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THEBOMBAY REVIVALOF

INDIAN ART,A descriptive account of the Indian Room con-structed and decorated by the Staff and Students

of the School of Art.By

W. E. GLADSTONE SOLOMON,Indian Educational Service, Principal, Sir J. J.School of Art, Bombay ; Curator, Art Section Prince

of Wales' Museum, Bombay,with

Notes on Indian Architecture, Pottery, Arts andCrafts, and the Bombay Art Society, by

well known Experts.

Illustrated by Students of the School of A rt. Photographsby Messrs. Chaudhary and Shivshankar .

PUBLISHED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE- GOVERNMENT OF BOMBAY.

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CHAPTER ICHAPTER IICHAPTER III

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER VCHAPTER VI ,CHAPTER VIICHAPTER VIILCHAPTER IXCHAPTER X ,CHAPTER XI ,CHAPTER XII ,

CONTENTS. PAGE. Bombay and the

School of Art i. The Indian Room , ... 10

, , The Indian Room(Statuettes, Furni-ture, Ornamentsand Pottery) . . 22

. . The Indian Room(The Frieze and\Vall Paintings) . . 33

. . Mural Painting (His-torical Sketch) . . 47

. . Mural Painting (TheAjanta Caves) . . 53

. . The Bombay Revivalof Mural Painting. 61

The Bombay Revival. 72The School of Art's

Curriculum . , 83Retrospect .. .. 92Retrospect and Re-

sults , . . . 102Indian Art To-day . . 112

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IV

NOTES.PAGE

L The School of Architecture ofthe Bongibay School of Art . . 125

II. The Pottery Department of theSchool of Art 134

III. Indian Arts and Crafts andthe School of Art . . . . 141

IV. The Bombay Art Society . . 151

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" India and its inhabitants were not tohim, as to most Englishmen, mere names andabstractions,* but a real country and a realpeople. The burning sun, the strange vege-tation of the palm and cocoa tree, the ricefield, the tank, the huge trees, older than theMogul empire, under which the village crowdsassemble, the thatched roofs of the peasant'shut, the rich tracery of the mosque where theImaum prays with his face to Mecca, thedrums, and banners, and gaudy idols, thedevotee swinging in the air, the graceful maiden,with the pitcher on her head, descending thesteps to the riverside, the black faces, the longbeards, the yellow streaks of sect, the turbansand the flowing robes, the spears and the silvermaces, the elephants with their canopies of state,the gorgeous palanquin of the prince and theclose litter of the noble lady, all these thingswere to him as the objects amidst which hisown life had been passed, as the objects which layon the road between Beaconsfield and St.James' Street. All India was present to theeye of his mind, from the halls where suitorslaid gold and perfumes at the feet of sovereigns,to the wild moor where the gipsy camp was pitch-

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VI

ed, from the, bazaar, humming like a bee-hivewith the crowd of buyers and sellers, to thejungle where the lonely courier shakes hisbunch ofiron rings to scare away the hyanas.He had just as lively an idea of the insurrec-tion at Benares, as of Lord George Gordon'sriots, and of the execution of Nuncomar asof the execution of Dr. Dodd. Oppressionin Bengal was to him the same thing asoppression in the streets of London" LordMacaulay's description of Edmund Burke in" Warren Hastings"

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CHAPTER I.BOMBAY AND THE SCHOOL OF ART.TNDIAN Art when seen in its full pers-* pective discloses so vast a panoramathat it is easy to lose one's sense of propor-tion. Like the view from the summit ofthe Jungfrau, misty and uncertain on accountof the great height of the spectator, or likethe first glimpses of Montblanc over theMountain Railway on the approach to Cham-onix, range after range of dim peak and vale,of vaporous torrent, or gliding glacier. Itis better to take one's stand on some lowlygreen Alp and survey the humbler heightsbefore one ; for as the Scientist can recon-struct from a single bone the whole skeletonof the antediluvian monster, we shall gleanfrom a survey of the one promontory aninkling of virgin and inaccessible peaksbeyond.Such a promontory in the fields of artis the School of Art of Bombay, representingas it does in miniature the simulacrum ofgrander forms.

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Art in Europe is often a thing which onecan localise, classify, and define. It cansometimes be enclosed in a catalogue, andappraised on the walls of public galleries.It has its; acknowledged discreet limits,and need not intrude its existence upon thebusy, or polite domains of life, except as adinner companion a sort of "Man fromBlankleys" to help out the conversation.In India Art is a limitless thing. It cannotbe imprisoned within circumscribing walls ;nor left behind us when we reclaim our um-brellas at the exit of the Museum. It isaround us ; it pervades it perfumes the airwe breathe ; it haunts our waking hours ; itspangles with a thousand stars our draband weary dreams. It is an Idea blazonedeverywhere in potent pigments, made mani-fest everywhere through vehicles of flesh andfabric.

This mysterious impression of unfathom-able Beauty emanates like an exhalationfrom Bombay itself in spite of all architec-tural lapses, of commercial adulation, of thesacrifice of Civic glory on the altars of apitiful opportunism. The most fevered effortsof Reinforced Concrete, of gaudy brick, andmortar have not and cannot destroy tfre

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Beauty of Bombay. Seas, and Skies ; Palmsand Mountains, Beaches, Islands, and Lagoonscombining together for one gesture of immut-able defiance have frustrated the Philistines.Like Bhanavar the Beautiful, Bombay pos-sesses the secret talisman for the constantrenewal of her charms, and rallying fromevery fresh degradation can clothe herselfwith a new fairness.

So Bombay remains still a Queen.So the traveller who has known the mostworld reputed cities, must yet feel his heartthrob when for the first time he findshimself on her most famous view point.None of the World's great city views can excelby much that which Bombay has to offer ofherself when seen from the Hanging Gardensnear the Hindu Temple as she lies drowsingin the tranquil light of a late afternoon.

It is but natural that in such a city theSchool of Art like another House of theInterpreter should be a place for " Signsand Wonders"; that among its 400 studentsshould be pilgrims from such divergent anddistant States as Bengal, Burma, the UnitedProvinces, Central India, Indore, the CentralProvinces, the Nizam's Dominions, Madras,Cochin, Travancore, and Kashmir.

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But to understand the " Indian Room Mwhich has been made and decorated by thesestudents for the British Empire Exhibition,some attempt should first be made tounderstand the environment in which thiswork was done ; and to realise the fusion ofaesthetic influences for which the Schoolis a point of focus. The Fort, as theDistrict where the School of Art stands,is called, is but the shell that encloses thefruit, a&d this is so truly Indian thateven the Western buildings in which thedifferent departments of the School arehoused almost seem, to knowledgeable eyes,to have been draped by the hands of theirIndian students with invisible "saris"*. Thestudents do not leave the Bazaar behind themwhen they enter the school's gates. It isdoubtful if many of them are aware of thisdaily transition. In the depths of theirdark eyes are the fires of enlightenment, butit is a Secret of their own Country that theyare engaged in unravelling in the School ofArt. This secret, for which they cheerfullygive up so much (as the World reckons it)cannot in its entirety be transmitted to aWestern ear still less to a Western hand*

* As the robes of the Hindu Women arc called.

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Some Members of the School of Art Staff*n rttt . J MnE. 8. Fern, Superintendent ol Pottery.Front tow ] ^.^ y/DKurandhar, Head Master.

Mr. A. XiTrbdade, Superintendent Re4y Art Worbhops.yead of clfl$g

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What is this hidden lore ? It is partlyshared by all the teeming millions of SouthernIndia ; so that the poorest Indian girl nevererrs when she chooses the colours of her" Choli " or "Sari" ; so that on days of Festi-val the Mahratta maidens go dressed in tintsso mingled and yet harmonised that theirrobes seem plumed from the wings of angels.The students, clothed in their white "Dho-ties", shirts, and little caps, or colouredturbans ; many of them dressed in the plainKaddar that comes from the hand-looms ofthe villages, and wearing sandals that fortu-nately still refuse to give the wall to Civili-sation, appear as the most appropriate figuresthat any School of Art ever had for its deni-zens. A glimpse at these students at workwould be the best antidote for the Westernpessimist about Indian Art. He cannot ashe views this concourse of picturesquepersons, fiery souls, and gifted hands, doubtthe appropriateness of these students totheir high calling, nor question the proba-bility of an elusive Goddess permitting hergraces to be once more recaptured by suchas these. Indian Art is usually spoken of inthe Preterite tense. One does not know whyshe should be regarded as a lady of a certain

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age. To the artists she appears as a damselwho being of the race of the Peris is endowedwith perennial youth.

And in that spirit they have'constructedand decorated their Indian Room. Thework has taken nine months of an effort, towhich all departments of the School sentrecruits ; modellers, painters, designers, pot-ters, silversmiths, enamellers carpet-weavers,shape-makers, iron-workers, carpenters, wood-carvers, decorators, and engravers all havingheard the " still small voice " (to Indianears louder than the trumpet's call) thatsummoned them to make their sacrifice atthe altar of Beauty.

And cheerfully they made it ; respond-ing to an inward urging, which alwaysexacts more obedience from the Indianthan the command of man, or money, theurging to go and create something beautiful.Once they began the work they were absorb-ed in the task, an absorption which couldonly end when the task itself was completed,a spell of thought and industry quite asbinding as the thraldom of Hercules to Om-phale. Just as the Hero went clad in women'sgarments, and gave his Club and lion skin into

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7the keeping of her whose eyes enslavedhis mighty soul, which henceforth lived forthem alone, so the Indian Art student sur-renders himself to the grip of his com-pelling task. Hour after hour he will sitin front of his panel, drawing witha brush scarcely less sure in its pur-pose than that historic pencil whichtraced Giotto's famous O. We watch himstart his work in the morning ; and vaguelyconscious all day of the fact of his presencemeet him in the evening once again. Heis on his way home, and we overtake himon the path to the Gate, reddened by theevening sun as it slants through the luxuriouscocoa palms and banyan trees of the School'scelebrated Compound. With his umbrellain one hand, some small twining flower inthe other, and eyes that still seem to ignorerealities and to be fixed in retrospect uponthose marvellous monkeys, elephants, buffa-loes, or birds that he has been engagedall day in weaving into his delightfuldesigns, he goes on his way humming anIndian air, carrying with him to his scantyboard and simple blanket the burden of thatlofty thraldom which is his joy. And whenhis work is at last completed, and the finished

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8

panel has been fitted* to its place on the wallor ceiling then he is most likely to be foundlurking in unlikely corners or wanderinganxiously in the halls and corridors of theSchool. The strained expression in his eyesis the look of the seeker. The new task mustbe taken in hand before those traces of theanxieties and worries of freedom can bedispelled.The Indian Room, its paintings, andstatuettes is the work of students. It wouldbe wrong to approach it as one might thework of the artist who has his finished storyto unfold.

The Room is the work of young menwho have not as yet learned to measureeither their own limitations or capacities.It is as it were a welter of early potentialities ;it is the citadel of Hope ; not the temple ofVictory. It is full of unfinished hints andthe thin ends of wedges. But the art lovingvisitor will read in this exhibit a messagefrom far off India that could not be conveyedin terms of print ; one that speaks of a land

* The panels in the " Indian Room " had to bepainted in oils on canvas owing to the exigencies of con-struction and the packing and sending to England. Thestudents of the School of Art prefer to paint direct uponthe walls.

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where the Worlds of Reality and of Fancyare still united ; where the oracles are notyet stilled ; and where under the Palms andthe Moon-flowers the Peris and Apsaras stilldance out their immortal dances. A landof warm enthusiasms and warmer hearts ;a land whose young men have given oftheir best to this work as their tribute tothe Idea inherent in the Mighty Empire ofwhich they are such gifted and interestingcitizens.

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II

The mural panels on the wall representefforts of the senior students. They are sevenin all, including a " Ganpati Procession " byMr, A. A. Bhonsale, which has received thespecial gold medal presented by Sir GeorgeLloyd, the late Governor of Bombay and" Piety " by Mr. N. L. Joshi, which wasawarded His Excellency's Silver Medal. Theremaining subjects are Painting, Sculpture,Music, Industry, and Agriculture, On thefloor is a carpet woven by the students ofthe Carpet Weaver's Class with Arabesques ona gold ground which though designed in theclass are of Persian inspiration.The furniture consists of a " Gadi " carv-ed and upholstered in rose-coloured silk andbearing its " Chutra " of the same material ;a " Chaurang " of beaten brass with relieftaken from the paintings in the Ajanta Caves:a carved table, and cabinet ; and two statu-ettes in white marble, and bronze. Thesestatuettes portray the God "Siva", and anideal figure entitled "Harmony", both exe-cuted by the students of the ModellingClass.

The latter class is also responsible forthe Silver Statuette of a Goddess riding upona .tiger, and destroying a demon.

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The Shrine itself is of carved woodwork,and a Canopy of Indo-Sarasenic st}7le isaffixed to the wall. In front of it, on astand, are two silver lamps, a rose-watersprinkler, and attar-dan, and a salver ;articles which are used for worship. Afine brass lamp, by the Iron Worker's Class,hangs just above the doorway between theperforated carved windows.

In his book on Hindu Iconography, Mr.Gopinath Rao tells us that

"the nine planets,Surya, Chandra, Bhauma, Budha, Sukra,

Brihaspati, Sani, Rahu and Ketu are alsoworshipped by the Hindus and their imagesare generally found in all important templesin South India", It was natural thereforethat in their selection of subjects the stu-dents of the School of Art should take thesewell-known Divinities and enthusiasticallyportray them on the ceiling, in traditionalsequence, and with their respective symbolsand " vehicles". The centre panel repre-sents Surya the Sun God standing in hischariot and driven by Aruna the lamecharioteer of the Gods. The pose, the handsraised shoulder high, the ruby earrings, the

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Surya there should stand Ustra, and onthe left Pratyasha, etc., etc."When we reflect that by far the greaternumber of the gods of India are describedwith even greater particularity, we may wellbe astonished at the careless ease with whichthe " illiterate " Indian art students pursuea path that one would think the greatestpundit would find it hard to follow walkingas delicately as did Agag.On the occasion of the visit of H. R. H.The Prince of Wales to India in November1921, the SchooKbf Art was commissionedby the Reception Committee to paint thepylons which decocfited the streets with 170figures of Detijgireach seven feet in height.Then indeed it was a portentous spectacleto see the marshalling of multifariousemblems,tokens, ornaments, " vehicles", and otherinsignia of an interminable line of CelestialIncarnations. Some of these were endowedwith only the usual complement of limbs,while others flourished arms like windmills.There were triple-faced, monkey-faced, vul-ture-faced Deities. * There were some whorode on tigers, on lions, on eagles, on snakes,and some who used the lotus as a springboard for the stars. There were some who

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16THE EIGHT PLANETS.

CHANDRA.The figure on the antelope to the SouthEast of Surya, the Sun God represents

Chandra, or Soma, the Moon. He mustpartake of the nature of both sexes ; andreconciles in his dual entity the \VesternDiana and her Endymion. This God'scomplexion is of silvery whiteness the hueof Wonderment, Awe, and Mystery.His pose has a hint of the effeminacyof Praxiteles' lizard-hunting Apollo. In hisleft hand he rears a banner with the deviceof a rabbit. Instead of a halo his head isrelieved by :" Astarte's dediamonded crescent

Distinct with its duplicate horn."The Gazelle (the Black Buck of the Dec-can), a delicate mount for its dainty rider,breaks the web-like clouds with its feet,giving one glimpses of distant starless pro-fundities.

BHAUMA (MARS)." There is no light in Earth orHeaven.

But the pale light of Stars.

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The first watch of the night is givenTo the Red Planet Mars."In this panel we see the Hindu image

of the " Red Planet " in fiery hues ridingupon his " Vehicle " the goat. One of hisfour hands is drawn in its traditional posewhile another holds a " Sakti " or mace.The two left hands brandish the " gada "(Club) and " Sula " (trident).

BRIHASPATI (JUPITER).Next comes Brihaspati on the Swan.He is represented as yellow in colour, with

corresponding draperies ; and appears torelish his aerial journey .

RAHU (URANUS).Rahu is next in the circle. There are

different ways of presenting the image ofthis planet. Here he is shown carrying inone hand the " pustak " (book) and withthe other waving a fine woollen garment.

SUKRA (VENUS).Very different from Western legend

isthis conception of 'the planet " Venus V.In his left hand Sukra holds the " Nidhi "(a bag full of jewels), and in the other a sacredbook. The glistering silvery tones of this

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i8

Divinity, his charger, and the ornamentsare all essential parts of the ancient conven-tion.

KETU (NEPTUNE).This planet is forcibly represented

by the " gada " bearing figure mounted onthe typical Indian Kite, who appears boutto hurl his weapon into space. He is alwaysshown dadc in colour and is a conspicuousfigure among the nine " Grahas". Behindhim lowers the gathering storm.

BUDHA (MERCURY).Holding the " Khadga " (scimitar), the" Khetaka " (shield) and the " gada " (club),Budha is depicted riding on a fierce lion.

His colour is that of the " Karnikara/' abeautiful flower of the Indian Jungle.* Heis purposely decked with ornaments of aspecial type.

SANAISCHARA (SATURN) .This planet, the last of the circular pro-

cession, is black in colour, diminutive in size,and somewhat deformed. He rides a* The colour of the Planet is stated by some authori-

ties to be yellow; the staff of the School of Art maintain itto be a yellowish green.

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black bullock, and flourishes a " danda "(staff) and

"Kamandalu

"(sacred vessel).

THE CEILING TRIANGLES.The four triangles of the ceiling formed

by the gaps between the circle and its sur-rounding square are the work of the samehand. They represent a style of MuralPainting essentially the same as the IndianMural work of the 5th century, and stillimmensely popular with the general public.

Mr. B. V. Hatulkar the student respon-sible originally designed and painted fourdifferent panels, which were however foundto be useless owing to a defect in the measure-ments. In no wise discouraged, he beganagain and painted the present series ; allfour being executed with great speed and cer-tainty, from his pencil sketches.For this act of sustained energy theyoung artist was awarded a certificate ofHonourable Mention by the Governor ofBombay. The four panels are grotesquerenderings of familiar animals, buffaloes,elephants, dogs, and monkeys. The latterare perhaps the most interesting and whimsi-cal in design. There is humour in the twomonkeys dealing with the piece of water-

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20

melon, and the facility with which studentscan seize upon common facts and convertthese into decorative material, no lessthat their inherent gift for filling wall spacescan be studied in this and its correspondingtriangles.

THE CEILING BORDER.The floral border also conveys a goodidea of the style of Indian Decorative paint-ing, that was already an established tradi-tion of perhaps Vedic* antiquity when theMoghuls brought into India their Persianmethods of painting. The great traditionalstyle of which this border is a modern exam-ple has resisted and survived all the weightof extraneous influences, and is understoodby, and dear to the hearts of Indians.

Although the Ajanta caves furnish theearliest examples of the decorative methodsillustrated by this border, yet the border isquite an original work. It was designed inpencil, then cartooned in charcoal, traced onto the canvas, and painted by the students.It has the boldness, brightness, and delicacywhich are of the cult of Ajanta.

* The Vedas, are the ancient sacred scriptures ofthe Hindu Religion.

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21

The square corners of the ceiling borderthe elephants indicate even better this par-ticular natural gift. The vigorous brush workof the flowers and leaves in these smallsquare panels gives an idea of that deftnessof touch which so often delights us in thecharcoal and chalk cartoons, and in thewater-colour drawings of Indian students,and which is better exemplified in their deco-rations in " guache " than in the heaviermedium of oil.

Part of Triangular Ceiling Pane!.

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23caves where they resf the crimson trident ofSiva.This statuette furnishes an instructivehint of the possibilities for a revival of Indiansculpture on realistic lines. Any such revivalmust be based upon the art of the indi-genous modeller (as he may be termed) ofIndia. There are many of these in Bombay,and South Western India in whom the senseof plastic form has descended from fatherto son, and who spend their lives modellingin clay life-size figures of the Gods, andnational heroes and heroines. They exhi-bit these in the bazaar ; and at periods ofhigh festival scores of men, women andchildren flock to these miniature " MadameTussaud's " to pay the two annas entrancefee which will-entitle them to a wonderingview of Krishna playing his magic flutebefore the enraptured Radha, of Ganpati inhis wrestler's suit, of Sivaji the greatMaharatta hero swearing to devote himselfto his country's cause, or of some nationalceremony, a bethrojthal, or a wedding.These modellers evidently do not work forthe sake of posthumous glory, for they usuallydestroy their models at the close of a seasonand spend several months in executing new

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ones. The modeller is also greatly inrequest on certain festivals as the purveyorof portable images to the public. At Benaresthe writer watched such an artist modellingwith great dexterity innumerable little clayimages of Shiva and Krishna. These wereto be sold at the ensuing festival of Sankrantiafter which they would be unobtainable untilthe next annual occasion came round. Itis a frequent sight in the Deccan (or South)to see such clay models laid out by thewayside to dry in the sun. Unfortunatelythey are easily broken. The Indian Artist isusually a spendthrift of his genius. He isnot a business man, and generally makes abad contract with Fate^ One of the mostbeautiful and suggestive sights that Bombayhas to show is that of the Pathare Prabhuwomen making their delightfulbut evanescentsand pictures in brilliant colours on "thefloors of their houses on the occasion ofthe festival that is known as Diwali Holidays.The silver statuette shows the GoddessMahishasur Mardini the Demon-killerslay-ing a terrible " Asura," " who having per-formed penartce and obtained blessings fromBrahma (the Creator of the Universe) grewso mighty that he conquered the three worlds

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Brass Lamp (Feay Art Workshops).

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Silver Articles (Reay Art Workshops).

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25and dethroned Indra and the other Gods.The Gods in their distress appealed to Shiva,who, pitying them, desired Parvati, (his wife)to go and destroy the giant. She acceptedthe commission willingly. When the battlebegan, the Goddess assumed a thousand armsand produced a number of weapons from herbody. The Demon took the shape of anelephant as large as a mountain and approach-ed the Goddess ; but she tied his legs andwith her nails tore him to pieces. He roseagain in the form of a buffalo and with hishorns cast stones, trees, and mountains athis adversary ; " tearing up trees by thebreath of his nostrils." After a terriblecombat full of Protean changes she plungedher spear into the breast of the Fiend whoperished miserably, much to the great joy ofall the Gods.

THE CARPET*The carpet was also made in the ReayArt Workshops at the School of Art, whose

staff and students besides being responsiblefor the Silversmith's part in the statuette of"' Mahishasura Mardini " executed all thefurniture, carvings, and ornaments and con-structed the walls and ceiling of the room*

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26

The carpet was woven in the Carpet-weavers'Class, one of the classes which always seemsto arrest the attention of visitors to theApplied Arts Section of the School. Theoperation of weaving is certainly an enter-taining one. Behind the loom on which thenumerous colours are slowly taking shape anddesign, squat a row of very small boys withvery bright faces and sparkling eyes. Themaster crouches on the ground in front ofthe loom poring over the squared cartoonof the carpet design which is spread beforehim, shouting aloud the colours and numbersof the threads which must be counted by thelittle gnomes, invisible of course to him. Allhe can see of his assistants is the puncturingof deft little fingers between the threadsof his loom, (which his trained eye watchesclosely,) fingers that work with amazingrapidity, selecting and twisting the vegetable-dyed threads into their proper places, whilea chorus of little voices echo the master'sinstructions. This carpet is Persian in designand woven with 200 stitches to the squareinch. Carpet weaving in Bombay is unfortu-nately one of those beautiful Indian craftsthat has fallen into the sere and yellow leaf.The class at the School of Art is the only one

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27where it is still taught. Most of the carpetsfrom Southern and South Western India aremade in the jails. The present foreman inthe Vellore Jail (Madras Presidency) is anold student of this class.

THE DIVAN OR GADI.The wood carvers' class is responsible

for the carving that enriches the furnitureand windows. A conspicuous example ofthe work of this class is the "Gadi" or seat ofhonour, which the Rajha or the Head of theHousehold might use. The back of thisseat, carved in Hindu style, is one of the bestpieces of carving in the room. This throneis covered with rose-coloured silk, over whichis the canopy or umbrella ( "the Chutri "),which forms so customary a feature in theold paintings we see of the Mughal and Rajputschools.

THE WRITING TABLE.The carving of the writing table is in

the Gujerat style. The joinery is skilfuland the dome flanked by " Butcha " (liter-ally " Baby ") domes, is a well known pattern,which the students thoroughly understandand delight in.

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28THE SIDE-BOARD.

The stand which is usually utilised tohold vases, salvers, and the usual ornamentsof an Indian home, is also carved withGujerat designs of & very simple type care-fully executed.

CHAURANG.The foot-stool like object, with the top

of beaten brass, is in reality a low table andis used for articles of " Puja " (worship).The brass work has been designed fromdetails among the Ajanta frescoes, whoseelephants and birds have been transposedfrom ceilings, and from panels and adaptedby the designers to their new setting, and newmedium of metal instead of paint. Thelotus, birds, and animals have been executedby the metal workers with the same lovingskill with which the old-time BuddhistPainters were so abundantly gifted.THE HEXAGONAL " TEAPOY " (TABLE).The little table of a design almost as

familiar in England as in India is carved inbetter style than the numerous exampleswhich are offered for sale in the bazaar of

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Tbe "Gadi.* 1

Carved Table.

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I

s

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Bombay ; and nowadays it would not be easyto purchase one as well finished.PEDESTALS.

One of the carved pedestals which sportsfour Indian parrots shows considerable varietyof carved decoration. The joinery alsoacclaims the diligence of the workers. Theother stand is of simpler design.

HANGING CABINET OR SHRINE.In this attractive piece so typical an

adjunct to an Indian Room we are remindedof Bijapur, that marvellous medley of domes,and minarets, of ruined shrines of saintsand of kings' sepulchres. The proportionsof this piece are interesting and suited toits main purpose which is to be the receptacleof the Deity before whom the family willduly perform their " Puja."

WINDOW AND PANEL FRAMES.Other interesting examples of carving are

to be seen in the perforated windows, withtheir interlaced foliage in the style ofAhmedabad, which are worth study ; andalso in the crisply carved frames that enclosethe wall panels, each one of which has adifferent design-*-Gujerati and Mahomedan.

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30THE HANGING LAMP.

The beautiful brass lamp suspended out-side the entrance is the result of six months'painstaking work by the Iron and BrassWorkers. The separate pieces are closelyfinished and fitted.

SILVER ARTICLES, THE SALVER, SPRINK-LER, ATTARDAN, ETC.The large salver is a recent specimen ofmodern Indian silver work. How largely

India is still indebted to her antiquities forinspiration is an arguable question, but thatAjanta is again the fountain from whichthe designs on the tray have had their sourceis very clear. The salver is an importantitem in the ritual of worship because theAttardan, Gulabdan, Chawfulla and otherarticles used for " Puja " are placed uponit. The Rose-water Sprinkler (Gulabdan) isalso a piece that can claim many kindredin Indian collections. The design in thisexhibit is also based on Ajanta. TheGulabdan plays an important part in theWedding Ceremony, Thread Ceremony, andother national festivals. It is a symbolof affection in a gathering. The Attardan (afascinating receptacle for holding Attar of

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31Roses applied to the wrist by the daintydipper) is among the prettiest and mostOriental of trinkets. Sometimes the perfumeit contains is sprinkled on cotton dips whichare then placed in the outer part of the ear.The silver box (Chawfulla) with its fivemango-shaped compartments (a very antiquepattern) is used in religious ceremonies. Itcontains powder pigments in which the fingeris dipped preparatory to tracing the sacredcharacters upon the forehead. The colourswhich the separate cavities contain aresaffron, cunku, gulal, abeer, and shendur.The five compartments cannot be opened untilthe central screw is turned.

" SUMAI," TABLE LAMPS.The two silver lamps of Cutch design

have pedestals shaped like Indian corn-cobswith enveloping leaves ; with their sevenwicks fed by the clear oil of the cocoanut.Lighted, these lamps are much in evidenceat worship and Darbar meetings.

ENAMELS.The little enamel trays, very daintily

designed and finished, are destined to holdfragrant spices ; or the delicate varied sweet-

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32meats which the Indian ladies have not yetlost the art of preparing with their ownwonderfully skilful hands.

POTTERY.The Indian side-board contains some

specimens of vases produced by the PotteryDepartment in the School of Art. Theyare Persian in shape, but in decorationsadhere to the Sind style itself an adaptationfrom the Persian. These pieces are com-posed of practically the same ingredients asordinary English Earthenware ; but Indianmaterial only has been utilised. Part of thematerial used in the glaze is of foreign manufac-ture, such as White Lead, Red Lead, and afew other chemical products. The Schoolof Art Potteries use all the processes for theproduction of glazed Earthenware that arein use in England, though more hand labouris perforce employed.

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* Bhauma " (Mars)

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CHAPTER IV.THE INDIAN ROOM.

THE FRIEZE AND WALL PAINTINGS.Frieze nineteen inches wide is a

variation in the Ajanta style (as thisindigenous art may be termed) of the methodsused in the ceiling border. The Gods whosepictures form the centre of each of thefour sections, are Ganesha with the Ele-phant's head and having his constant com-panion the rat at his feet ; Brahma, withthe three faces (his fourth is not visible) ;Shiva (the Destroyer) with the crescent moonin his hair, seated on his tiger skin, andVishnu (the Preserver) with the disc.

GANESHA.Better known in Bombay as " Ganpati "*

is immensely popular in South WesternIndia. He is the Gpd of Wisdom and GoodFortune and is always invoked at the begin-ning of any important undertaking. Thestory of how Ganpati came by the elephant's

* Pronounced " Gunputty."

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34head is variously told, but the one most oftennarrated is the following : Ganpati was theson of Shivaand Parvati. One day when hisMother was bathing, she stationed her son toguard the door and the privacy of her apart-ment. But Shiva desiring to enter, and beingrefused admittance, cut off the head of hisson. Parvati's grief however moved himto regret his hasty action and he called forthe first head that could be found. This,which happened to be that of an elephant,he placed upon the body, which he thenrestored to life. In Bombay

"Ganpati

" isusually delineated or modelled with a headthat has certain human resemblances, suchas the flesh colour of the face, or the hair, oreyes. But in other parts of India he is usual-ly shown with the true elephant's head.

BRAHMA.Who occupies the centre of another

section of the Frieze, is the Father of theGods, the most exalted figure in the HinduPantheon. He is said to have created his fourfaces in order tobe able to gaze upon his brideSatarapa when she sought this way and thatto glide out of the way of his ardent glances.He is here painted with the conventional

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35

emblems, and in his usual pose seated onthe lotus (Kamala).

SHIVA.Whose image also adorns the frieze is

the Destroying Deity. He is "representedin human form, living in the Himalayasalong with Parvati, sometimes in the act oftrampling or destroying demons, wearingaround his black neck a serpent, and a neck-lace of skulls, and furnished with a wholeapparatus of 'external emblems, such as awhite bull on which he rides, a trident, tiger'sskin, elephant's skin, rattle, noose, etc. Hehas three eyes, one being in his forehead, inallusion either to the three Vedas (SacredBooks) or time past, present and future. Hehas a crescent on his forehead, the moonhaving been given to him as his share of theproducts of the churning of the ocean."In this picture the River Ganges is depictedas taking its rise from among his hair. This,perhaps the most famous river in the world,of inestimable sanctity to the Hindus, wasbrought down from Heaven to Earth by KingBhagiratha owing tp the austerity of hispenances. The occurrence was in this wise.What men term the Milky Way in the

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36Heavens is said to be the celestial Ganges,which sprang from the feet of the Great GodVishnu. When for several years there wasno rain upon the Earth, the Holy KingBhagiratha besought Vishnu to send himthe water he required wherewith to performthe needful ceremonies in honour of fifty ofhis deceased ancestors. Vishnu thereupontold Ganga the River Goddess, that she mustgo upon Earth and relieve with her flood theKing's distress. She flew into a great rage,refused to comply, and wheri compelled todo so in spite of her tears and entreaties,hit upon an objection which she thoughtsufficient. Who, she asked, would receiveheroverwhelming flood which would infalliblydeluge the whole Earth ? Vishnu in thisdilemma asked Bhagiratha to approach Shivaand requesthim to be the inductor of Ganga toEarth, and he promised to receive her inhis hair. Enraged with fury at his audacityGanga decided to hurl herself upon Shiva anddestroy him. But he stood upon the Hima-layas and spreading out every individual hair,he caught and held the furious torrent as itcame down. Not a drop escaped from thehair of the God ; so that King Bhagirathastill distressed, appealed to Shiva, telling him

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37that though Ganga had come to Earth sheremained enclosed in his hair. Then partinghis hairs the God permitted the waters topour forth in three mighty rivers, which arethe Ganges, Indus, and Jumna. The threetogether are termed " Trijrathaga " whichsignifies " going in three directions."

VISHNU.The last of the three great Gods represent-

ed on the Frieze (in whose august companyGanpati has been placed by the students ofthe School of Art for the sake of his auspiciousinfluence) is Vishnu the Preserver as Shiva isthe Destroyer. The Mahabarata (the greatestof Indian epics) tells us : " On a seat glori-ous as the meridian sun, sitting on whitelotuses is Vishnu, and on his right hand isLakshmi (his Consort) who shines like acontinued blaze of lightning and, fromwhose body the fragrance of the lotusextends 800 miles."

THE W^LL PANELS.A first glance at the seven panels upon the

walls in their frames of carved teak can hardlyfail to suggest a certain incongruity, and oneis conscious of the fact that all the panels

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38are different in feeling, and that only one ortwo of them correspond with the generalstyle of the frieze and the spirit of the decora-tions. The ceiling, though the differencesare not quite so marked, might also be expos-ed to criticism if harmony of style were theprime object aimed at by the School of Art.But the Indian Room is designed quite asmuch with a view of showing the versatilityof young Indian artists as with the objectof displaying distinctive characteristics ofIndian decorative art.

The students were therefore left free toshow their individual notions and methodsof filling the wall spaces allotted to them.Their differences in manner and method arewide, and open up an absorbing field ofpromise and speculation. " Music " onthe one hand, and " Piety " on the other,mark striking antithises of style. Theformer clearly adheres to the "Ajanta"tradition, and bears the Hall Mark of thetype of Art that would universally be recog-nised as " Indian." Yet both are by Brahminstudents, and both these students are intenselyIndian in their convictions. Of the twoMr, L. N. Joshi, the painter of " Piety, " isperhaps the more National in his artistic

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39point of view, though his panel suggests so-called

" Western " influences to the observer.But it is as essentially Indian as the friezeor the ceiling border. Its subject is Indian ;it is painted by an Indian ; and because theyoung artist has followed nature and shownan appreciation of tone values, and subtlegradations of colour, besides the forms ofnature, it is none the less a natural art pro-duct of the country whose artistic expressionfar from being as stereotyped as is often sup-posed has varieties as numerous as her races,costumes, and creeds. The art of India mustnot and cannot be limited to-day to any onestyle, or mannerism.

GANPATI PROCESSION, BOMBAY.The long-shaped central panel (6 ft. by

3 ft.) on the wall is the work of Mr. A. A.Bhonsale, a Hindu of the Saraswat caste*For this work the young artist was in Decem-ber 1923 awarded a special Gold Medal, thegift of His Excellency Sir George Lloyd, thelate Governor of Bopibay. Its subject is avery familiar one to dwellers in the " SecondCity of the Empire/'

The 4th day of the Hindu monthBhadrapada is the festival of Ganpati, and

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4ocontinues to be observed for five or ten days,while images of the God are carried forth fromthe houses by the people in processions andimmersed in sea, or river, or well They arethen brought back to their places among thehousehold Gods. While on the way to theplace of immersion the crowds chant sacredhymns in praise of the Giver of Good Fortune.This famous holiday is always a great occasionof rejoicing for Hindus, especially in theMaharatta country. Bombay is thenthronged with vast crowds moving by variousroutes to the wide semicircle of sand at thefoot of Malabar Hill that is called"Chowpati." The sands themselves areablaze with the " saris '^of the women whoaccompany the men, and sing hymns teforethe images. The thrumming of the tom-toms and the rhythmic music of stringedinstruments falls intermittently upon the^ar, and the whole city is given over to theworship of the genial God of Intelligence.Before returning from the sea the devoteestake the sand from the locality wherethey have dipped the images to spread intheir houses as a charm against evil influences.

In Mr. Bhonsale's panel we have adecorative but highly characteristic render-

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41

ing of this festival. The charming littlemaiden in the foreground carrying theincense sticks, the man pouring oil upon historch, the painted image of Ganpati, the manblowing the conch, etc., are all truly rendered,and show the student's powers of observa-tion and of poetising in paint.

" PIETY/'Close to the Ganpati Procession, to

the left of the spectator is Mr. N. L. Joshi's" Piety " which measures four feet five anda half inches by two feet three inches,as do all the six upright panels. This paint-ing gained the Special Silver Medal for theMural Paintings presented by Sir GeorgeLloyd on December ist, 1923. It gives atruthful and sympathetic rendering of thatwell known type of the Bombay Bazaar, theMahomedan Fakir. He stands wrapt incontemplation with henna-stained beard (themark of the Hajji or pilgrim from Mecca)and with strings of beads and prayer casesencircling his neck., Over his arm is slungthe box with which he solicits alms from thecharitably-inclined, and he leans upon abundle of staves of different shapes and sizes.At his feet, (and the swollen ankles are faith-

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42

fully rendered), in its little reading-stand ishis copy of the Holy Koran. There is afelicitous simplicity and withal a dignifiednote of reverence about this subject whichare distinguishing marks of the work of thisyoung Gujerati Brahmin.

"INDUSTRY."To the spectator's right on the same wall

is the Panel entitled " Industry " by Mr. A.Kamadolli, a Mahomedan student fromHubli in the Dharwar District. The stalwartfigure of the cotton spinner was also studiedfrom the life, and will convey some idea ofthe excellent physique of the Maharatta work-man. He is a scion of, the great fightingstock that successfully resisted the grandMogul and his hosts, and did such yeomanservice in the great war. The "Charka"or spinning wheel shown in this picture isstill widely used in humble homes in manyparts of South Western India.

" PAINTING."Next comes " Painting," a picture of

a young Maharatta lady illuminating withher brush a metal plate by Mr. B. A. Apte,a Brahmin. She wears the " sari " the most

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43

typical garment of all India. It is a robe ofvery ancient type which is wrapped roundthe body and firmly adjusted without thehelp of any pin or other fastening. A sarimeasures nine yards in length, and if trailingfolds are desired, as much as ten yards.The colours and embroidered borders of thesegarments are of great variety and beauty,and the splendid bearing of most of thehumblest wearers, as with pitcher or basketon head they thread the crowded streets, isone of the first and most lasting impressionsof India that the stranger experiences afterlanding in Bombay.The vest or " choli " which this girl iswearing may also be of the most variouscolours. The young artist's rendering maynot be perfect, but the " choli " is in realitychosen with an unerring colour-sense whichwonderful phenomenon even the poorestcooly woman of India possesses!

" SCULPTURE/'A completely different method 01 paintingmarks the panel entitled " Sculpture." But

the style of which this panel is an example,more than two thousand years of age, is stillthe one which seems to be most popular among

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44Indian Mural Painters. This however doesnot mean that figures are always to be seenon the walls of Indian houses. Unfortu-nately the decline of Patronage for indigenousart has led to the disappearance of the Perisand Apsaras whose images still brighten theage-old walls of the Ajanta caves. But theflat and ornamental convention of which thissubject furnishes an example, is still frequent-ly found in many modern Indian houses inHyderabad, Mysore, and South WesternIndia. Figures such as these are simply arevival which comes naturally enough tothose who are accustomed to look at MuralDecoration from this especial Indian stand-point. Mr. A. Sami Khan, the painter of thiswork, is also the chief Illustrator of thisvolume.

" AGRICULTURE/'The vivid panel representing ''Agri-

culture " is a bit of bravura in which itspainter Mr. S. Fernandes (an Indian Christianfrom Malvan in the Ratnagiri District),has treated the subject with a free symbolismthat revels in colour, and wealth of ornament,and disregards restrictions as to costume,period or style. It is painted from the life,

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45and while the head-dress and coiffure of thegirl at least are from Kashmir, the magnificentdrapery is a " Rupeta " from the Bazaars ofBenares.

" Music."Most Indian of all these Indian single-

figure panels in the sense that it adheres mostclosely to traditional methods, " Music "by Mr. G. H. Nagarkar possesses manypoints of interest. The young artist (aBrahmin from Central Provinces) is alsoresponsible for the centre panel of the SunGod on the ceiling. The influence of theAjanta Caves is strongly marked in thispainting ; not that it is not therefore original,but because this student sees things in thesame way that the Ajanta painters saw them.The flowing outline, the single stroke of theeye-brows and eye-lids, the craftsmanshipdisplayed in the treatment of the girl'sornaments, and the sittar which she is play-ing ; the peculiarly characteristic fingers withtheir aspiring tips, 'together with the flatconvention with which the subject is treated,are all intensely Indian in feeling. Had allthe panels been painted in this style, theywould have been more in keeping with their

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46

surroundings. That course, however, wouldhave meant to sacrifice, for the sake of theeffect of the whole, the opportunity of show-ing the Public the different methods of paint-ing of different students, all original, and allin the widest and tiniest sense Indian.

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CHAPTER V.MURAL PAINTING.

(Historical Sketch.)

painting must ever be a subjectof absorbing interest to artists and

art lovers going as it does to the root of thematter. From the grey and misty era longbefore History itself began, when Paleoli-thic man lined his first sketch of ox or deeron the rocky walls of his Pyrenean cave forthe admiration of his savage spouse, the wallshave ever furnished a medium of expressionand as it were a touchstone of the progress ofcivilisation, and of the upward trend of man'smind.The birth of art itself its babyhood, itsadolescence, its prime, its decrepitude, andits decay may all be traced on the walls ofthe world's buildings no matter whetherthese walls are monolithic or architechtonic inconstruction.

The rise of the graphic arts had itsorigin in the decoration of wall-spaces, andPainting has until very modern times citing

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48to the skirts of Architecture. It was a badday for Painting and for Architecture whenthe two parted company, it was an unnaturaldisunion of twin souls ; and the restorationof art in its all pristine glory must awaitthe renewal of that close alliance as it existedin the good old days.

All lovers 'of India will be keenly anddeeply solicitous to see revived in that countrythis entente between painter and architect,this union, which is essential if India is tobecome fully articulate and to impart themessage which is hers alone, to the world.Discoveries in recent times have estab-lished the extreme antiquity of mural paint-ingthis Parent of the Fine Arts; anantiquity so vast that it justifies us in theassumption that art is almost as old as manhimself. Before our primitive Fathers haddiscovered the use of fire, clothing, orimplements, they had formed a desire andfound a means to depict on the walls, notrough, but beautifully drawn images of thebeasts of the chase, as can be seen in manya cavern in France to-day. And far later,but still long before the dawn, in darkestEthiopia glimmered the coloured frieze, theilluminated wall, the variegated column.

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49And so Art was carried into Egypt, and inthe very first flush of the sunrise of Historywe perceive mural painting as an art oflong established popularity and of immenselyancient tradition.

But from the influence of Egyptian art'srigid fetters the spirit of Mural Painting atlast made her escape, to fly lightly acrossblue Ionian seas, and to be welcomed by apeople in whose warm-hearted worship ofbeauty its North-African rigidity and cold-ness melted into supple charm. It was inthe Halls of Delphi, and in the colonnadesof Athens that Mural Painting was firstacclaimed the Queen of the Arts. The swaythis art wielded over the Athenians, is toooften forgotten by us to-day. The reasonis not very far to seek, because of all the well-attested triumphs of Mural Painting of ancientGreece no trace that is worthy remains,so that it is only by refreshing our memorieswith the descriptions of contemporary au-thors that we realise the vast importanceaccorded by the Greeks to the art of paintingupon the walls.

That must, in truth, have been a Gol-den Age of painting. " If anything werewanting/' writes an eminent authority, " to

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50convince us of the high estimation paintingwas held in by the Greeks, two facts alone,namely, that Plato studied it, and Socrateswas a sculptor by profession are enough/'Another historian writes, " What must havebeen the effect on the rising youth of Greecewhen the Amphictyonic Council decreed thatPolygnotus, their greatest monumental paint-er, should be maintained at the publicexpense wherever he went, as a mark ofNational admiration for his great work, theMural Paintings in the Hall at Delphi."

Again we read that"Zeuxis

"(the pain-

ter) " became very rich, grew very haughtyand always appeared at the Olympic gamesin a purple robe with his name on the border."Apelles who came next in this great trioreceived if possible even more public praiseand patronage than his predecessors. Thegreatest works of all these great artists wereexecuted upon the walls.But with the conquest of Greece by theRomans, Mural Painting slipped steadilydownwards from its high place till under theEmperor Justinian, the art that had delightedthe accomplished Athenians was finallybanished from the walls and vaultings asvulgar !

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51Mosaic with its dazzling pretensions had

ousted the purer art. It was not until theItalian Renaissance that the buildings ofEurope once more received at the hands ofgreat artists the accolade of colour.But if that dainty spirit whose perigrin-ations we are attempting to trace, was well-nigh banished from Europe throughout theperiod of the Dark Ages, she had found aplace of refuge.

In the seventh century Huen Tsang, aChinese pilgrim, home-returned from his wan-derings among the Buddhist shrines of India,told his marvelling hearers of " a great moun-tain with towering crags and a continualstretch of piled up rocks and scarped preci-pice/' He told them of a wondrous monas-tery carved out of that dark valley ; of its" lofty halls and side-aisls," deep-hewn inthe solid rock, and how on these walls werepainted in glowing tints living pictures illus-trating the life of the Master.Here then was the " Desired Haven " !Here the

spiritoutcast from the flauntingpalaces of the Caesars, condemned to impri-sonment in crypt, and catacomb ; scarcely

tolerated at the Court of Charlemagne, andderided by the barbarian hosts that invaded

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52

Europe, here had she found a restingplace.

It was in the caves of Ajanta, to themusic of foaming cataract, and to the chantof Buddhist hymn that Mural Painting roseagain as from the dead ; and while Attila,the scourge of God, was sweeping the veryname of beauty and art from the face of theWestern World, lo ! the Buddhist monks deep-buried in their mountain fastness paintingand painting, until they had indeed madethe Desert to " rejoice and blossom likethe Rose/' The \Vestern traveller who ap-proaches the Cave-Temples of Ajanta shoulddo so with. feelings of reverence akin to thesewith which he treads the Sacred Way atDelphi, or climbs the Acropolis at Athens.He cannot but feel that he is approach-ing one of the great landmarks of the world;one of those ancient external monumentsthat towering upward, overtop all theirsurroundings, like the tall rock fronting forall time the useless fury of stormy seas.

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CHAPTER VI.MURAL PAINTING.(THE AJANTA CAVES).

Mural decorations of Ajanta* arepervadedby a spirit of sweet reasonable-

ness. They are touched by no suspicion ofaffectation or doubt ; by no shadow of pre-tence. They do not strut and masquerade.They are not jackdaws tricked out as peacocks.Even such work as that of the great Pintur-richio seems far removed in its conscious andalmost arrogant swagger from these genuineand lovely colour dreams of lovely and genuinesouls. No doubt these old Buddhist artistshad one great advantage of the modern, inthat they had not eaten to avidly of the fataltree of knowledge. Hence th grateful impres-sion of an all-pervading refreshing easewhich the paintings at Ajanta as a wholemake upon the spectator, and which is

* This and the preceding chapter are reprinted froma lecture delivered by the Author before the ArchitecturalStudents' Association on July 7th 1921, published in theBombay Chronicle's issue of the I2th July 1921.

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54genetically different to the oppressive effectwhich is so often produced by a view of eventhe best works of Art.

To enjoy a similar spell we should haveto get right back into Pagan Greece. Cer-tainly there is nothing in all the lofty perfec-tion of Mural Painting in Christian Italyquite so natural in feeling so reckless andat the same time so wise. We will, however,leave the consideration of the comparativeplace in the world's art which should beassigned to Ajanta (one of the most fascinatingof subjects) and endeavour to arrive at anestimate of some of the qualities which makethese Mural Paintings so valuable and ins-tructive.

One should avoid any tendency to regardthe Ajanta paintings as in the nature of atour-de-force, an isolated miracle of art,brought into being by mysterious forces intowhich it would be almost sacrilege to inquiretoo closely. Many admirers of these workshave laid stress on their subjective qualitiesof character and what is called their spiritua-lity. In a sense these works were, of course,inspired as are all works of human genius.But to imagine that these works wereproduced simply as the result of a lofty

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55

spirit of religious self-dedication and enthu-siasm would be a far too limited and onesided explanation of their beauty. Reli-gious enthusiasm no doubt did . much tosweeten the toil and labour of their workfor the workers, but alone it would not havesufficed. No one knows better than the decor-ative artist that Mural Painting cannotdepend upon enthusiasm entirely for itssuccess though it must have that strongderivative force.

There are no lucky flukes in MuralPainting. The art is too circumscribed anddifficult in its technique too purely intellec-tual. But if there is one emotional qualitythat prevails more than another in the Ajantapanels, it is to be discovered in their remark-able and abounding " joie de vivre"; thereligious element is frequently conspicuous byits absence; and no where very obtrusive exceptin the sublime figure of the " Bodhisatva "*in Cave i, who by the way is surrounded bysome of the most charming but certainlymost mundane of the lovely cave creatures.Another still more important fact toshow that the paintings were the result ofprofound technical knowledge, gradually

c That is, Buddha before his Great Renunciation.

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acquired, is that in the Ajanta Caves wepossess only one surviving example of an artthat was in its day widely diffused through-out Ind^a.

The country was filled with similarindigenous Mural Paintings the sum of whosebeauty may well have more than equalledAjanta as we see it.The monks painted these pictures intempera, and it says much for that ancientmedium that some of the earliest paintingsstill extant by no means the least beautifuleither were executed 2,000 years ago. Thisis a point worth noting in view of the doubtsometimes expressed that Mural Paintingwhether in fresco, oil, or tempera, will notstand the Indian climate. "The freshness ofthe colouring in some of the caves is trulymarvellous, and where they have darkenedit is either on account of the preservativecoat of varnish applied in recent times, orbecause of pilgrim's fires and the rough hand-ling they have undergone at one time andanother.

The monks used a very restricted palette;a beautiful jade green, and occasional citronare perhaps the most vivid notes that prevail;the basis of the whole colour-scheme being

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57a warm earth tint. This reticence of tintsnot of colour so far from being a limitation,enormously increases the general unity ofeffect which successive artists managed toretain through all the variations of styleduring the lapse of centuries. It also tendsto a broad simplicity in spite of the extremelyelaborate composition of some of the panels.But if the critic finds in this restrictedrange of colour merely an evidence of thepaucity of pigments then existing a theorywhich cannot wholly cover the facts hecannot so explain away the amazing selectiveskill with which the Ajanta masters forall their limitations of knowledge of tonevalues graduated the tones of their colours.

They understood the perils of monotony,and instead of relying upon a wide varietyof colours were able to achieve by means ofstrong contrast and skilful variations of toneall the titillation required.Yet their scale of values also was closelyand sternly limited. The sparkling high lightsso dearly loved bysome modern Mural Paintersamount to what old Vasari might have termed" a capital heresy in the art ". At Ajantaan art broad as the Indian Ocean, luminous asthe Indian Night, subdued to an almost astetic

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point of renunciation of tricks of the trade,looms darkling upon our reverent gaze.There is much at Ajanta that is naturallyless worthy ; and in the caves of later daysthere are figures as still and iron-wroughtas if they were from the stilted brush ofMargaritone. But the designs in the Firstand Second Caves are most noble. Fullydid our Masters understand that thesilhouette is and must ever be the basis ofMural Painting. How well they avoidedgeometrical symmetry in planning the pointsof their composition ; how carefully theyvaried the distances and heights of the headsof their figures ; how fully they realised andeschewed the damaging weakness that everlurks in the concave Ime. Their drawingis expressive, virile, telling ; their Arabesquesfull of life. Each individual figure or piece ofdrapery is made to yield the utmost in lineand expression, that can be got out of it.Never do these old Buddhist Artists becomebanal never do they call in the art of theeasel painter to lend them meriticious aid ;what cannot be well expressed in line orsilhouette should not be attempted by theMural Paiinter, and well does the Ajantatradition maintain this golden rule.

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59But the Masters did not limit themselves

in regard to form any more than the restric-tions of a just regard for the exigencies ofspace, and the control of colour, and lightand shade demanded. On the contrary theyrevelled in humanity the humanity of theworld about them. Their delight in thedecorating of naked limbs with ornamentsis the naive and innocent delight of thechild,* and the beauty of mortal Womanpermeates their compositions, as the perfumeof the moon-flower fills the Indian gardens inApril.

They worked from the living modelfreely, constantly and with a keen apprecia-tion of movement and gesture ; and theycertainly painted from cartoons and sketches.Their use of outline differs much in its tre^t-ment, it being sometimes eliminated altoge-ther as in the four-figure panel of a lady ather toilet, where the edges of the figures arewonderfully treated, the general effect beingso broad in feeling as to remind us forciblyof the later work of, Giovanni Bellini.But as a rule they relied upon a definiteoutline, and a very pure and beautiful line it is.

* No more perfect or imaginative use of ornamentexists.

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6oWe may be sure that many of the heads areportraits ; there are many very characteristicones which are perfect. And throughoutevery phase of these decorations pulses athrobbing, vigorous, energetic life, that wasnever yet attained by visionaries, but onlyby energetic craftsmen with highly developedpowers of mind, of observation and of techni-que. The Painters of Ajanta were far frombeing mere visionaries. They were a bandof tremendously practical hard-workers.This is a point that cannot be too stronglyinsisted upon to-day when there still exists atendency to approach Indian Art from themystical or antiquarian rather than from thegenuinely artistic point,of view.*

See the Paintings of the Buddhist Cave Templesof Ajanta, by J. Griffith. Published by the orders ofthe Secretary of State for India in Council 1896. (Out ofPrint.)Ajanta Frescoes by Lady Heringham and her assistantHumphrey Milford : Oxford University Press, London,

1915. The Rock-cut Temples of India, by J. Fergusson,London : John Weale, 59, High Holborn.

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CHAPTER VILTHE BOMBAY REVIVAL OF MURAL

PAINTING.

WHAT is the lapse of a few centuries inthe lifetime of a nation that has toits credit thousands of years of artistic effort ?Since the old Buddhist artists vanished fromthe land, probably no paintings quite soentrancingly beautiful as theirs have adornedthe walls of Indian buildings. But the artof Mural Painting continued under the Mu-ghal and Rajput princes; and that walldecorators laboured throughout this period isindicated by still surviving works. Up to thepresent time the art of wall painting has beenpractised in one form or another, and aglimpse at the bazaars of any South IndianCity is enough to prove that the Indian artist

though, alas, no longer the proteg6ofEmperors or Kings ! still revels in this greattraditional form oi artistic expression. Itis true that the ferocious tigers, the battlingelephants, the many-handed Gods, the fright-ful looking demons which startle one by their

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62sudden appearance on wayside shrines orwhitewashed chawls, impress us often as thescribblings of amateurs rather than as theworks of serious artists. Still they are there,and that they are there, is significant ofthe universal craving for art expression whichhas an unique character in India and whichundoubtedly finds its most popular outletin the art of painting. In a country wherewe find a wealth of lore accumulated, trans-mitted, purged and distilled through theAlembic of centuries, it is not strange thatthe art student should naturally be suscep-tible to an uncommon degree to the influencesof encouragement. Students destitute of edu-cation (as such is generally understood in theWest) are yet possessed of what is probablythe most magnificent equipment of spiritualand imaginative gifts with which anycountry has endowed her sons. Studentsof very poor circumstances (and Povertyin India is even leaner than she is in Europe)who are unable to speak English and whose" Education " stopped short at the 3rd Stan-dard, will frequently be found to possess ageneral knowledge of Urdu, Marathi, Guja-rati, and even some other language. Tothese languages the poorest Brahmin student

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63adds Sanskrit. They will be found to bedeeply steeped in their great MythologicalRomances, which, though comparable in theireffect on ardent juvenile imaginations tothat of the epics of Homer upon the minds ofYoung England, are a more vitalising forcesince the Indians are still believers in them.

The Indian student can usually tell youat a glance that the Goddess Saraswati mustnot be shown without her peacock at herside ; that Shiva must sit upon his tiger'sskin ; how many hands the least knownDeity can boast ; whether an emerald shouldhang upon Radha's fair brow or be graftedupon her coral ear. He can thread his waywith the certitude of joyous ease among amass of conventions that would as certainlycramp his Western brother's powers as didthe iron Cage of Tamerlaine the unhappySultan Barjazet. He can deal with a mysti-fying mass of essential minutiae and, throughan unprecedented litter of details, can fixa lucid and candid result upon his canvas.With students such as these to his hand,the sympathetic European professor is indeeda man to be envied, for he can reckon uponenthusiasm to support genius. In India,the question of the revival of Painting resolves

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64itself in fact into one of organisation in ArtEducation, the bestowal upon the stu-dents of facilities for study, and, above all,opportunity for production. Art is a thingthat can be helped or hindered by individualsand by Schools of Art ; and since that is so,all lovers of India, and believers in her uniquebeauty, must admit the need of helping on inthe race the.eager competitorswho are strainingforward upon the starting line. The BombaySchool of Art as a focus for national impulsesnaturally oifers full scope for the work ofbeginning to stimulate Indian art, and whenin 1919-20 a start was made by the studentsto decorate the walls of the School of Art,it marked a very real and definite step onthe part of the Educational Departmenttowards realising its Ideal of Trusteeship forNational Genius. When on December I4th1920, His Excellency Sir George Lloyd, theGovernor of Bombay, unveiled in the Schoolof Art, the first of the Mural Paintings whichhis personal patronage had called into being,the action was interpreted by the spectatorsin the crowded hall as one of those momentousgestures which can sometimes define theprinciples of National Progress more shajplythan can words. That scene indeed awakened

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A Furnace-Pottery Dept

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' Sculpture " (Wall Panel).

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65glowing reminiscences and brighter hopesfor the restoration in the School of Art of thatatmosphere of fervent endeavour in theartist, and of help, appreciation and recog-nition in his Patron, which if not the onlyatmosphere in which the flower of Art canflourish, is at any rate the one that has pro-duced the finest blooms. The students ofthe School having whetted their desire toachieve good work upon the decorations oftheir own walls, and encouraged under theeye of a leader whom they respected for hisexalted position, and loved for his artistictaste and interest in their welfare, were notto be denied responsive as they are to per-sonal aid and encouragement ; so that thetask of improving the School of Art whichthe Government of Bombay had resolved totake in hand, came to be recognised as theparticular care of the Governor himself. InEngland where Schools of Art are rarelyvisited by the high and powerful of the land,it may be thought strange that an Institu-tion meant for the production of artists,should admit such considerable indebtednessfor inspiration to the direct power of influen-tial patronage. But for an analogy to theundoubted impetus which the Indian students

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66have derived from this policy of influentialencouragement weneedbut consult the pagesof the history of France, of Italy, and of ourown country.* In the West the Patron hasnot in modern times bulked as large in thelives of artists as he did formerly. TheRuler who wishes personally for the expan-sion of the artistic talents of his people, andwho views this not as a fancy but as a neces-sity for the successful progress of the nation,can now in a manner delegate this dutyto an Academy of Fine Arts. But in Indiathere are no Academies, no Salons, no centresof Art Control, except the few Art Schools.The Art Societies, which are run mostly byamateurs, are very few and not powerful,fThe position of Art in India is considerablyworse than the situation of Art in Italy beforeCosimo de Medici concentrated in his ownmunificent person the rejuvenating power ofPatronage, and re-estabished that exquisite

* " I painting proudly with his treath on me.All his court round him, seeing with his eyes.Such frank French eyes, and such a fire of souls.Profuse, my hand kept plying by those hearts."*Browning's "Andrea del Sarto."

f No slight is here intended to those officials andother gentlemen who give so much of their time to theArt Societies. But facts are here stated because no fairsketch of the situation of Modern Indian Art can ignorethem.

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67chain of fealty and devotion which can attachthe young artist to the monarch. The brokenlinks of this chain can certainly be restoredin a country where discipleship is still under-stood, and where respect for the teacher isonly next in importance to reverence forparents.*The policy adopted by the Governmentof Bombay since it gave the sum of Rs. 5,000for the embellishing of the walls of the Schoolof Art with paintings, is one which is directedtowards genuinely accelerating the revival ofIndian painting, which no observer can doubthas already begun. For India is not one ofthose countries where as art is a matter ofartificial importation rather than part of theNational " Faith/' the soil has to be preparedand the seed has to be sown before the plantcan begin to grow. All that is required inIndia is to water the parched earth.The rapidity with which the publicmind has received and approved of the ideainnate in the Indian Art revival as advocatedby the School of Art, is so strong in its signi-*In India the "Guru" or Teacher has a place ofhonour which can hardly be realised by those who have notseen him. For any Western comparison we will have tolook back into Ancient Greece and see the young Alex-ander learning at the feet of Aristotle.

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68ficance that no review of the recent workof the School, however brief, can ignore it.The interest of the Governor was ins-tantly responded to and understood as aserious factor in Indian Art Education by avery great body of public opinion. Indiansof both sexes naturally enjoy pictures. Torealize this truth it is only necessary to enterthe Picture Galleries of the new Prince ofWales' Museum in Bombay on any publicholiday when they are thronged with thepicturesque if poverty-stricken people of thecity, with their wives and children. Even thebaby is perforce transported to this temple ofSaraswati. As to whether many of the untu-tored visitors to Bombay's Picture Galleriesand Art Schools really understand the fullsignificance of the works they look at, is notso important as the fact that they find plea-sure in looking at them. Thousands ofpeople visited the first display of MuralPainting in the School of Art. This and otherextraordinary and increasing ebullitions ofpublic interest has been sympathetically assist-ed by the brilliant championship of Mr. Mar-maduke Pickthall, Editor of the NationalistJournal, The Bombay Chronicle, and his con-fr&res. That Journal though frequently in op-

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6o

position has warmly supported the efforts ofGovernment to help the School of Art andhas helped to mould a very large section ofpublic opinion of all creeds. The unity andweight of public approval must not be be-littled merely because hitherto a comparati-vely limited number of individuals willing toemploy the students in decorating their wallshave come forward. India is a country thatloves a leader. There is sufficient cause forthe fact that this new cultural revival cannotexpect to be fully patronised by the wealthyclasses until it has unmistakeably recievedthe Hall Mark of the approval of High Autho-rity. Men of wealth in Bombay who havelong been accustomed to look doubtfullyupon pictures which are so easily accessibleas their Indian ones, will require a little timeto get used to the novelty of patronising oncemore as in bygone times the art of their owncountry. But this fact cannot be set in thescales against the great weight of popularopinion, which is welcoming the movement ofthe last five years as part of a widespreadand genuine rebirih of National ideals andimagination.The Indian School of Art is broad-basedupon the fast foundations of the hearts ofthe

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70Indian people. Fabrics thus founded do noteasily crumble. Erected on any support lessstable no Institution that guards and fostersa National cause could hope to make itselfheard by Indians at large. For the part thatofficial patronage can play as an aid to Artmust not be over-estimated though forIndia it would indeed be difficult to do so.

The matter was well stated by Sir GeorgeLloyd in his speech on the occasion of theunveiling of the first Mural Paintings at theSchool of Art. His Excellency said : " Fromthe time of Plato onwards it has been recog-nised that the state cannot afford to neglectthe aesthetic environment of its citizens. Inpractice, however, it is considerably handi-capped in doing what it would like for Art,because there are constantly more strictlyutilitarian objects which seem to have firstclaim on public funds.What Government can do is to provideopportunities of obtaining elementary instruc-tion in technique. We can also follow thisup by seeing that the best ideals of Art arepresented for study in order to build up agood tradition ; but such a tradition mustalways depend to a large extent on the indi-viduality of the students, their power to

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Sir George and Lady Lloyd at the School of Art- TheGovernor delivering his address.

The Governor (seen wearing a grey hat) and Lady Lloyd,on their way to view the Students* work.(Photos by MyersO

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71assimilate the best elsewhere, and to adapt itsexpression to the national genius. This isthe true function of the School of Art. Giventhe opportunity and stimulus, the restdepends upon individual effort, backed upby the patronage of the public, and historic-ally this is the way in which modern Art isdeveloped/'

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CHAPTER VIII.THE BOMBAY REVIVAL.

HpRUE to his spoken word Sir George-* Lloyd continued to study at firsthand the needs of the School of Art andlaboured with allthe determination and energythat distinguished his administration to helpthe School in its great task. It is probablethat very few among British Pro-Consulshave been seen time after time moving withan electrifying zeal among the students ofan Art School while they were at work;pausing to praise the drawing of some en-thusiastic young man and comparing it witha previous study; or delving deeplyinto the personal needs of the Indian Artists,their status, and the chances of improvingit, at a period when money was scarce andthe dreaded word " Retrenchment" couldshatter more edifices, (whether ancient land-marks, or those airy ones built up by warm-hearted lovers of India,) than ever did thetrumpets of the priests at Jericho.

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73Turning from the pessimists who teach

that the Indian is but a copyist, Sir Georgepreferred to look upon the latest imagina-tive sketches of the students for mural panelsand decorative borders. When it was urgedupon him that the flat convention was themost that could be hoped for from the IndianArtist, he would repair to the Life Classesof the School. There he would watch theprogress of sound drawing, veracious tonevalues, and chiarascuro ; and these mostvital of all classes which his personal supporthad started as an experiment, were stabilisedby an additional grant from Government asa confirmed success.* When told that theSchool of Art was but uselessly labouring toproduce Artists for whom there existed noPublic Demand, the Governor's voice waseloquently raised onmany a public platform to"speak for those who could not speak forthemselves/' During his term of office hestudied the theory of Emancipation of IndianArt so well, gave such telling impetus to thegreat artistic Ideal which he envisagedthrough the School of Art, that it was saidof him on his retirement from Office by one ofthe foremost but also one of the most knightly

* The Life Classes were inaugurated in December 1919*

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74of his political critics, " What Lord Curzondid for Archaeology Sir George Lloyd hadwithin the limits of his jurisdiction triedto do for Indian Art."

Fortunate indeed were the staff andstudents whose efforts were supported andwhose difficulties feelingly reduced by oneof the staunchest and most intrepid friendswho has ever succoured any group of hard-pressed artists.But while His Excellency was an eagerchampion of the School's demand for theexpansion which only opportunity can give,he was no tolerator of the Artistic theorist, andProduction had to keep pace with demand.The most recent years have been years ofarduous work, but so "congenial withalthat the staff and students have cheerfullyborne the additional labour, which the severalconsiderable public works on which theywere engaged either by the Governor orthrough his advocacy naturally entailed.

After the strenuous year 1919-20 whenthe students were busy painting their ownwalls, a trial effort which was to awaken(and did awaken) an apathetic city to aknowledge of the talent which had beenburied when it might have been put out

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75to usury, came the commission to decoratethe panels in the Durbar Hall, GovernmentHouse, Bombay.These were twenty in number and wereall designed and executed by the students.Four of them measured 13 X 7 feet ; and inthese the figures had to be of the size oflife. The remainder were of smaller dimensions.True to its present creed no mere achai-cisms were adopted in these panels ; and asthe designs were original, so were the typesdepicted sought for and found in that happiestof hunting-grounds for the Indian Artist,India, herself. The students decided to paintsymbolic renderings of the Fine Arts, Handi-crafts, and Occupations of the Deccan. Thelarger panels depicted Painting, Sculpture,Architecture, and the Applied Arts. Thesmaller showed Hunting, Fishing, Gardening,Ploughing, Water-lifting, etc.

These panels were warmly welcomedand praised by the many who crowd toenjoy Their Excellencies' hospitality at Gov-ernment House, both as an acquisition tothe walls, and as an earnest of what mightbe expected of such progressive young artists.Another big effort of the School thisyear was the painting of the Pylons which

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76decorated the streets of Bombay on theoccasion of the Visit of His Royal Highnessthe Prince of Wales. In this work the staffof the School took part aided by the studentsand showed what could be done by Indianmethods adapted to meet the exigencies ofthe short time at their disposal. In con-sequence of the Publicity given to the Schoolby these works, the Prize-giving Ceremony onFebruary I4th 1922 was a brilliant function,and the verdant lawn that surrounded thedecorated shamiana that the students haderected for Their Excellencies was crowdedwith friends and supporters of the School ofArt. The costumes of the Europeans con-trasted with the Indian dresses, and broken bya large sprinkling of white " Gandhi " capsshowed emblematically the catholicity of thatappeal which the School of Art ought tomake to its public. For the School's com-pound is neutral ground where rival factionsfraternally mix, where Cosmopolitan heartsbeat in unison to the gentle but irresistiblemusic of Saraswati's Vina which can still thepulsations of Politics, or the frettings ofCommerce, as sweetly as did the harp ofOrpheus the fierce prowlers of the DorianForests.

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On this well-remembered occasion SirGeorge Lloyd presented a special Gold Medaland Silver Medal for the Mural Paintings,and in the course of his speech expressed hisgreat gratification at the progress which theSchool had achieved since the occasion of hisunveiling the first Mural Paintings ; " which/'continued His Excellency, " goes to prove Ithink that the lines upon which the Principaland the School then chose to work wereemphatically the right lines, the lines ofassimilating to the national Indian geniusthe best in modern Art. It is satisfactoryalso to learn from your Principal's speechthat the number of students in the schoolshows a steady if not a very large increase.I am fully aware of the difficulties whichstudents must face in attending the classeshere. Government have, I am glad to say,approved, as an administrative, measure theinstitution of eight scholarships at Rs. 30each and the discontinuance of four pupilteacherships at Rs. 10 per mensem each.Provision has been made for these scholarships,subject, of course, to the approval of theLegislative Council, and I feel sure that ,theHon'ble Minister, who is here to-day, will,after seeing the work of the School, use all

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his well-known persuasive powers to securethat approval. I wish I could tell you thatother provision was possible and had beenmade, but unfortunately the present financialsituation is absolutely prohibitive of suchassurances/'

Referring at length to the Paintingand Modelling Classes, His Excellency con-tinued : " In these two classes, as in allthe others, the School of Art has shown itsgreat determination to proceed upon soundnational lines. I have always held thatsuccessful art in India must be national andmust be backed by national enthusiasm,and in what I have seen of the work of theSchool lately I have been most favourablyimpressed by the distinctly Indian characterwhich shows strongly in all its productions.It is most encouraging also to see that this" Indianisation" has not taken the formof a return to a hide-bound convention,but is acquiring a real sense of form andcolour, and at the same time developing thedecorative instinct, which is so stronglynational in character.

In all this I see the forecast of greatdevelopments in the future-developmentsof which the students of the School may

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take pride that theyare the pioneers and forerunners."The policy of Indianisation thus en-couraged by the distinguished speaker andfortified by the new Government Scholarshipscontinued to make such rapid progressthroughout the following year that on the27th of the ensuing February, Sir GeorgeLloyd in opening the Exhibition of Students'work was able to tell an even more crowdedaudience : " I do not think that anydoubt remains now in the minds of theexperts or of the general public that theobjective towards which your Principalhas elected to work is the right one ; thatthe true work of the modern Indian Artistis to revive the ancient and national me-thods of artistic expression and to revi-talise and restore them. That this ishis true work is shown by the progressthat is being made, and the artistic successthat is being achieved by those who in thisSchool are working to that end. Thatis to my mind the

most importantproof, inde