Ottoman Empire 1566Ottoman Empire 1566

Early Ottoman EmpireEarly Ottoman Empire

Power of the SultanPower of the Sultan

Protector of Islam: holy sites & the annual pilgrimage. Protector of Islam: holy sites & the annual pilgrimage.

The army provided protection to all the citizens under its The army provided protection to all the citizens under its imperial jurisdiction, especially trade routes and against imperial jurisdiction, especially trade routes and against foreign aggression. foreign aggression.

The Empire consisted of several provinces organised The Empire consisted of several provinces organised around key cities such as Baghdad, Cairo & Damascus.around key cities such as Baghdad, Cairo & Damascus.

The stability of the empire depended on the maintenance of The stability of the empire depended on the maintenance of a fine balance between the central power and regional a fine balance between the central power and regional powers. powers.

Symbiotic relationship, based on economic, cultural & Symbiotic relationship, based on economic, cultural & political exchange, between them. political exchange, between them.

Ottoman SocietyOttoman Society The fellahin (peasants) constituted the majority and were the The fellahin (peasants) constituted the majority and were the

most exploited. They worked the land and produced food for most exploited. They worked the land and produced food for the empire.the empire.

The Millet System recognised non-Muslim communities as The Millet System recognised non-Muslim communities as integral parts of the empire. integral parts of the empire.

Sometimes they were allowed autonomy, especially in matters Sometimes they were allowed autonomy, especially in matters pertaining to religion and culture.pertaining to religion and culture.

Each community was responsible for the allocation and Each community was responsible for the allocation and collection of its taxes, education and issues relating to personal collection of its taxes, education and issues relating to personal status issues such as marriage, divorce and inheritance.status issues such as marriage, divorce and inheritance.

The army played a central role in defending the empire and The army played a central role in defending the empire and securing the authority of the Sultan.securing the authority of the Sultan.

JanissariesJanissaries The standing army first organized by Sultan Murad IThe standing army first organized by Sultan Murad I..

Consisted mainly of Christian youths who were converted to Consisted mainly of Christian youths who were converted to Islam and specifically conscripted to serve in the army.Islam and specifically conscripted to serve in the army.

To ensure the loyalty of the elite force, they were given To ensure the loyalty of the elite force, they were given many privileges but were separated from civil society and many privileges but were separated from civil society and forbidden to marry.forbidden to marry.

By 1820 there were 135 000 JanissariesBy 1820 there were 135 000 Janissaries

JannissariesJannissaries

Turning PointTurning Point Pressure for decentralisation from the 18Pressure for decentralisation from the 18thth century, which century, which

led to the accumulation of power in the hands of local led to the accumulation of power in the hands of local rulers, at the expense of the sultan. rulers, at the expense of the sultan.

The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 accelerated these The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 accelerated these processes.processes.

By 1801 the French were evicted by a combined force of By 1801 the French were evicted by a combined force of Ottoman and British troops. Ottoman and British troops.

From this point the Ottomans became the target of imperial From this point the Ottomans became the target of imperial rivalry between the emerging European powers of Britain, rivalry between the emerging European powers of Britain, France and Russia.France and Russia.

Muhammad AliMuhammad Ali

Muhammad AliMuhammad Ali After the defeat of the French forces Muhammad Ali ascended After the defeat of the French forces Muhammad Ali ascended

to power as the governor of Egypt.to power as the governor of Egypt.

Programme of modernisation & assertion of autonomy:Programme of modernisation & assertion of autonomy:

Industrialisation, especially manufacturing of war materials Industrialisation, especially manufacturing of war materials and textiles.and textiles.

Education was expanded, including the opening of schools to Education was expanded, including the opening of schools to girls.girls.

Transformation of the army. Transformation of the army.

Muhammad overthrown in 1840 by British and Ottoman forces.Muhammad overthrown in 1840 by British and Ottoman forces.

Hereditary dynasty and his sons continued to rule Egypt. Hereditary dynasty and his sons continued to rule Egypt.

TanzimatTanzimat – Reform from above – Reform from above Introduction of reforms from the 1830 to modernise the Introduction of reforms from the 1830 to modernise the

empire. Led by Rashid Pasha, Minister of Foreign Affairs.empire. Led by Rashid Pasha, Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Prior to this the Janissaries were violently disbanded. They Prior to this the Janissaries were violently disbanded. They had become a law unto themselves, supported had become a law unto themselves, supported conservative leaders and opposed reform.conservative leaders and opposed reform.

Reforms: the abolition of tax on farming; standardisation of Reforms: the abolition of tax on farming; standardisation of military conscription; campaign against corruption; and the military conscription; campaign against corruption; and the establishment of a Ministry of Education.establishment of a Ministry of Education.

In 1876 a new Ottoman Constitution was introduced, which In 1876 a new Ottoman Constitution was introduced, which allowed for elections to a chamber of deputies and senate.allowed for elections to a chamber of deputies and senate.

British InfluenceBritish Influence Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 By 1881, 80% of the traffic passing through the Suez Canal By 1881, 80% of the traffic passing through the Suez Canal

was British ownedwas British owned

Cromer’s RuleCromer’s Rule Reversed the industrial programme and transformed the Reversed the industrial programme and transformed the

Egyptian economy into a single-product economy, namely, Egyptian economy into a single-product economy, namely, cotton to serve the burgeoning textile industry in Britain. cotton to serve the burgeoning textile industry in Britain.

Post-secondary education institutions were closed and Post-secondary education institutions were closed and tuition fees introducedtuition fees introduced

CapitulationsCapitulations: Europeans exempted from taxation and : Europeans exempted from taxation and Egyptian law.Egyptian law.

Cairo segregated along racial lines Cairo segregated along racial lines

Egypt became the centre of early resistance to British Egypt became the centre of early resistance to British imperialismimperialism

Early ResistanceEarly Resistance

. In the early 1880s Urabi Movement led by Colonal Ahmed . In the early 1880s Urabi Movement led by Colonal Ahmed Urabi, led the anti-British resistanceUrabi, led the anti-British resistance

Drew support mainly from the fellahin.Drew support mainly from the fellahin.

In 1882 rebellion throughout Egypt, brutally repressed by In 1882 rebellion throughout Egypt, brutally repressed by British and French forces.British and French forces.

Early NationalismEarly Nationalism In the late 19In the late 19thth century an array of nationalist movement century an array of nationalist movement

developed, led by intellectuals, young officers and civil developed, led by intellectuals, young officers and civil servants.servants.

Divided between support for secular and religious Divided between support for secular and religious nationalism.nationalism.

Young Turks revolution in 1908 deposed Sultan Hamid and Young Turks revolution in 1908 deposed Sultan Hamid and installed Mehmet V. Reform package:installed Mehmet V. Reform package:

Guarantee of rights to non-MuslimsGuarantee of rights to non-Muslims A constitutional monarchy.A constitutional monarchy. Abolition of the Millet systemAbolition of the Millet system

Mustafa AtaturkMustafa Ataturk Treaty of Sevres (1920) carved up the Empire, including Treaty of Sevres (1920) carved up the Empire, including

ceding parts of Turkey to Greece. ceding parts of Turkey to Greece. The Sultan’s support for the Treaty ignited widespread The Sultan’s support for the Treaty ignited widespread

resistance that coalesced around Mustafa Kemal.resistance that coalesced around Mustafa Kemal.

Secular TurkeySecular Turkey

In April 1920 a National Assembly was convened which In April 1920 a National Assembly was convened which elected Kemal as president.elected Kemal as president.

In 1921 a new constitution was adopted that included the In 1921 a new constitution was adopted that included the crucial National Pact, which renounced Turkish claims over crucial National Pact, which renounced Turkish claims over Arab territories and affirmed Turkish sovereignty.Arab territories and affirmed Turkish sovereignty.

In 1922 Kemal led a successful military campaign over In 1922 Kemal led a successful military campaign over Greece, reclaiming the land ceded to the latter in 1920Greece, reclaiming the land ceded to the latter in 1920

Ataturk’s election effectively signalled the end of the Ataturk’s election effectively signalled the end of the Ottoman Empire. In its place Turkey emerged as a leading Ottoman Empire. In its place Turkey emerged as a leading secular nation. secular nation.