paleoecology and geochronology of glacial lake hind during the pleistocene–holocene transition: a...

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 18, No. 6, 583–607 (2003)� 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Published online in Wiley Interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI:10.1002/gea.10081

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Paleoecology and Geochronology of

Glacial Lake Hind During the

Pleistocene–Holocene Transition: A

Context for Folsom Surface Finds on the

Canadian Prairies

Matthew Boyd,1,* Garry Leonard Running IV,2 and KarenHavholm3

1Department of Anthropology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON,

P7B 5E1, Canada2Department of Geography and Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Eau

Claire, Eau Claire, Wisconsin 54702-40043Department of Geology, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire,

Wisconsin 54702-4004

Stratigraphic and paleoecologic (palynomorph, macrobotanical) data obtained fromacutbankof the Souris River in southwestern Manitoba establish some fundamental parameters ofFolsom land-use in association with a proglacial lake on the Canadian Prairies. By dating theregression of glacial Lake Hind, we observed that recorded Folsom sites are restricted toareas of the Hind basin drained shortly before 10,400 yr B.P. This patternmay therefore recordthe interception of seasonal resources on recently-drained proglacial lake surfaces. Based onpaleovegetation reconstructions, we note that these surfaces were rapidly colonized by emer-gent and aquatic vegetation following regression, generating a viable resource base for Folsomhunter-gatherers. However, low plant productivity and diversity may have greatly limited theextent to which this locale was exploited, in contrast to nonperiglacial regions on the Plains.We also suggest that wetland plant succession during the Pleistocene-Holocene transitionwas due, at least locally, to climate-forced fluctuations in groundwater levels. � 2003 WileyPeriodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION

Folsom complex (10,800–10,000 yr B.P.). materials are sparse across the Cana-dian Prairies and almost always lack good provenance and other fundamental con-textual data. It is apparent, however, that some of these materials were depositedwell within proglacial lake basins (Buchner and Pettipas, 1990; Boyd, 2000b). De-spite the paucity of recorded Folsom sites in this region, we suggest that detailedreconstructions of contemporaneous environments at both local- and regional-

*Corresponding author.

BOYD, RUNNING, AND HAVHOLM

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In this study, we employ a multianalytic approach involving the analysis of sedi-ment and microbotanical (pollen, algae, fungi) and macrobotanical (seed) remains,in order to reconstruct the environmental history of the glacial Lake Hind basin(southwestern Manitoba) following deglaciation. In addition to providing the onlycontext for the interpretation of the earliest archaeological materials in this region,this approach also provides insight into the complex relationship between climate,hydrology, and biotic succession during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition.

Glacial Lake Hind

Glacial Lake Hind was one of several interconnected proglacial lakes that formedacross the Canadian prairies during the period of final (late-Wisconsinan) deglacia-tion (e.g., Klassen, 1972, 1983; Clayton and Moran, 1982; Fenton et al., 1983; Kehewand Clayton, 1983; Kehew and Lord, 1986; Kehew and Teller, 1994; Sun and Teller,1997) (Figure 1). Although relatively small (ca. 4000 km2) when compared withglacial Lake Agassiz, the major geological events occurring within the Hind basinand associated spillway channels reflect a larger, region-wide sequence of cata-strophic ice-marginal lake drainage. Glacial Lake Hind was an integral part of thenorthern Plains proglacial lake-spillway system, because it receivedmeltwater fromwestern Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and North Dakota via at least 10 channels, anddischarged eastwards into glacial Lake Agassiz through the Pembina spillway (Sun,1996; Sun and Teller, 1997). Hence, the chronostratigraphic record preservedwithinthe Hind basin has significance at the local and at the broader, regional, scale.

A previous study (Sun, 1996; Sun and Teller, 1997) established the general historyof glacial Lake Hind during the final deglaciation of southwestern Manitoba (afterca. 12,000 yr B.P.). In this paper, we address the terminal stages of glacial LakeHind, identified as Phases “8” and “9” in Sun (1996:172–177) (Figure 1). The periodrepresented by these phases encompasses two sequential events: (1) A catastrophicflood emanated from glacial Lake Regina (via glacial Lake Souris) during Phase 8that deepened and widened the Pembina spillway, draining the shallower southernhalf of glacial Lake Hind (Sun, 1996:175). The shallow channel produced by thisflood was later occupied by the Souris River (Sun, 1996:175) (Figure 1). (2) Phase9 subsumes the series of floods through the Qu’Appelle and Assiniboine spillways,which trenched across the northern Hind basin without leaving a sedimentaryrecord (Sun, 1996: 177) and deposited sediment loads in the Assiniboine delta ofglacial Lake Agassiz (Sun, 1996:177; Sun and Teller, 1997). Although no previousradiometric age control is available for these events (other than this study), Kehewand Teller (1994: 864) suggest a date of 10,700 yr B.P. for the termination of theQu’Appelle-Assiniboine proglacial drainage phase.

The Flintstone Hill Site

A series of cutbanks adjacent to the Souris River in the Lauder Sandhills area ofthe south-central Hind basin expose a widespread (ca. 2 km minimum) sedimen-

GLACIAL LAKE HIND IN THE PLEISTOCENE–HOLOCENE TRANSITION

GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 585

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Figure 1. Map A: Location of study area within the glacial Lake Hind basin. Phase 4 to Phase 9 lakeshorelines after Sun (1996). Map B: Close-up of study area with Flintstone Hill (FSH) site and minimumdistance of FSH stratigraphic sequence, based on NTS 62 F/7 map (1: 50,000 scale).


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exposed in one of these cutbanks, the Flintstone Hill site (Figure 1), were sampledfor various paleoecological analyses with an emphasis on both microfossil (pollen,fungal, and algal palynomorphs, silicophytoliths) and plant macrofossil categories(Boyd, 2000a, 2000b, 2002c). The basal sediments, the focus of this paper, consistof lacustrine clays and silts, conformably overlain by a very finely bedded organicdeposit. Good organic preservation and the low-energy depositional character ofthe organic deposit provide a rare opportunity to directly date the drainage of thesouthern glacial Lake Hind basin and, by extension, the associated spillway events.The paleoecological record that accompanies this transition, furthermore, is oneof the few sources of information on terminal late Pleistocene-early Holocene pa-leovegetation in a proglacial lake basin within the Canadian Prairies. These data,in turn, provide a fundamental context for understanding the timing and nature ofFolsom occupations in the region (Boyd, 2000b, 2000c).

MODERN SETTING

The Lauder Sandhills is one of approximately 18 small, stabilized, dune fieldsthat are scattered throughout the Hind basin covering over 70 km2 (“Oak Lakedunes” of David [1977]). The dominant eolian landforms in the Lauder Sandhillsare large parabolic dunes with arms that are oriented WNW–ENE (average orien-tation for 18 dune clusters range from 96� to 134�). Parabolic dunes in the area thatincludes Flintstone Hill have arms that are up to 10 m high and 500–2000 m long.Other eolian landforms in the Lauder Sandhills include low conical, irregular, orsinuous mound dunes (1–3 m high, 4–10 m in diameter with no slipfaces) andeolian sand sheets (1–3 m in thickness). Interdunal swales are commonly occupiedby shallow wetlands. Soils in the Lauder Sandhills are mostly Orthic Regosols (Ei-lers et al., 1978; Soil Classification Working Group, 1998:117).

Today, the glacial Lake Hind basin contains the Oak Lake aquifer. The Oak Lakeaquifer was formed throughout the Holocene by the entrapment of water aboveglaciolacustrine and bedrock deposits. It is likely that this groundwater system hasprofoundly influenced the geomorphic and vegetative history of the Hind basin.For example, Boyd (2000c) suggests for the middle Holocene that a more lengthyprocess of grassland succession took place across the Hind basin (vs. surroundinguplands) due to the development of extensive groundwater-fed playa systems andthe emergence of landscape stability only after ca. 4000 yr BP. Presently, the highwater table associated with the Oak Lake aquifer, combined with the topographicvariability of the Lauder Sandhills, are responsible for much of the biological di-versity within this region (Boyd, 2000b).

A diverse plant assemblage has developed within this physiographic setting.Mod-ern vegetation surveys (Hohn and Parsons, 1993; Boyd, 2000b) identify at least fivehabitats within the Lauder Sandhills: (1) Aspen forest: dominated by PopulustremuloidesMichx. and P. balsamifera L. with a scattering ofQuercusmacrocarpaMichx. on small sand ridges, and typical “Aspen Parkland” associates in the un-



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top of textbase of textderstory such as Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook., Prunus virginiana L., and

Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. (2) Forest-grassland transitional areas: incorpo-rate a higher frequency of grasses (compared to aspen forest). These grasses arepredominantly subfamily Festucoideae taxa such as Poa spp. and Calamovilfa lon-gifolia (Hook.) Scribn., and are associated with open P. tremuloides forest andcommon Parkland forest associates. (3) Grassland: This habitat includes a rangeof xerophytic to mesophytic mixed grass prairie plant species distributed accordingto topography (e.g., slope position and aspect) and moisture regime. In remnantgrasslands, ground cover is dominated by Ambrosia psilostachya DC., Boutelouagracilis (HBK.) Lag., Bromus spp., Rosa arkansana Porter, Equisetum hyemale

L. var. affine (Engelm.) A. A. Eaton, and Solidago spp., with isolated occurrencesof Andropogon hallii Hack. (� Andropogon gerardii F. Vitman subsp. hallii[Hack.] J. Wipff [Wipff, 1996]). (4) Sandhills proper: dominated by Quercus ma-crocarpa stands on northern dune ridge slopes, interspersed with Populus tre-

muloides, diverse grass species, Juniperus horizontalis Moench, as well as theregionally rare Tradescantia occidentalis (Britt.) Smyth. (5) Wetlands (inter-dunal and lacustrine): Common emergent taxa include Caltha palustris L., Pe-tasites sagittatus (Pursh) A. Gray, and Typha angustifolia L. More complete plantcatalogues for this area are contained in other sources (Scoggan, 1953; Hohn andParsons, 1993).

The study area is within the subhumid continental climate zone (“Dfb” under theKoeppen system) (Eilers et al., 1978). Normal climate values at the nearest weatherstation (Deloraine) include a mean maximum summer temperature (in July) of19.7�C, with the coldest month averaging about �16.3�C. Yearly rainfall is approx-imately 360 mm (114 mm falling as snow), and the current ratio of precipitation topotential evapotranspiration (P/PE) is about 0.8 (Environment Canada, 1993).

THE EARLY PALEOINDIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD IN THE

HIND BASIN

The oldest archaeological materials that have been found in the glacial Lake Hindbasin are attributed to the Folsom complex (Pettipas, 1967; Boyd, 2000b, 2000c)(Figure 1) which is recognized by its distinctive full-fluted spear points, althoughan unfluted variant—“Midland”—is also known (Wendorf et al., 1955; Hofman etal., 1990; Hofman and Graham, 1998:101). At excavated sites elsewhere in NorthAmerica, these artifacts have been associated with a diverse tool kit that includedsmall end scrapers, drills, biface knives, choppers, stone beads, as well as a rangeof bone tools (Dyck, 1983:75). The Folsom economy on the southern Plains appearsto be largely focused on bison hunting, although at the Owl Cave site (Idaho),mammoths may also have been procured in the beginning (Miller and Dort, 1978:129–139). At later sites, Folsom game also included mountain sheep, deer, mar-mots, rabbits, and wolves as secondary components in a bison-dominated diet(Dyck, 1983:74). Plant usage, although assumed to have been extensive, is poorlyunderstood.


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numbers. Vickers (1986:35) suggests that the limited penetration of the complexmay have been due to its short duration and “southern” (i.e., U.S. High Plains)origin. Pettipas and Buchner (1983:421), on the other hand, argue that the scarcityof fluted Paleoindian points in Manitoba may be due to the failure of ice-marginalcommunities to attract significant populations of game.

Certainly, in the Hind basin, Folsom complex materials are sparse. In fact, onlytwo specimens are known: a Folsom projectile point from a private collection thathas a provenance near the town of Melita (Pettipas, 1967:356); and an unfluted(“Midland”) form which was recovered in situ from a river terrace outside of Sou-ris, at a present elevation of 442 m above sea level (Pettipas, 1967:355) (Figure 1).These recoveries are significant, however, because they are located well below thehighest shoreline facies of glacial Lake Hind (i.e., 457 masl). How do thesematerialsrelate to the sequence of natural events (e.g., drainage and vegetative colonization)that took place in the Hind basin? In the absence of an intact, well-preserved,archaeological site, geoarchaeology provides the only means of addressing the re-lationship between the history of glacial Lake Hind and the earliest human occu-pation of this region.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE FLINTSTONE HILL SITE

Five cutbank sites beside the Souris River reveal a three-part sedimentologicalsequence across a minimum NE–SW distance of 2 km (Figure 1). The FlintstoneHill site exhibits the most complete sedimentary record, and remains the mostthoroughly studied site in this area (Running et al., 1998; Bloom-Krull et al., 1999;Kasstan, 1999; Lazarz et al., 1999; Morrell et al., 1999; Boyd, 2000a, 2002b; Havholmet al., 2003). For these reasons, it serves as the type site for this sequence. Exposedat Flintstone Hill are are a terminal late Pleistocene- early Holocene lacustrine unit(“A1” in Figure 2); a fine-grained clastic deposit produced by the initial incising ofthe Souris River through the central Hind basin (A2) (Boyd, 2000b); and middle tolate Holocene eolian deposits (units B, C1, C2, and D). Only the basal unit (A1) isdescribed in detail in this study. A complete description of the lithostratigraphy ofFlintstone Hill is presented in Boyd (2000b).

Description of Unit A1

The basal, fine-grained sediments exposed at Flintstone Hill are at least 2.25 mthick, extending below the river level (Figure 2). The lowest unit (A1) grades froma gleyed massive to planar-bedded, carbonate-rich, clay to silty clay upward into a30 cm thick organic deposit1 with alternating silty clay and detrital organic lami-nations. The upper �30 cm of unit A1 exhibits progressively finer texture (clayloam and silty clay loam) and thinner planar beds (ca. 1–5 mm thick) upwards.Organic enrichment also increases upward (Figures 2 and 3). Alternating organic

1Hereafter, “organic deposit” is used to refer to the upper 30 cm of unit A1.



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Figure 2. Composite schematic column of the Flintstone Hill cutbank, southwesternManitoba, Canada.Based on field observations by Running, Boyd, and Havholm.


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Figure 3. Photo of laminated organic deposit (indicated by broken line) in upper 30 cm of unit A1,Flintstone Hill site. “R1” � location of AMS date of 10,420 � 70 yr B.P. (Beta-116994); “R2” � locationof AMS date of 9250 � 90 yr B.P. (TO-7692).

beds (thickest upward) and clastic beds (thinnest upward) become more frequentin the upper 15 cm. Small (�5 mm high), symmetrical, ripple structures are occa-sionally preserved in the organic beds. Two AMS radiocarbon dates on seeds ofthe emergent Menyanthes trifoliata L. were obtained from the bottom and topportions of the organic deposit: 10,420 � 70 yr B.P. (12,677–11,991 cal yr B.P.2)

22-� calibrated range, determined using Stuiver and Reimer (1993).



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spectively (Figures 2 and 3) (Boyd 2000b). The occasional presence of clastic bedswith ripples in this deposit may indicate periodic, low energy/ low velocity flooding.

Interpretation of Unit A1

The transition from massive, gleyed, carbonate rich, silty clay to the fine organiclaminae in unit A1 suggests a transition from deep to shallow water levels. Thebasal radiocarbon age indicates that regression of Lake Hind north of the studysite was completed by at least 10,400 yr B.P. An abundance of plant macrofossilsand organic-rich beds in the upper 30 cm of unit A1 indicate the local presence ofvegetation from this time until at least 9300 yr B.P. Ripples and alternating carbon-ate-rich clastic (silt) and organic beds in the organic deposit suggest drawdownand/or low-energy flooding during the period of formation. Macrofossil content ofthis unit indicates that organic accumulation was the result of in situ decay ofemergent and aquatic macrophytes following the northward regression of the lake(discussed later).

When linked to the model of glacial Lake Hind produced by Sun (1996), thedecline in water depth interpreted from the stratigraphic evidence at FlintstoneHill likely corresponds to the drainage of the southern Hind basin following thecatastrophic discharge of meltwater through the Souris–Pembina spillway systemduring Phase 8. As illustrated in Figure 1, Sun’s (1996) shoreline positions forPhases 7 and 9 indicate that the study site was within the portion of the Hind basindrained by this event. From this evidence, therefore, we suggest that Phase 9 wasinitiated prior to ca. 10,400 yr B.P.

PALEOECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Materials and Methods

A 7 cm-diameter core of the organic deposit (i.e., upper ca. 30 cm of unit A1)was obtained during August 1997 and subsampled for palynomorphs and macro-fossils in the laboratory. Coring was limited to the organic deposit because theunderlying fine-grained sediment was compacted. Following division lengthwise,1 cm3 samples were collected from the inner core at 1 cm intervals throughout theorganic bedding. Additional larger samples for macrobotanical analyses were col-lected in Fall 2000 directly from the exposure face in the same location. One liter(1000 ml) subsamples for macrobotanical processing were collected over a depthof 2 cm (each) from the organic unit, and greater exposure in 2000 also permittedsampling of the lacustrine sediment underlying the organic deposit (for macrofos-sils only). The processing methods employed are summarized below.

Palynomorph extraction followed a modified version (Kalgutkar, 1999) of thestandard technique (Faegri and Iversen, 1964). Modifications were developed pri-marily with regard to acetolysis and oxidation procedures, in order to reduce the

3See footnote 2.


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1967, 1984). For all samples, acetolysis was omitted, and the residue was oxidizedin a cold solution of bleach (18%) for approximately 5 minutes, followed by briefexposure to 10% ammonium hydroxide. The number and length of the oxidation-base cycles was determined by means of a preliminary examination of the residueunder the microscope. For all samples, only one cycle was required. Palynomorphswere further concentrated by heavy liquid (zinc bromide, specific gravity � 2.0)separation and mounted in a standard medium for observation at 400� and 1000�magnification. Minimum pollen counts ranged between 250 and 300 specimens persample (excluding wetland taxa, fungi, and algae), and identification was aided bypublished keys (McAndrews et al., 1973; Moore et al., 1991) as well as late Quater-nary comparative materials housed at the universities of Calgary and Manitoba.Species identifications for Picea pollen were made following the qualitative criteriaoutlined in Hansen and Engstrom (1985).

The zonation of the macrofossil and microfossil profiles was determined sepa-rately, on the basis of unconstrained incremental sum of squares cluster analysis.4

Elsewhere in Manitoba, the upper boundary of the earliest postglacial zone hastraditionally been determined on the basis of a sharp decline in the relative fre-quency of Picea (e.g., Ritchie and Lichti-Federovich, 1968).

Sediment analyzed for macrobotanical remains was processed in 50 ml subsam-ples (measured by means of water displacement in a graduated cylinder). The de-bris was washed through 250 �m and 125 �m geological sieves, and the remainingmaterials were air-dried prior to examination under a dissecting microscope. Aminimum of 150 ml of sediment was processed in this manner per sample, andmacrofossil counts were recalculated to a fixed volume (150 ml). Plant macrofossilidentifications were made using comparative collections housed at the Universityof Manitoba Herbarium in addition to published keys (Berggren, 1969; Montgomery,1977; Levesque et al., 1988; Martin and Barkley, 2000).

RESULTS

Palynomorphs

Zone I-P (29–195 cm)—Spruce-Poplar Woodland

Based on the radiocarbon dates and assuming a steady rate of sedimentation,this zone ends at ca. 10,100 yr BP. The microfossil profile (Figure 4) documents aninitial dominance of Picea (70–80%), followed by a brief decline (to 35%) and sub-sequent increase (to 65%) between 24 and 19 cm. Qualitative criteria (Hansen andEngstrom, 1985) indicate that, throughout zone I-P, at least 95% of the Picea grainsconform to the P. glauca type; the remaining specimens were identified as P. mar-iana. This zone is also associated with a small peak (ca. 15%) in the frequency of

4Different dissimilarity coefficients were employed for the microfossil (Edwards and Cavalli-Sforza’schord distance) and macrofossil data (Euclidean distance).5Refers to depth below top of unit A1 (as illustrated in paleoecological spectra).

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Figure 4. Palynomorph assemblage, unit A1, Flintstone Hill site. After Boyd (2000b).


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frequency at this time, remaining relatively constant at roughly 10% relative fre-quency. Populus (5–35%) increases throughout this zone, reflecting the corre-sponding (relative) decline in Picea. The remaining pollen assemblage is charac-terized by low frequencies of the following: Juniperus, Pinus, Betula, Salix,Ambrosia, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiineae, Cyperaceae, Ranunculus, and Pter-idium.

The zone I-P fungal and algal spectra are characterized by variable relative fre-quencies of Gaeumannomyces hyphopodia (“Type 126” in Pals et al. [1980]), amaximum peak in indeterminate fungal sporomorphs, and lower frequencies of“Type 225” (Van Geel et al., 1989) algal microfossils (vs. zone II-P). Spores identi-fiable as either Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes are present in low frequencies.

Zone II-P (19–2 cm)—Spruce Decline

In the palynomorph profile, zone II-P is characterized by an overall decline inPicea pollen, with frequencies ranging from 65% to 15%. Once again, between 95%and 100% of the spruce grains were identified as Picea glauca. At the same time,there is a corresponding increase in Populus (5–30%) and Juniperus (5–50%).Equisetum (horsetail) is more prominent in this zone, with relative frequenciesvarying between 5% and 13%. As well, zone II-P is characterized by slightly lowerfrequencies (� 5%) of Artemisia (vs. zone I-P) and low but persistent values of thefollowing: Pinus, Quercus, Betula, Salix, Shepherdia canadensis, Ambrosia, Car-yophyllaceae, Chenopodiineae, Cyperaceae, Ranunculus, and Pteridium.

The fungal and algal spectra for zone II-P show low values of Gaeumannomyceshyphopodia, fluctuations in the proportion of indeterminate fungal spores (0–40%),and high frequencies of Type 225 algal microfossils. The latter may record thepresence of stranded algal mats following seasonal drawdown (Harris and Mar-shall, 1963).

Plant Macrofossils

Zone I-M (34–29 cm)—Cyperaceae

Zone I-M corresponds, lithologically, to the gleyed silts and clays that underliethe organic deposit in unit A1 (Figures 2 and 5). This zone contains the highestdiversity of emergent and aquatic plant species, with the Cyperaceae being domi-nant (Figure 5). In particular, the zone is characterized by high but declining (55–10 specimens/150 ml) values of Carex (e.g., C. rostrata), with a secondary com-ponent consisting of Menyanthes (0–30), Myriophyllum (10–30), Picea needles(10–25), Hippuris vulgaris (0–15), Scirpus (5–15); low values of Eleocharis (0–10), Potamogeton (0–10), Zannichellia (0–2), Potentilla palustris (0–2), Equi-setum (0–10), Chara (10–0), mosses; and one specimen identified as a Populusbud scale. Preservation in this zone was extremely good; several Carex perigynia6

6A scalelike bract enclosing the pistil in Carex.

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Figure 5. Macrobotanical assemblage, unit A1, Flintstone Hill site.


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M predates ca. 10,400 yr B.P.

Zone II-M (29–13 cm)—Bryophyte Interval

In contrast to the basal zone, this zone is characterized by the decline (n � 10–0/150 ml) of most Cyperaceae and aquatics but high quantities of mosses (Drepan-ocladus aduncus [0–180], followed by Catoscopium [0–570]), and covaryingamounts of Menyanthes (30–250) and Equisetum (10–400). Potentilla palustris(0–20) obtains its highest value in this zone, as does Scirpus (8–15). Small quan-tities of the following taxa were also observed: Picea, Eleocharis, Hippuris, My-riophyllum, Potamogeton, and others.

Zone III-M (13–0 cm)—Menyanthes-Equisetum

Zone III-M is characterized by the dominance and covariation of Menyanthes(50–400) and Equisetum (50–450). In contrast to zone II-M, no mosses were ob-served, and only trace quantities of the aquatics Hippuris andMyriophyllumwerefound. Zone II-M is also characterized by an overall decline in Picea remains and,at the top of this zone, a decline in all taxa (Figure 5).

INTERPRETATION OF PALEOECOLOGICAL DATA

Palynomorphs

The basal zone (I-P) in the palynomorph profile (Figure 4) represents a typicalearly postglacial plant assemblage present on nearby uplands surrounding the Hindbasin. This community is characterized by the association of Picea glauca withPopulus, Juniperus, Artemisia, Shepherdia canadensis, and grasses (Poaceae)among other taxa. Given differences in pollen productivity among these taxa, whitespruce was not necessarily dominant in the living community. Indeed, relative tothis species, the nonconiferous associates are probably underrepresented. Piceamariana is poorly represented throughout the core, accounting for no more than5% of all Picea pollen. This is consistent with Liu’s (1990) characterization of earlypostglacial spruce populations in northern Ontario.

In comparison with zone I-P, zone II-P shows an overall decline in the promi-nence of Picea glauca on the uplands surrounding the Hind basin. The decline inwhite spruce pollen, furthermore, is supported by the gradual decline in sprucemacrofossils seen in zone III-M (Figure 5). Given the modern southern limits of thisspecies in the prairie provinces (Ritchie and Harrison, 1993), this trend may reflectgradual climatic warming up to approximately the 17�C or 18�C July isotherm. Inwestern Manitoba, for example, the present-day southern limit of Picea glaucapasses through the Minnedosa station, which has a July mean temperature of 17.5�C(Zoltai, 1975; Environment Canada, 1993). A climate shift is implied in this case,rather than a shift from (presumably cooler) meltwater-dominated conditions to asurface water dominated system, because the decline of Picea glauca is an eco-



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low). Somewhat warmer conditions, or a shift away from a meltwater system inthe basin, may be implied by the peak in Typha latifolia at 19 cm (ca. 10,100 yrB.P.7) because this species is known to roughly correlate with temperate conditionsand low elevations (Wright et al., 1963:1381; Beckingham et al., 1996:13–85). Theuse of Typha pollen as one criterion to indicate postglacial warming is emphasizedin Ritchie et al. (1983:128). The peak in Typha also suggests the occurrence offluctuating water levels at this time, which is likely due to postglacial warming (seebelow).

Interpretations of upland pollen spectra from other, nearby sites in the province(Ritchie and Lichti-Federovich, 1968: Glenboro Lake, Tiger Hills; Ritchie, 1969: E-Lake, Riding Mountain; Ritchie, 1976: Sewell and Russell sites) are broadly con-sistent with the pollen results presented in this study. This indicates that the “up-land community” inferred for the edge of Hind basin was part of a larger patternof vegetation that extended across the Manitoba Escarpment (Ritchie, 1976:1814)as well as across much of Canada’s western interior (Ritchie, 1976:1793). At theFlintstone Hill site, the decline of Picea began shortly after ca. 10,100 yr B.P. Onceagain, this is broadly consistent with other sites in southwestern Manitoba, wherethe local deterioration of this genus is apparent by at least ca. 10,000 yr B.P. onRiding Mountain (Ritchie, 1969) and at Sewell Lake within the Assiniboine Delta(Ritchie, 1976). In North Dakota, the early spruce forests were replaced by grass-land vegetation at �10,000 BP (Grimm, 1995); in southern Saskatchewan, however,spruce forests were succeeded by deciduous parklands after ca. 10,200 yr B.P.(Yansa and Basinger, 1999:151). The strong representation of Populus in Figure 4(zone II-P) also supports the interpretation of a deciduous “parkland” communitythat emerged at roughly the same time in the study area.

Macrofossils

Zone I-M (�10,400 yr B.P.) is only recorded by macrofossils (Figure 5), anddocuments an herbaceous community dominated by Cyperaceae. This phase isinterpreted as a low-diversity treeless sedge-fen that occurred in the immediatevicinity of the FSH site. Most of the macrobotanical taxa in zone I-M indicate some-what higher water levels in contrast to subsequent zones (Figures 5 and 6). Above-surface water levels in the earliest zone are indicated by the presence of aquatictaxa such as Myriophyllum, Hippuris, and Potamogeton. As well, the presence ofChara suggests that the water was carbonate-rich, warm, shallow and thereforenot directly fed by meltwater. Instead, the carbonate chemistry of zone I-M (andsubsequent zones) implies a largely groundwater-fed system that was isolated fromthe larger meltwater system of glacial Lake Hind.8

7Assuming a steady rate of sedimentation. This assumption is probably warranted within the organicdeposit only, because it is lithologically uniform and does not exhibit unconformities.8Other late-glacial wetlands in the Agassiz basin have also demonstrated insulation from the meltwatersystem (e.g., Teller, 1989; Teller et al., 2000).


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Figure 6. Paleohydrological reconstruction from FSH macrobotanical data. Data were compiled fromJeglum (1971) and Crum (1976). Taxa are ordered according to the sequence of maximum values (ma-crofossil counts), with earlier maxima lower in the chart. Solid bars signify the ideal range of a giventaxon based on values for water depth in which the species obtains a maximum frequency and presence,and broken bars indicate that the ideal range includes values not listed on chart. These values are onlyapproximate.

The presence of carbonized Picea needles in zone I-M indicates that this genuswas a component of the regional vegetation by at least this time. Spruce, further-more, was likely confined to the drier uplands surrounding the Hind basin, becausevirtually all spruce needles in the macrobotanical assemblage are carbonized, andwere therefore probably carried into the basin by fire updrafts. As a result, althoughthe local landscape is best interpreted as treeless throughout the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, spruce was undoubtedly present on well-drained uplandswithin the study area. Only one site (Flin Flon) in Canada’s western interior hasprovided clear evidence of a truly treeless episode (Cyperaceae-grass-Artemisia)preceding the spruce zone (Ritchie, 1976:1804).

The dominance of mosses observed in zone II-M (�10,600–9800 yr B.P.9) sup-

9See footnote 4.



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top of textbase of textports the shift to somewhat lower water levels implied by the increase inMenyan-

thes, Potentilla, Equisetum, and the decline in aquatics (Figures 5 and 6). AlthoughDrepanocladus may tolerate being submerged seasonally, both this moss taxonand Catoscopium tend to be found where water is below, but near, the groundsurface (Jeglum, 1971; Crum, 1976). This observation, combined with the declinein aquatics, indicates that water levels were mostly at, or below, ground surfaceshortly before ca. 10,400 yr B.P. Water levels, furthermore, were probably fairlystable (Crum, 1976), with fluctuations only occurring seasonally. These stable con-ditions may be due to the large capacity for the recharging of groundwater in theHind basin. Moreover, the ecology of these mosses supports the characterizationof this groundwater system as carbonate-rich (Crum, 1976:190, 266). Interestingly,the modern occurrence of Catoscopium in the Great Lakes region has been inter-preted by Miller (1980:27–29) as a remnant population of much larger, periglacial,communities because this genus is presently found only much further north.

In zone III-M (ca. 9800–9100 yr B.P.10), the marked dominance of Menyanthestrifoliata is probably a result of increased fluctuations in groundwater levels, incontrast to the preceding zone (II-M). A modern ecological study (Haraguchi, 1991)supports this interpretation through the observation that Menyanthes trifoliata ismore likely to dominate a wetland stand as the amplitude of water-level fluctuationsincreases. In modern Boreal wetlands, Menyanthes trifoliata tends to be distrib-uted where groundwater-levels are between approximately 19 and 0 cm belowsurface (Jeglum, 1971; Larsen, 1980:293), although its range extends from signifi-cantly below surface (59–40 cm) to above-surface (�1 to �19 cm) water levels aswell (Jeglum, 1971; Larsen, 1980: 293). The ability of Menyanthes to withstandpronounced water level fluctuations may have conferred an advantage to thistaxon, versus the bryophyte taxa, which dominated in zone II-M.

Following ca. 10,400 yr B.P., the decline in Picea macrobotanical remains (III-M) matches the decline in Picea pollen shown in Figure 4 (zone II-P). The sugges-tion of more pronounced water table fluctuations after ca. 9800 yr B.P., because itclosely coincides with the decline in Picea, is most parsimoniously explained as alocal hydrological response to postglacial warming. Quantitatively, as identifiedabove, this process probably represents warming up to at least the 17�C or 18�CJuly isotherm.

THE FOLSOM COMPLEX AND GLACIAL LAKE HIND

As discussed above, two specimens attributable to the Folsom complex havebeen recovered in the Hind basin: a Folsom projectile point from a private collec-tion that has a provenience near the town of Melita (Pettipas, 1967:356); and anunfluted (“Midland”) form that was recovered in situ from a river terrace outsideof Souris, at an elevation of 442 m above sea level (Pettipas, 1967:355) (Figure 1).These recoveries are significant, however, because they are located well below the

10See footnote 4.


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top of textbase of texthighest shoreline facies of glacial Lake Hind (i.e., 457 masl). More precisely, the

Melita point was found in an area of the basin covered by water during (and before)Phase 4 (Figure 1). The Souris specimen, furthermore, was found in an area of thebasin that would have been covered by water during and prior to Phase 7 (Figure1). Because the Phase 7 to 9 transition is known to have been completed beforeca. 10,400 yr B.P. (see above), the drainage of these regions was probably com-pleted by Folsom (10,800–10,000 BP) times. From this evidence, therefore, it seemsthat at least one component of the Folsom land-use strategy in southwestern Man-itoba included the utilization of recently-drained proglacial lake surfaces (Boyd,2000b, 2000c).

In the area of the study site, the drainage of glacial Lake Hind was followed bythe formation of a treeless sedge fen and, later, a moss andMenyanthes-Equisetumdominated mud flat. The early colonization of the Hind basin by aquatic and emer-gent plants may have enabled the incorporation of this seemingly marginal post-glacial landscape into a schedule of seasonal gathering during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition. Indeed, in this regard, it is relevant to note that Menyanthes(buckbean) was recorded among other plant remains in the Paleoindian componentat the Shawnee-Minisink site (Pennsylvania) (Dent and Kauffman, 1985). However,because few11 of the wetland species identified in this study are key economic taxain northern hunter-gatherer economies today (Moerman, 1998), a large seasonalround that targeted both upland and basin resources may have been required.

Given indications at several Plano Paleoindian sites of a bison mass-drive andentrapment hunting technique in association with natural barriers (e.g., sand dunes[Frison, 1971], arroyos [Wheat, 1972], ponds [Sellards et al., 1947], and glaciola-custrine sands at the Fletcher site in Alberta [Forbis, 1968; Quigg, 1976; Vickersand Beaudoin, 1989]), recently drained proglacial lake surfaces may have also pro-vided reliable opportunities for the miring of bison in wet clay beds and spillwaychannels. Although a Folsom bison kill site in Manitoba has yet to be found, thisargument is supported in a general way by (1) the location of early fossil bisonremains in the province and (2) the early dominance of sedges in the FSH paleo-ecological record, and the importance of these plants in the diet of northern bisonherds today.

The presence of fossil bison in association with the northern Plains proglaciallake-spillway system is well established (Boyd, 2000b, 2000c). In the Swan Rivervalley of west-central Manitoba, for example, fossil bison remains have been re-covered from an extensive spit complex situated between the Upper and LowerCampbell strandlines of glacial Lake Agassiz (Nielsen et al., 1984). These remainsare, morphologically, rather large and were assigned to either Bison bison occi-dentalis or B. bison antiquus by the original analysts (Nielsen et al., 1984:834).Three radiocarbon dates obtained from these materials range between 10,300 and9400 yr B.P. (Nielsen et al., 1984:832). Other bison remains of the “occidentalis”

11An exception is Typha (cattail), which is highly valued in many North American Indigenous culturesas a source of food, medicine, fiber, and as a ceremonial item (Moerman, 1998: 573–576).



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top of textbase of textphenotype have also been recovered from middle Holocene fluvial contexts in

southern Manitoba (e.g., Dyck et al., 1965; Steinbring, 1970; Nielsen et al., 1996:12–13). These recoveries suggest that the former range of early bison, at least in part,included lake margins, rivers, and other wetland locales. This pattern, furthermore,was probably established by at least Folsom Paleoindian times (Nielsen et al., 1984:838).

In the context of the paleoecological evidence presented above, the early dom-inance of Cyperaceae (sedges) in the study area suggests that shallow wetlands inthe Hind basin that were isolated from the meltwater system would have producedgood bison forage. Indeed, Carex rostrata and C. aquatilis constitute 70–80% ofwinter forage for northern bison herds today (Bernard and Brown, 1977). In con-trast, areas where groundwater was below-surface may have been associated withmore marginal forage (i.e.,Menyanthes-Equisetum). On this basis, we suggest thatisolated wetlands within the Hind basin may have, at least in part, afforded pre-dictable opportunities to ambush bison while they were feeding. The identificationof these locales, therefore, may assist in the discovery of intact Folsom kill sitesin proglacial lake basins on the Canadian Prairies.

Overall plant species diversity in the Hind basin appears to have been lowthroughout the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Indeed, during this ca. 1200� yearinterval at the FSH site, despite a major shift in climate, macrofossil analysis sug-gests that only small successional shifts occurred among aquatic, emergent, andbryophyte taxa, with other types of vegetation being absent at least locally. As well,despite excellent macrofossil preservation, we observe that the average rate oforganic accumulation was rather low throughout this period (�0.2 mm/year),12

suggesting low overall plant biomass/ productivity in the living community. Assum-ing that the FSH site is broadly representative of other locales within the Hindbasin, low plant biomass and diversity during the Pleistocene-Holocene transitionmay have seriously limited the potential carrying capacity of this region. On thisbasis, we hypothesize that the paucity of early Paleoindian materials in south-western Manitoba is largely a reflection of the greater limitations that this environ-ment placed on hunter-gatherer population density, a contrast to more southerlyareas.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the sedimentary and paleoecologic records indicate that low water levelswere established in the southern glacial Lake Hind basin by at least 10,400 yr B.P.This transition to low water levels across the southern Hind basin documents thenorthward regression of glacial Lake Hind to at least its Phase 9 position, and was

12This value is calculated assuming a steady rate of sedimentation, and based on the depth of accu-mulation (22 cm) between the two radiocarbon dates (Beta-116994, TO-7692) obtained for unit A1. Forpurposes of comparison, Kuhry (1997:207) calculates an accumulation rate of 1.80mm/year for a shalloweutrophic pond dominated by emergents, that formed at the Beauval site (Sask.) between �4900 and4300 yr B.P.


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top of textbase of textproduced by the catastrophic routing of meltwater from glacial Lake Regina

through the Hind basin, which deepened and widened the Pembina spillway (Sun,1996; Sun and Teller, 1997).

From before ca. 10,400 to � 9100 yr B.P., three sequential plant assemblages arereconstructed from macrobotanical evidence. These assemblages are interpretedas successional responses tomajor hydrological changes occurringwithin the studyarea. (1) The earliest (�10,400 yr B.P.) assemblage is dominated by Cyperaceaeand aquatics, correlating with above-ground water levels. (2) The second assem-blage is dominated by bryophytes, and marks the transition tomostly below-groundwater levels shortly before 10,400 yr B.P. Between ca. 10,600 and 9800 yr B.P., arelatively stable water table is suggested by the paleoecological data, which, inturn, implies that the large capacity for groundwater recharging in the Hind basinacted as a buffer against climate-induced drawdown during this time. Alternatively,somewhat lower air temperatures may have decreased the rate of evapotranspir-ation at this time. (3) Between 9800 and 9100 yr B.P., however, a shift to a Men-yanthes-Equisetum association is interpreted as evidence of more pronouncedfluctuations in the regional water table. Because this change coincides with thedecline of Picea on the uplands surrounding the Hind basin, it is interpreted as aresponse to the onset of substantial postglacial warming.

Because the regression of glacial Lake Hind to the northern part of the basin wascompleted by at least 10,400 yr B.P., we suggest that the distribution of Folsom(10,800–10,000 yr B.P.) materials in the study area records a practice of seasonalresource extraction on recently drained proglacial lake surfaces. From paleoeco-logical evidence, it appears that these surfaces were quickly colonized by herba-ceous wetland plant taxa. In contrast, uplands surrounding the Hind basin duringthe early Paleoindian period were covered by a spruce–poplar woodland, withjuniper, Artemisia, and grass-dominated clearings. The spatial distribution of earlypostglacial plants in this region was, therefore, very uneven, with upland and low-land regions harboring a different suite of resources. At least in part, the earlydominance of Carex on the margins of isolated wetlands in the Hind basin mayhave attracted bison into these areas, providing opportunities for the miring ofthese animals in wet clay beds. In the Flintstone Hill area of the Hind basin, fur-thermore, plant diversity and biomass were rather low throughout the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. On this basis of (1) uneven spatial distribution of resourcesin the study area and (2) low environmental productivity throughout this period,we hypothesize that this early postglacial environment (and others like it) couldonly have supported very small populations of highly mobile hunter-gatherers. Ac-cordingly, this may account for the relative paucity of early Paleoindian materialsacross southern Manitoba, if not much of the Canadian Prairies, in contrast to moresoutherly areas of the Great Plains.

This paper represents an expansion of some of the ideas and results initially developed in the courseof M.B.’s doctoral research, supported through scholarships from NSERC and the Killam Trusts ofCanada. The preparation of this manuscript and supplemental macrofossil analyses were funded by an



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top of textbase of textNSERC Postdoctoral Fellowship to M.B. This research is part of a larger, multidisciplinary project

funded through an MCRI grant from SSHRC. M.B. also acknowledges L.V. Hills (University of Calgary)for covering the cost of one of the radiocarbon dates (TO-7692) presented in this paper under an NSERCgrant. G.L.R. and K.H. thank the following for assistance in conducting field work in the Glacial LakeHind Basin: D. Wiseman (Brandon University) and his students; University of Wisconsin-Madison Ge-ography graduate students Woody Wallace and Justin Rogers; SCAPE colleagues Bev Nicholson, ScottHamilton, Alwynne Beaudoin, Dave Harkness, and their students for their insights and generosity; Uni-versity of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Department of Geography and Anthropology, and Office of Researchand Sponsored Programs for funding under the Summer Research Experiences for Undergraduates;University Research and Creative Activities, and Undergraduate Conference Travel programs (UWEC);Manitoba Heritage Grants Program; Brandon University Research Council; and all the landowners whoallowed access to their property. Finally, we thank R. Baker, A. Bettis, and G. Fredlund for their insight-ful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Any errors and/or omissions are solely the responsibilityof the authors.

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Received September 20, 2002

Accepted for publication January 18, 2003

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