able to understanding diachronicchanges in camelid use and health. Additionalfaunal remains from colonial sites, especially non-residential sites, will also provide more informa-tion on animal health and their possible economicuses. Other than the data presented here, thereare reports of pathologies on skeletal remainsof introduced Eurasian animals from colonial ormore recent sites in the Central Andes.


Conclusions

This research presents the results of an analysis ofpaleopathologies present on animal remains fromseven archaeological sites in Peru and Boliviadating to the Spanish colonial period. The sitesinclude industrial, commercial, residential andrural locales with occupation from the 16th to the19th centuries. The sites vary in elevation fromlow coastal valleys to highland silver miningcommunities. Eighteen specimens exhibit varyingdegrees of pathology including exostoses, osteo-phytes, eburnation, porosity and grooving. Inmost cases, the pathological remains are a smallpercentage of the total assemblage. Phalanges ofintroduced bovids contain degenerative abnorm-alities that suggest work-related stress fromserving as draught cattle. Caprine remains havethe least pathology indicating their principal useas food. Native camelids (probably domesticatedllamas) remains have the greatest diversity andseverity of pathology, particularly on phalangesand vertebrae. Although feet and spines ofanimals can be affected independently, the boneabnormalities suggest that these animals wereemployed as cargo animals in the colonialeconomy. The degree of pathology present onthe camelids is greater than described forprehispanic assemblages from the region. Thesedata suggest that for native and introducedanimals experienced greater physiological stressunder Spanish rule as new economic systems andcommercial enterprises were established. TheAndean region was the only New World regionwith a well-established pastoral economy relianton large domesticated mammals. Spanish colo-nisation took advantage of existing systems ofanimal use and also introduced Eurasian animalsthat served both for work and food.

Acknowledgements

I thank the following individuals whomade faunalcollections and information available to me: KateMoore, Bruce Owen, Prudence Rice, Greg Smithand Mary Van Buren. Pat Payne photographedseveral of the Torata Alta and Locumbilla speci-mens. Bruce Owen provided photos of the


S. D. deFrance

Pillistay specimens. Susan Duser drafted Figures 1and 2. Kate Moore, Bruce Owen,Willie MengoniGonalons and an anonymous reviewer provideduseful comments and suggestions on this paper.All omissions and errors are my own.

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