optics introduction to diffraction grating · 2007. 9. 14. · introduction to diffraction grating...

$: Optics Introduction to Diffraction Grating · 2007. 9. 14. · Introduction to Diffraction Grating Diffraction Gratings (Ruled and Holographic) Diffraction gratings can be divided$
Introduction to Diffraction Grating

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Diffraction Gratings (Ruled and Holographic)Diffraction gratings can be divided into two basic categories: holographic and ruled.A ruled grating is produced by physically forming grooves on a reflective surface byusing a diamond tool mounted on a ruling engine. The distance between adjacentgrooves and the angle they form with the substrate affect both the dispersion andefficiency of the grating.

A holographic grating, by contrast, is produced using a photolithographic processwhere an interference pattern is generated to expose preferentially portions of aphotoresist coating.

The general grating equation may be written asnλ = d(sin θ + sin θ’)

where n is the order of diffraction, λ is the diffracted wavelength, d is the gratingconstant (the distance between grooves), θ is the angle of incidence measured fromthe grating normal, and θ’ is the angle of diffraction measured from the gratingnormal.

The overall efficiency of the gratings depends on several application-specificparameters such as wavelength, polarization, and angle of incidence of the incominglight. The efficiency is also affected by the grating design parameters such as blazeangle for the ruled gratings and profile depth for the holographic gratings.

The Ruling ProcessRuling an original or master grating requires an appropriate substrate (usually glassor copper), polishing the substrate to a tenth wave (λ/10), and coating it with a thinlayer of aluminum by vacuum deposition. Parallel, equally spaced grooves are ruledin a groove profile. The ruling engine must be able to retrace the exact path of thediamond forming tool on each stroke and to index (advance) the substrate apredetermined amount after each cut. Numerous test gratings are created andmeasured. After testing, a new original grating is ruled on a large substrate. Theoriginal grating is very expensive, and as a result, ruled gratings were raerly useduntil after the development of the replication process.

The Holographic ProcessThe substrate for a holographic grating is coated with a photosensitive (photoresist)material rather than the reflective coating used inruled gratings. The photoresist is exposed bypositioning the coated blank between the intersecting,monochromatic, coherent beams of light from a laser(e.g. an argon laser at 488nm). The intersecting laserbeams generate a sinusoidal intensity pattern ofparallel, equally spaced interference fringes in thephotoresist material. Since the solubility of the resistis dependent on its exposure to light, the intensitypattern becomes a surface pattern after being

immersed in solvent. The substrate surface isthen coated with a reflective material and can bereplicated by the same process used for ruledoriginals. Since holographic gratings are producedoptically, groove form and spacing are extremelyuniform, which is why holographic gratings donot exhibit the ghosting effects seen in ruledgratings. The result is that holographic gratingsgenerate significantly less stray light than ruledgratings.

The Replication ProcessIn the late 1940’s, White and Frazer developedthe process for precision replication, allowing alarge number of gratings to be produced from asingle master, either ruled or holographic. This procedure results in the transfer of the three dimensional topography of a master grating onto another substrate. Hence, the master grating is reproduced in full relief toextremely close tolerances. This process led to the commercialization of gratings and has resultedin the current widespread use of gratings inspectrometers.

Transmission GratingTransmission gratings simplify optical designs andcan be beneficial in fixed grating applications suchas spectrographs.

Thorlabs’ offering of blazed transmissiongratings is designed for optimum performancein the visible, UV, or near IR spectrum, withvarying dispersiveness. In most cases, theefficiency is comparable to that of reflectiongratings typically used in the same region of thespectrum. By necessity, transmission gratingsrequire relatively coarse groove spacings tomaintain high efficiency. As the diffractionangles increase with the finer spacings, therefractive properties of the materials used limitthe transmission at the higher wavelengths andperformance drops off. The grating dispersioncharacteristics, however, lend themselves tocompact systems utilizing small detector arrays.In addition, the transmission gratings arerelatively insensitive to the polarization of theincident light and are very forgiving of sometypes of grating alignment errors.

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Choosing a Diffraction Grating

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Factors in Selecting a Thorlabs GratingSelection of a grating requires consideration of a number offactors, some of which are listed below.

Efficiency: In general, ruled gratings have a higher efficiencythan holographic gratings. Applications such as fluorescenceexcitation and other radiation-induced reactions may require aruled grating.

Blaze Wavelength: Ruled gratings with a “sawtooth” grooveprofile have a relatively sharp efficiency peak around their blazewavelength, while some holographic gratings have a flatter spectralresponse. Applications centered around a narrow wavelength rangecould benefit from a ruled grating blazed at that wavelength.

Wavelength Range: The spectral range covered by a grating isdependent on groove spacing and is the same for ruled andholographic gratings having the same grating constant. As a rule

of thumb, the first order efficiency of a grating decreases by 50%at 0.66λB and 1.5λB, where λB is the blaze wavelength. Note: Nograting can diffract a wavelength that is greater than 2 times thegroove period.

Stray Light: For applications such as Raman spectroscopy, wheresignal-to-noise is critical, the inherent low stray light of aholographic grating is an advantage.

Resolving Power: The resolving power of a grating is a measureof its ability to spatially separate two wavelengths. It is determinedby applying the Rayleigh criteria to the diffraction maxima; twowavelengths are resolvable when the maxima of one wavelengthcoincides with the minima of the second wavelength. Thechromatic resolving power (R) is defined by R = λ/∆λ = nN,where ∆λ is the resolvable wavelength difference, n is thediffraction order, and N is the number of grooves illuminated.

Custom Grating Sizes Available

HANDLING OF GRATINGSThe surface of a diffraction grating can be easily damaged by fingerprints, aerosols, moisture, or the slightest contact with any abrasive material. Gratingsshould only be handled when necessary and always held by the sides. Latex gloves or a similar protective covering should be worn to prevent transfer of oilfrom fingers to the grating surface.

Any attempt to clean a grating with a solvent voids the warranty. No attempt should be made to clean a grating other than blowing off dust with clean, dry airor nitrogen. Scratches or other minor cosmetic imperfections on the surface of a grating do not usually affect performance and are not considered defects.

Ruled These replicated, ruled diffraction gratings are offered in a variety of sizes and blaze angles. Ruled gratingstypically can achieve higher efficiencies than holographic gratings due to their blaze angles. Efficiency curvesfor all of these gratings are shown on the following pages to aid in selection of the appropriate grating.

See Page 800

Holographic These gratings do not suffer from the periodic errors that can occur in ruled gratings, and hence, ghostedimages are nonexistent. Particularly in applications like Raman spectroscopy, where signal to noise is critical,the inherent low stray light of holographic gratings is an advantage. Thorlabs offers these gratings withspacings up to 3600 lines/mm.

See Page 802

Echelle These gratings are special low period gratings designed for use in the high orders. They are generally usedwith a second grating or prism to separate overlapping diffracted orders. The resolution of an Echelle gratingbuilt on a precision glass substrate is typically 80-90% of the maximum theoretical resolution, which makesthem ideal for high resolution spectroscopy.

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Transmission Transmission gratings allow for simple linear (source -> grating -> detector) optical designs that canbebeneficial in making compact fixed grating applications such as spectrographs. In addition, the performanceof transmission gratings is insensitive to some types of grating alignment errors. Transmission and reflectiongratings have comparable efficiencies, which can be optimized for a specific spectral region by selecting theappropriate groove spacing and blaze angle. Transmission gratings are relatively insensitive to the polarizationof the incident light. Thorlabs offers gratings optimized for UV, near IR, and visible applications.

See Page 805

Diffraction Grating Quick Reference



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UV Transmission GratingsThese UV Transmission Gratings aremanufactured from carefully selected UVmaterials, thus providing optimalperformance down to 235nm. Zero-orderdata is included in all performance curvesfor those interested in beamsplittingapplications.

By necessity, transmission gratings requirerelatively coarse groove spacings to maintainhigh efficiency.

As the diffraction angles increase with the finer groove spacings, the refractive properties of thematerials used limit the transmission at the higher wavelengths, which leads to a degradation inperformance. The grating dispersion characteristics, however, lend themselves to compactsystems utilizing small detector arrays. The gratings are also relatively polarization insensitive.

GROOVES GROOVE SIZEITEM# (lines/mm) ANGLE (mm) $ £ € RMB DESCRIPTION

GTU13-03 300 8.6° 12.7x12.7 $ 78.00 £ 49.10 € 72,50 ¥ 744.90 UV Transmission GratingGTU25-03 300 8.6° 25x25 $ 112.00 £ 70.60 € 104,20 ¥ 1,069.60 UV Transmission GratingGTU50-03 300 8.6° 50x50 $ 223.00 £ 140.50 € 207,40 ¥ 2,129.70 UV Transmission GratingGTU1325-03 300 8.6° 12.5x25 $ 88.00 £ 55.40 € 81,80 ¥ 840.40 UV Transmission GratingGTU2550-03 300 8.6° 25x50 $ 165.00 £ 104.00 € 153,50 ¥ 1,575.80 UV Transmission GratingGTU13-06 600 22° 12.7x12.7 $ 78.00 £ 49.10 € 72,50 ¥ 744.90 UV Transmission GratingGTU25-06 600 22° 25x25 $ 112.00 £ 70.60 € 104,20 ¥ 1,069.60 UV Transmission GratingGTU50-06 600 22° 50x50 $ 223.00 £ 140.50 € 207,40 ¥ 2,129.70 UV Transmission GratingGTU1325-06 600 22° 12.5x25 $ 88.00 £ 55.40 € 81,80 ¥ 840.40 UV Transmission GratingGTU2550-06 600 22° 25x50 $ 165.00 £ 104.00 € 153,50 ¥ 1,575.80 UV Transmission GratingGTU13-06A 600 17.5° 12.7x12.7 $ 78.00 £ 49.10 € 72,50 ¥ 744.90 UV Transmission GratingGTU25-06A 600 17.5° 25x25 $ 112.00 £ 70.60 € 104,20 ¥ 1,069.60 UV Transmission GratingGTU50-06A 600 17.5° 50x50 $ 223.00 £ 140.50 € 207,40 ¥ 2,129.70 UV Transmission GratingGTU1325-06A 600 17.5° 12.5x25 $ 88.00 £ 55.40 € 81,80 ¥ 840.40 UV Transmission GratingGTU2550-06A 600 17.5° 25x50 $ 165.00 £ 104.00 € 153,50 ¥ 1,575.80 UV Transmission GratingGTU13-08 830 19.4° 12.7x12.7 $ 78.00 £ 49.10 € 72,50 ¥ 744.90 UV Transmission GratingGTU25-08 830 19.4° 25x25 $ 112.00 £ 70.60 € 104,20 ¥ 1,069.60 UV Transmission GratingGTU50-08 830 19.4° 50x50 $ 223.00 £ 140.50 € 207,40 ¥ 2,129.70 UV Transmission GratingGTU1325-08 830 19.4° 12.5x25 $ 88.00 £ 55.40 € 81,80 ¥ 840.40 UV Transmission GratingGTU2550-08 830 19.4° 25x50 $ 165.00 £ 104.00 € 153,50 ¥ 1,575.80 UV Transmission GratingGTU13-12 1200 36.9° 12.7x12.7 $ 78.00 £ 49.10 € 72,50 ¥ 744.90 UV Transmission GratingGTU25-12 1200 36.9° 25x25 $ 112.00 £ 70.60 € 104,20 ¥ 1,069.60 UV Transmission GratingGTU50-12 1200 36.9° 50x50 $ 223.00 £ 140.50 € 207,40 ¥ 2,129.70 UV Transmission GratingGTU1325-12 1200 36.9° 12.5x25 $ 88.00 £ 55.40 € 81,80 ¥ 840.40 UV Transmission GratingGTU2550-12 1200 36.9° 25x50 $ 165.00 £ 104.00 € 153,50 ¥ 1,575.80 UV Transmission GratingGTU13-12A 1200 26.7° 12.7x12.7 $ 78.00 £ 49.10 € 72,50 ¥ 744.90 UV Transmission GratingGTU25-12A 1200 26.7° 25x25 $ 112.00 £ 70.60 € 104,20 ¥ 1,069.60 UV Transmission GratingGTU50-12A 1200 26.7° 50x50 $ 223.00 £ 140.50 € 207,40 ¥ 2,129.70 UV Transmission GratingGTU1325-12A 1200 26.7° 12.5x25 $ 88.00 £ 55.40 € 81,80 ¥ 840.40 UV Transmission GratingGTU2550-12A 1200 26.7° 25x50 $ 165.00 £ 104.00 € 153,50 ¥ 1,575.80 UV Transmission Grating

SP1-USB & SP2-USBSpecifications■ Spectral Range:

400nm-800nm (SP1-USB)500nm-1000nm (SP2-USB)

■ Spectral Resolution:<1nm FWHM @ 633nm

■ Integration Time: 1µs-200ms

■ Scan Rate: 190 Scans Per Second (Max)

■ Dynamic Range: 2000:1

USB 2.0 Fiber Optic Spectrometer

See Page 968

Specifications■ Substrate Material: UV Grade

Fused Silica■ Thickness: 2mm Nominal■ Dimensional Tolerances: ±0.5mm■ Thickness Tolerances: ±0.5mm

SP1-USB



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UV Transmission Gratings Performance Curves

1200 lines/mm (26.7°)0th order

1200 lines/mm (26.7°)1st order




600 lines/mm (22°)0th order


600 lines/mm (22°)1st order

NIR Transmission Gratings

GROOVES BLAZE SIZE

ITEM# (lines/mm) ANGLE (mm) $ £ € RMB DESCRIPTION

GTI13-03A 300 31.7 12.7x12.7 $ 68.00 £ 42.80 € 63,20 ¥ 649.40 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI25-03A 300 31.7 25x25 $ 94.00 £ 59.20 € 87,40 ¥ 897.70 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI50-03A 300 31.7 50x50 $ 182.00 £ 114.70 € 169,30 ¥ 1,738.10 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI1325-03A 300 31.7 12.7x25 $ 77.00 £ 48.50 € 71,60 ¥ 735.40 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI2550-03A 300 31.7 25x50 $ 140.00 £ 88.20 € 130,20 ¥ 1,337.00 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI13-03 300 24.8 12.7x12.7 $ 68.00 £ 42.80 € 63,20 ¥ 649.40 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI25-03 300 24.8 25x25 $ 94.00 £ 59.20 € 87,40 ¥ 897.70 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI50-03 300 24.8 50x50 $ 182.00 £ 114.70 € 169,30 ¥ 1,738.10 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI1325-03 300 24.8 12.7x25 $ 77.00 £ 48.50 € 71,60 ¥ 735.40 Near IR Transmission GratingGTI2550-03 300 24.8 25x50 $ 140.00 £ 88.20 € 130,20 ¥ 1,337.00 Near IR Transmission Grating

The NIR transmission gratings are designed to be used in the 0.5-1.8µmspectral region. They operate with efficiencies similar to reflectiongratings but allow for linear optical designs because the dispersed light istransmitted through the grating. Transmission grating are also relativelyinsensitive to the polarization of the light.

Specifications■ Substrate Material: Schott B270 ■ Thickness: 3mm Nominal ■ Dimensional Tolerances: ±0.5mm ■ Thickness Tolerance: ±0.5mm

300 lines/mm (24.8°)1st order 300 lines/mm (31.7°)

1st order



Handling of GratingsThe surface of a diffraction grating can be easily damaged by fingerprints, aerosols, moisture, or the slightest contact with any abrasive material. Gratings should onlybe handled when necessary and always held by the sides. Latex gloves or a similar protective covering should be worn to prevent transfer of oil from fingers to thegrating surface.

Any attempt to clean a grating with a solvent voids the warranty. No attempt should be made to clean a grating other than blowing off dust with clean, dry air ornitrogen. Scratches or other minor cosmetic imperfections on the surface of a grating do not usually affect performance and are not considered defects.



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Parameters of Diffraction Gratings

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EfficiencyGrating efficiency can be expressed as either absolute efficiency orrelative efficiency. The absolute efficiency of a grating is thepercentage of incident monochromatic radiation on a grating thatis diffracted into the desired order. This efficiency is determined byboth the groove profile (blaze) and the reflectivity of the grating’scoating. In contrast, relative (or groove) efficiency compares theenergy diffracted into the desired order with the energy reflected bya plane mirror coated with the same material as the grating. Allefficiency curves in this catalog are expressed as absolute.

Blaze Angle and WavelengthThe grooves of a ruled grating have a sawtooth profile with oneside longer than the other. The angle made by a groove’s longerside and the plane of the grating is the “blaze angle”. Changing theblaze angle concentrates the diffracted radiation of a specific regionof the spectrum, increasing the efficiency of the grating in thatspectral region. The wavelength at which maximum efficiencyoccurs is the blaze wavelength. Holographic gratings are generallyless efficient than ruled gratings because they cannot be blazed inthe classical sense. There are also special cases (e.g. when thespacing to wavelength ratio is near one) where a sinusoidal gratinghas virtually the same efficiency as a ruled grating. A holographicgrating with 1800 lines/mm can have the same efficiency at500nm as a blazed, ruled grating.

Resolving Power:The resolving power of a grating is the product of the diffractedorder in which it is used and the number of grooves illuminatedby the incident radiation. It can also be expressed in terms ofgrating width, groove spacing, and diffracted angles. Resolvingpower is a property of the grating, and therefore, unlikeresolution, it is not dependent on the optical and mechanicalcharacteristics of the system in which it is used.

System ResolutionThe resolution of an optical system, usually determined byexamination of closely spaced absorption or emission lines foradherence to the Rayleigh criteria (R = λ/∆λ), depends not only onthe grating resolving power but also on focal length, slit size, fnumber, the optical quality of all components, and systemalignment. The resolution of an optical system is usually much lessthan the resolving power of the grating.

DispersionAngular dispersion of a grating is a function of the angles ofincidence and diffraction, the latter of which is dependent upongroove spacing. Angular dispersion can be increased by increasingthe angle of incidence or by decreasing the distance betweensuccessive grooves. A grating with a large angular dispersion canproduce good resolution in a compact optical system. Angulardispersion is the slope of the curve given by λ = f(θ). In autocollimation, the equation for dispersion is given by

dλ = λ dθ 2 tan θ

.

This formula may be used to determine the angular separation oftwo spectral lines or the bandwidth that will be passed by a slitsubtending a given angle at the grating.

Diffracted OrdersFor a given set of angles (θ, θ’) and groove spacing, the gratingequation is valid at more than one wavelength, giving rise to several“orders” of diffracted radiation.

Constructive interference of diffracted radiation from adjacentgrooves occurs when a ray is in phase but retarded by a wholeinteger number of wavelengths. The number of orders produced islimited by the groove spacing and the angle of incidence, whichnaturally cannot exceed 90°. At higher orders, efficiency and freespectral range decrease while angular dispersion increases. Orderoverlap can be compensated for by the judicious use of sources,detectors, and filters and is not a major problem in gratings used inlow orders.

Free Spectral RangeFree spectral range is the maximum spectral bandwidth that can beobtained in a specified order without spectral interference (overlap)from adjacent orders. As grating spacing decreases, the free spectralrange increases. It decreases with higher orders. If λ1 and λ2 arethe lower and upper limits, respectively, of the band of interest,then

Free Spectral Range = λ2 - λ1 = λ1/n.

Ghosts and Stray LightGhosts are defined as spurious spectral lines arising from periodicerrors in groove spacing. Interferometrically controlled ruling enginesminimize ghosts, while the holographic process eliminates them.

On ruled gratings, stray light originates from random errors andirregularities of the reflecting surfaces. Holographic gratingsgenerate less stray light because the optical process, which transfersthe interference pattern to the photoresist, is not subject tomechanical irregularities or inconsistencies.

SizesGratings are available in several standard square and rectangularsizes ranging from 12.5mm square up to 50mm square. Non-standard sizes are available upon request. Unless otherwisespecified, rectangular gratings are cut with grooves parallel to theshort dimension.

Grating Normal

Incident Radiation



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