origins of intelligence testing - university of south alabama homepage

1

Chapter 9:Chapter 9:Intelligence and IQ TestingIntelligence and IQ Testing

Brown Unit 10:Brown Unit 10:

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

The Measurement of Mankind

The historical roots of I.Q. testing Phrenology

Revision 2006 PSB

Brain size and intelligence

___________

Revision 2006 PSB

Origins of Intelligence TestingBrain Size & Intelligence

Paul Broca – (founder of the Anthropological Society) the measurement of head size should

Revision 2006 PSB

answer the most important question of the day – the relative worth of different people!

George Cuvier

Founder of the field of ___________, & the greatest anatomist of his day. Broca dissected Cuvier’s brain on May

Revision 2006 PSB

y15, 1832. Cuvier’s brain weighed 1830 grams (about 400 grams above average). This was the first direct evidence that ___________and brain size go together.

Broca’s Claim “In general, the brain is larger in men than in

women, in eminent men than in men of mediocre talent, in _______races than in _________races. Other things being equal, there is a remarkable

Revision 2006 PSB

relationship between the development of intelligence and the volume of the brain.” “I have noticed for a long time that, in general,

those who deny the intellectual importance of the brain’s volume have ______heads.”

2

Brain Size

Broca’s brain = 1,480 grams.

Walt Whitman = 1 282 grams

Revision 2006 PSB

Walt Whitman = 1,282 grams. American poet.

Franz Joseph Gall = 1,198 grams. Founder of phrenology.

Sex Differences

Broca measured: 292 male brains = 1,325 grams 140 female brains = 1,144 grams

Revision 2006 PSB

140 female brains 1,144 grams Body mass was not measured. Broca stated that size cannot account for

the difference because we know that women __________as intelligent as men.

Gustave Le Bon 1879

“In the most intelligent races, as among the Parisians, there are a number of women whose brains are closer in size to those of gorillas than to the most developed male b i Thi i f i it i b i th t

Revision 2006 PSB

brains. This inferiority is so obvious that no one can contest it for a moment; only its degree is worth discussion. All psychologists who have studied the intelligence of women, as well as poets and novelists, recognize today that they represent the most inferior forms of human evolution and that they are closer to children and savages that to the adult, civilized man.

Le Bon

They excel in fickleness, inconstancy, absence of thought and logic, and incapacity to reason. Without a doubt there exist some distinguished women, very superior to the average man, but they are as exceptional as the birth of any monstrosity, as for example, of a gorilla with two heads; consequently we may neglect them entirely.”

Revision 2006 PSB

Could women be admitted to Harvard University? Could women own property?

1879

Revision 2006 PSB

Could women own property? Could women vote?

_______________– the use of bogus biological arguments to reinforce social discrimination.

Technical Terms

Moron – ______________

Imbecile

Revision 2006 PSB

Imbecile – ______________________

Idiot – _________________________

3

In a World with Multi-Tasking Shouldn’t This Technical Jargon Be Updated?

Moron – barely able to drive

Revision 2006 PSB

and talk on a cell phone at the same time.

Imbecile

Any individual who tries to drive and text -message at the same time.

Revision 2006 PSB

Woodsian Idiocy

A condition characterized by a driver of a car who causes a vehicular accident due to distraction induced by the use of a cell

Revision 2006 PSB

phone while driving, discloses this fact to the other driver, and is subsequently sued for this disclosure!

Race and Intelligence

Dr. John Langdon Haydon Down (1866) Believe that there was a parallel between human

fossils, sequence of abilities of adults of lower races and whites afflicted with or

Revision 2006 PSB

races, and whites afflicted with __________, or arrests, of development.

Some Caucasian idiots must represents arrests of development and owe their mental deficiency to a retention of traits and abilities that would be judged as normal in adults of lower races.

Trisomy-21

A failure to split the 21st chromosome during meiosis.

Down’s syndrome (mongolism) 1/600 births. “ a great number of typical Mongols are congenital

Revision 2006 PSB

…a great number of typical Mongols are congenital idiots…the child’s aspect is such that it is difficult to realize that he is the child of Europeans, but so frequently are these characteristics presented, that there can be no doubt that these ethnic features are the result of degeneration…”

Cesare Lombroso Founder of criminal anthropology. Atavisms of development result in the spontaneous

reappearance of __________features. Lawbreakers act on biological compulsions because a

Revision 2006 PSB

a b ea e s act o b o og ca co pu s o s because abrutish past lurks within them.

Individuals born to become criminals can be identified by the stigmata of apish morphology (long arms, receding forehead, prominent chin), and could be incarcerated to prevent a the occurrence of a future crime. (Tom Cruise movie “Minority Report”).

4

Origins of Intelligence Testing

Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore

Simon started modern intelligence testing by

Revision 2006 PSB

developing questions that would predict

children’s future progress in the Paris school

system.

Intelligence as Abstract Thinking

The French government wanted to objectively identify _______and _______learners

Alfred Binet and Simon (1904) - first intelligence test


e ge ce es Diverse content: object namingword meanings drawing pictures from memory completing incomplete sentences constructing a sentence from three words

Binet The test should not measure specific

knowledge acquired in school, but should measure knowledge acquired

special training

Revision 2006 PSB

__________special training. 30 items: imitate gestures, follow simple

commands, repeat a sentence containing 15 words, tell how two common objects differ, complete a sentence begun by the tester

Lewis Terman

Lewis Terman, in the US, adapted Binet’s test for

American school children and named the

h f d

Revision 2006 PSB

test the Stanford‐Binet Test.

Intelligence Tests Intelligence Quotient

Originally defined as the ratio of mental age to chronological age, it now represents a person’s performance relative to same-age peers

Revision 2006 PSB

peers. The formula of _____________________ (IQ) introduced by

William Stern.

Mental Age

Chronological Age( ) x 100IQ=

What do I.Q. Tests Measure?

An individual’s present _________to perform certain kinds of tasks. Problem of labeling – a child’s past

i ith f il

Revision 2006 PSB

experience with success or failure influences his or her achievement motivation. The most potent factor for success is not I.Q., but _______________________.

5

I.Q.

The pine tree is evergreen; the poplar is ____.

Revision 2006 PSB

________________

Conifer is the botanical term that is parallel with deciduous.

Revision 2006 PSB

PRS

"Its an ill wind that blows nobody good". (Hobbit)

A Something bad never does anybody any

Revision 2006 PSB

A. Something bad never does anybody any good.

B. Somebody always gets something out of whatever happens.

I.Q.

Matchless

Revision 2006 PSB

Vocabulary

Unmatched, don’t go together (0).

Nothing like it priceless (+1)

Revision 2006 PSB

Nothing like it, priceless (+1).

Having no equal, peerless (+2).

I.Q.

Sanctuary

Revision 2006 PSB

6

Vocabulary

Peace and quiet, seclusion (0).

A place of retreat a hiding place (+1)

Revision 2006 PSB

A place of retreat, a hiding place (+1).

A place where birds can’t be harmed (+2).

Assessing Intelligence

_____________ defining meaningful scores by comparison

with the performance of a pretested “standardization group”

Revision 2006 PSB

standardization group

Normal Curve the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that

describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes most scores fall near the average, and fewer

and fewer scores lie near the extremes

The Normal Curve

Revision 2006 PSB

Stability or Change?

Intelligence scores become stable after about seven years of age. In numerous studies such stability of intelligence scores have been ascertained (Angoff,

1988; Deary et al., 2004).

Revision 2006 PSB

Stability of I.Q. Do I.Q. scores change over time? About 10% of the population exhibit a 15 point

change (1 SD) over an interval of 6-8 years. In extreme instances a score may change from a 90

to 150 (or the reverse) over the course of several

Revision 2006 PSB

years. As CA is incremented, your MA may keep pace with

your peers, lag behind your peers, or out-pace your peers.

There is nothing fixed or ____________about one’s score. However, most people retain their relative standing.

Intelligence TestsThe Wechsler Scales

David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale (WAIS)and later the Wechsler

Revision 2006 PSB

Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for

preschoolers.

7

Wechsler I.Q Tests One drawback on most I.Q. tests is that

they are mainly verbal in content. An architect who designs a building is

l i hi h i t lli t

Revision 2006 PSB

relying on his or her intelligence, yet this ability is not assessed by most I.Q. tests. Wechsler I.Q. tests were one of the first

to include performance (non-verbal) items.

Intelligence TestsGroup Aptitude Tests During World War I, the U.S. Army

developed two tests that could be group-administered. “Alpha” for those who could read English

Revision 2006 PSB

Alpha for those who could read English “Beta” for all other recruits

Group tests are now common. Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) American College Test (ACT) Graduate Record Examination (GRE)

Intelligence as Abstract Thinking

In 1921, a forum of 14 experts agreed that intelligence consists of the abilities to: Reason abstractly Adapt to novel environmental circumstances


Adapt to novel environmental circumstances Acquire knowledge Benefit from experience

Americans tend to view intelligence as: the capacity to reason well and learn quickly (“to think

on one’s feet”) the ability to amass large amounts of knowledge

What is Intelligence?

Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Revision 2006 PSB

In research studies, intelligence is __________the intelligence tests measure … which tends to be

school smarts.

What is Intelligence? _________Analysis statistical procedure that identifies clusters of

related items (called factors) on a test used to identify different dimensions of

Revision 2006 PSB

used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score

General Intelligence (__) factor that Spearman and others believed

underlies overall mental abilities measured by every task on an intelligence

test

The Nature of Intelligence Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence Spearman theorized that

individuals differ in general intelligence (g).

To explain why

Revision 2006 PSB

correlations among tests are not perfect, he theorized that each test score is also affected by the specific ability being tested (S).

8

Are There Multiple Intelligences?

___________Syndrome condition in which a person otherwise limited in

mental ability has an exceptional specific skill computation

Revision 2006 PSB

drawing

People with savant syndrome excel in abilitiesnot related to general intelligence.


____________ the extent to which a test yields consistent

results assessed by consistency of scores on:

Revision 2006 PSB

assessed by consistency of scores on: two halves of the test alternate forms of the test retesting

___________ the extent to which a test measures or

predicts what it is supposed to


___________Validity

Revision 2006 PSB

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest driving test that samples driving tasks


____________Validity success with which a test predicts the

behavior it is designed to predict

Revision 2006 PSB

behavior it is designed to predict assessed by computing the correlation

between test scores and the criterion behavior also called criterion-related validity


As the range of data under consideration

Greater correlationover broad rangeof body weights

10

9

8

7

Football linemen’s

success

Revision 2006 PSB

consideration __________, its predictive power diminishes

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Little corre-lation withinrestricted

range

Body weight in pounds180 250 290

Extremes of Intelligence

A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes. The mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ

135) are significantly different.

Revision 2006 PSB

9

Mental Retardation

Mentally retarded individuals required

constant supervision a few decades ago but with

Revision 2006 PSB

decades ago, but with supportive family

environment and special education can now care for

themselves.

The Dynamics of Intelligence

Revision 2006 PSB

Are Intelligence Tests BiasedRaven's “Culture-Fair” Test

Person is given a series of matrices and must complete each by selecting

Revision 2006 PSB

each by selecting the correct symbol for the available choices.

Designed to be free of _________bias

Sample Item

The Nature of IntelligenceGeneral Intelligence (g) Neural Speed and Intelligence

Recorded time required for brain to react to visual stimuli.

Ordered subjects

Revision 2006 PSB

Ordered subjects from slowest (1) to fastest (5) on this measure.

Subjects with higher conduction speed also had higher scores on an intelligence test.

Brain Function and Intelligence

People who can perceive the stimulus very

tend to

Revision 2006 PSB

________tend to score somewhat higher on intelligence tests

Stimulus Mask

Question: Long side on left or right?

Processing Speed

Quick witted, fast-learner… High I.Q. is correlated with rapid

inspection time, and high nerve d ti l iti

Revision 2006 PSB

conduction velocities. PET studies show that high I.Q. is

correlated with lower rates of brain metabolism. Why??? Subjects with high I.Q. have more

efficient brains…have to work less hard

10

Biological Basis of Intelligence

Brain size is weakly correlated with intelligence

Cerebral cortex development is slower in gifted children


gifted children Intelligence is intimately involved with

working and short-term memory Intelligence is located throughout the brain,

but the prefrontal cortex is especially implicated

In some functional brain imaging studies, brain activity is lower in the highly intelligent (the brain may be more efficient or require less effort)

Biological Basis of Intelligence


efficient or require less effort) People with higher intelligence also react

more quickly (reaction time) Working memory ability and intelligence

are highly related

Gardner's Frames of MindGardner's Frames of Mind Multiple Intelligences Gardner’s theory that there are seven

types of intelligence: Linguistic intelligence Logical - mathematical intelligence

Revision 2006 PSB

Logical - mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence Musical intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence

Gardner's Frames of MindTypes of Multiple Intelligences I

Linguistic Intelligence Verbal ability, consists of the skills involved in

speaking, listening, reading, and writing

Revision 2006 PSB

Logical-mathematical Intelligence Abstract reasoning ability, consists of the skills

necessary for solving puzzles and programming computers

Spatial Intelligence Visual ability, consists of the skills involved in

orienting oneself in space and navigation

Musical Intelligence Ability to appreciate the tonal qualities of sound,

consists of the skills necessary to compose and l i t t

Gardner's Frames of MindTypes of Multiple Intelligences

Revision 2006 PSB

play an instrument

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence Ability to control gross and fine body movements

Interpersonal Intelligence Ability to understand others, social skills

Gardner's Frames of MindTypes of Multiple Intelligences

Revision 2006 PSB

y ,

Intrapersonal Intelligence Ability to understand oneself, self-insight

11

Are There Multiple Intelligences?

_________Intelligence the know-how involved in

comprehending social situations and

Revision 2006 PSB

p gmanaging oneself successfully

___________Intelligence ability to perceive, express, understand,

and regulate emotions

Emotional Intelligence

Recognizing and managing one’s own emotions, motivating oneself, restraining _________, handling interpersonal relationships.S l hi hl f th i

Revision 2006 PSB

Some people are highly aware of their own emotions, while other seem oblivious to their own feelings.

People who are ____in recognizing their own emotions, are also low in emotional expressiveness.

High Emotional Intelligence

Yields good techniques for countering negative moods…quick recovery.

Able to motivate themselves to work longer and h d d l ( l t d ith

Revision 2006 PSB

harder, delay ___________ (correlated with achievement motivation).

Develop a knack for getting along with others, able to coordinate the efforts of several people…negotiate solutions to complex problems…greater career success.

Gender Differences in Emotional Intelligence

Males tend to be less skilled at recognizing and expressing emotions. Males tend to over react to criticism, and this may lead to emotional

Revision 2006 PSB

ywithdrawal…prompting some spouses to intensify criticism to induce any reaction…this can backfire!!! Men need to learn that criticism may be

motivated by love, and women need to learn that men tend to be hyper sensitive to criticism.

The Nature of IntelligenceSternberg's Triarchic Theory

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Sternberg’s theory that there are three

kinds of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical

Revision 2006 PSB

and practical.


Analytic - “Components” Comparing, analyzing, and evaluating This type of process correlates best with IQ

C ti “E i ti l”

Revision 2006 PSB

Creative - “Experiential” Inventing or designing solutions to new

problems Practical - “Contextual” Adapting to the contexts of everyday life

12


Revision 2006 PSB

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Creativity Intellectual and motivational processes that

lead to novel situations, ideas, artistic forms, or products

Revision 2006 PSB

__________Thinking The ability to think flexibly and entertain a

wide range of possible solutions.

__________Intelligence The ability to size up new situations and

adapt to real-life demands.

Practical Intelligence Not correlated with analytic intelligence Not dependent upon academic knowledge Dependent upon ‘tacit’ knowledge: Action oriented

Revision 2006 PSB

Achieves goals individuals personally value Acquired without direct help from others _______________correlates with knowing how

to get along with others, higher salary, more promotions, & greater success in life.

Creativity The ability to produce work that is ______and

______________to the task. Recognize which idea is worth pursuing. Sufficient knowledge about a field to advance an

idea

Revision 2006 PSB

idea. Preference for novel ways of thinking and the

ability to see the big picture. Willingness to take risks and tolerate ambiguity. Intrinsic rewards for creative work. The environment must support creative ideas.

Genetic Influences

Heritability the proportion of variation among

individuals that we can attribute to

Revision 2006 PSB

individuals that we can attribute to genes variability depends on range of

populations and environments studied

The Great Debates: Nature and NurtureNature's Influence on IQ Scores

The greater the genetic similarity between two

Revision 2006 PSB

between two individuals, the more similar are their IQ scores. This suggests a

genetic component to intelligence.

13

Adoption StudiesAdopted children show a marginal correlation in

verbal ability to their adopted parents.

Revision 2006 PSB

Heredity and I.Q.

Identical twins (together) = .90 Indentical twins (apart) = .75 Siblings = .50

Revision 2006 PSB

Cousins = .15 Parents & biological children = .40-.50 Parents & adopted children = .10-.20 Unrelated individuals (together) = .25 Unrelated individuals (apart) = .00

Nurture's Influence on IQ Scores

All other things being equal, two individuals raised together will have more similar IQ

Revision 2006 PSB

Qscores than those raised apart. This is evidence

that the __________

shapes intelligence in important ways.

Heredity & I.Q.

Heredity and environment appear to be equally important.

Skeels (1938, 1966) showed that orphaned hild h d 26 i t d f 2 t

Revision 2006 PSB

children showed a 26 point drop from age 2 to age 5 if they remained in an orphanage, and a 29 point increase if they were raised by a substitute ‘mother’. The 55 point difference is attributed to the presence or absence of adult stimulation.

Environmental Influences on IQ Birth _______ Robert Zajonc (1976) - IQ decreases with increasing birth

order (later studies suggested this was due to families with low IQs tending to have more children)


__________ Number of school years correlates with IQ (0.5 - 0.6) Students who drop out of school end up with lower IQs

than those who stay in, even when starting out with the same IQ

Early Intervention Head Start program produces changes in IQ that last a few

years

Effects of Schooling

Children from comparable schools One with 180-day year One with 210-day year

Children began study performing similarly

Revision 2006 PSB

performing similarly At end of study,

extended-year children performed better on math (shown here) and reading tests.

14

Environmental Influences on IQ _______________Effects Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson gave fake

data to teachers suggesting some students would experience large increases in IQ


These randomly selected students experienced an IQ gain of around 4 points

Poverty Arthur Jensen (1977) studied poor families in

Georgia and found that children experienced a 1.5 IQ point drop per year

Poverty could be associated with malnutrition, exposure to lead, and less breast-feeding

EducationSelf-Fulfilling Prophecy:Three-Step Model

The idea that a person’s expectation can lead to its own fulfillment (as in the effect of teacher

Revision 2006 PSB

effect of teacher expectations on student performance)

Teachers with low expectations of some students may settle for lower performance from these students.

Group Differences

Stereotype ThreatA self-confirming concern that one

Revision 2006 PSB

gwill be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Race Differences in IQ

On average, Hispanic and African Americans score lower than Caucasians, and Asian Americans tend to score higher


African Americans have been reported to score up to 15 points lower One common interpretation: inferior

schooling and other cultural disadvantages

The Great DebatesCultural Influences

Asian American students get higher grades and SAT math scores, are more likely to graduate from college, and are more likely to

i i h l hi d t th i

Revision 2006 PSB

win various scholarships compared to their peers.

However, research shows that their tests scores are about average.

Americans, relative to those in Asian countries, may set __________standards and place ________value on educational pursuits.

The Racial GapEducation: The Great Equalizer

Cognitive test scores from grades 8 – 16

Initial gap between black

d hit

Revision 2006 PSB

and white students was narrowed significantly by the end of college

Education has a vital equalizing role

15

Sex Differences in IQ

Few studies have found differences in average IQ

tend to have a


_______tend to have a wider distribution of IQ

Gender Similarities and Differences

There are seven ways in which males and females differ on various abilities.

1. Girls are better spellers

2 Girls verbally fluent large vocabularies

Revision 2006 PSB

2. Girls verbally fluent, large vocabularies

3. Girls are better at locating objects

4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color

5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement

6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving but under perform at math computation

7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

Sex Differences in Specific Mental Abilities

Differences tend to be small: Women do better on some verbal tasks,

including spelling and writing


Women talk more than men (F = 20,000 words per day; M = 7,000) Men tend to do better on spatial tasks,

especially mental rotation Sex differences could be due to environment

Mental rotation taskMental rotation task


Do Exceptional Children Stay Exceptional?

Does early ‘ripening’ lead to early ‘rot’? 1925 Terman initiated a longitudinal study of

1,528 children with an I.Q. of 130 or more (30 year follow up).

Revision 2006 PSB

90% showed an increase in I.Q. scores Superior health, social adjustment Earned more academic degrees Earned 4 times the average salary No negative side effects were observed for being

gifted

High Intelligence

High‐scoring people on intelligence tests—contrary to popular beliefs—tend to be healthy, well

adjusted, and unusually successful academically.

Revision 2006 PSB

16

Genius and Exceptional Intelligence

Lewis Terman (1959) studied 1,500 students with IQs of about 135 or higher

Findings from the “Termites” disputed many popular stereotypes of the highly intelligent:


popular stereotypes of the highly intelligent: Most had above average health, and were taller

and heavier than the general population They were highly successful in adulthood They had lower rates of mental illness

The best predictor of exceptional career success in musicians is the amount of practice

Adult Cognitive Development

Old belief: all aspects of thinking except the amount of factual information known decline after the mid 20’s.

Revision 2006 PSB

New belief: intellectual ability continues to improve with age until the onset of trauma to the brain.

PRS

What confound supported the old idea that IQ dropped with age?

Cross-sectional data @ 1970

Revision 2006 PSB

Age: 20 30 40 50 60 70 DOB 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900A. Change from rural to urban environments.B. Change in the average level of education.C. Both A and B.D. None of the above.

Age and Peak Productivity

Poetry 25-29 Chemistry 30-34 Medicine 34-39

Revision 2006 PSB

Medicine 34 39 Math 40-44

Peak –productivity and creativity varies between fields.

IQ Ranges Among IQ Ranges Among ProfessionsProfessions


Adulthood: Cognitive Development

____________Intelligence one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal

skills

Revision 2006 PSB

skills tends to increase with age

_________Intelligence ones ability to reason speedily and

abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood

17

__________________Speed

Crystallized intelligence – the ability to utilize previously learned information.

Fluid intelligence – the ability to form new t id tif i il iti A

Revision 2006 PSB

concepts, reason, identify similarities. As children grow older, their processing speed increases, this increases the capacity of working memory, and increments in working memory contributes to fluid intelligence. Thus, fluid intelligence correlates with processing speed. This skill declines with old age.

Old Age and I.Q.

65-73 years of age – small drop 73-85 years of age – steep drop Pre-death drop – decline in average score may

Revision 2006 PSB

be due to the performance of adults near death (old healthy adults show no decline)

Crystallized abilities hold up well with age Fluid abilities show a greater decline with age

Cooperative Group Challenge Only six are used. 1. Stanford-Binet 2. Flynn 3 test bias 3. test bias 4. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 5. eugenics 6. validity 7. reliability 8. specific abilities

Q1.

1. According to Spearman, someone’s intelligence is not only dependent on his/her general intelligence or g, but also on his/her _____.

Revision 2006 PSB

Q2.

2. The _____ movement sought to purge low-IQ individuals from the gene pool through mandatory sterilization.

Revision 2006 PSB

Q3.

3. The most commonly used adult IQ test is the _____.

Revision 2006 PSB

18

Q4.

4. The _____ of IQ tests indicates whether these tests accurately measure what they purport to measure.

Revision 2006 PSB

Q5.

5. According to the _____ effect our IQ scores are a full 15 points above those of our grandparents.

Revision 2006 PSB

Q6.

6. When a test predicts outcomes better in one group than in another group, this is known as _____.

Revision 2006 PSB

origins of intelligence testing - university of south alabama homepage

Documents