Operationalizing Migration Gender Issues: Evidence and Policies

Andrew R. Morrison, PREMMirja Sjöblom, DECRG

OUTLINE OF OUTLINE OF PRESENTATIONPRESENTATION

1. Background to analytical program on gender 1. Background to analytical program on gender and migrationand migration

2. Presentation of forthcoming volume: Women in 2. Presentation of forthcoming volume: Women in International MigrationInternational Migration

3. Future directions for research and policy3. Future directions for research and policy4. Operational entry points4. Operational entry points5. Where do we go from here? Your input5. Where do we go from here? Your input

TABLE OF CONTENTS: WOMEN IN TABLE OF CONTENTS: WOMEN IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATIONINTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

I: ANALYSIS AND DATA: WHERE DO WE STAND?I: ANALYSIS AND DATA: WHERE DO WE STAND?11. . Gender in Economic Research on International Migration and Its Impacts: A Critical Review Gender in Economic Research on International Migration and Its Impacts: A Critical Review 2. Trends in International migration: is there a feminization of migration flows?2. Trends in International migration: is there a feminization of migration flows?

II. DETERMINANTS OF MIGRATION AND REMITTANCESII. DETERMINANTS OF MIGRATION AND REMITTANCES3. Gender and the Determinants of International Migration from Rural Mexico Over Time 3. Gender and the Determinants of International Migration from Rural Mexico Over Time 4. Gender-Specific Determinants of Remittances: Differences in Structure and Motivation4. Gender-Specific Determinants of Remittances: Differences in Structure and Motivation

III. IMPACT OF MIGRATION AND REMITTANCESIII. IMPACT OF MIGRATION AND REMITTANCES5. Gender and the Impacts of International Migration: Evidence from Rural Mexico 5. Gender and the Impacts of International Migration: Evidence from Rural Mexico 6. The impact of remittances and gender on household expenditure patterns: Evidence from Ghana 6. The impact of remittances and gender on household expenditure patterns: Evidence from Ghana

IV. LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN MIGRANTSIV. LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN MIGRANTS7. Immigrant Women’s Participation and Performance in the U.S. Labor Market 7. Immigrant Women’s Participation and Performance in the U.S. Labor Market

V. LOOKING AHEADV. LOOKING AHEAD6. Future Directions For Research And Policy6. Future Directions For Research And Policy

CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1

Gender in Economic Research on International Migration Gender in Economic Research on International Migration and Its Impacts: A Critical Reviewand Its Impacts: A Critical ReviewLisa Pfeiffer, Susan Richter, Peri Fletcher and J. Edward Taylor Lisa Pfeiffer, Susan Richter, Peri Fletcher and J. Edward Taylor

Literature review of economic research Literature review of economic research

Main messages: Main messages: Major determinants of migrants are likely to differ between men and womenMajor determinants of migrants are likely to differ between men and women – – hence, it is not suffice to include a dummy variable for genderhence, it is not suffice to include a dummy variable for gender To date almost no research on gender selectivity into migration, gender To date almost no research on gender selectivity into migration, gender specific impact of migration, gendered remittance behavior etc. specific impact of migration, gendered remittance behavior etc. Few existing studies show structural differences between men and womenFew existing studies show structural differences between men and women Future focus: gender as a central issue for understanding migrationFuture focus: gender as a central issue for understanding migration Support this work with new surveys with gender focusSupport this work with new surveys with gender focusgender breakdown: remitters, migrants, migrant network, respondentgender breakdown: remitters, migrants, migrant network, respondent

CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2

Trends in International migration: is there a feminization of migration Trends in International migration: is there a feminization of migration flows?flows? Juan Carlos GuzmánJuan Carlos Guzmán

Presents sex-disaggregated data on flows of migration to major destination countriesPresents sex-disaggregated data on flows of migration to major destination countriesData: Australia (1995-2004), Canada (1981-2001), Europe (1985-99) USA (1970-2000)Data: Australia (1995-2004), Canada (1981-2001), Europe (1985-99) USA (1970-2000)

Main messages:Main messages: Sex-disaggregated gender data: hard to come by, inconsistent and needs to be Sex-disaggregated gender data: hard to come by, inconsistent and needs to be improved!improved!There has not been a significant feminization of migration flowsThere has not been a significant feminization of migration flows Women have made up almost half of the world’s migrant population since the 1960s Women have made up almost half of the world’s migrant population since the 1960s (stock data: 46.7 percent in 1960, 49.6 percent in 2005)(stock data: 46.7 percent in 1960, 49.6 percent in 2005) Male-dominate flows: Africa, South Asia and the Middle East Male-dominate flows: Africa, South Asia and the Middle East Female-dominated flows: East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin Female-dominated flows: East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America & CaribbeanAmerica & Caribbean

Gender composition of migrant flows to OECD Gender composition of migrant flows to OECD by origin regionsby origin regions

Male-dominated flowsMale-dominated flows Female-dominated flowsFemale-dominated flows

CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3

Gender and the Determinants of International Migration from Rural Gender and the Determinants of International Migration from Rural Mexico Over Time Mexico Over Time Susan Richter and J. Edward Taylor Susan Richter and J. Edward Taylor Mexico National Rural Household Survey used in FE and RE modelsMexico National Rural Household Survey used in FE and RE models

Main messages:Main messages: Women are significantly less likely than men to migrate abroad, except for the Women are significantly less likely than men to migrate abroad, except for the case of highly educated womencase of highly educated women Networks tend to be gender- and sector-specificNetworks tend to be gender- and sector-specificMost policy and macroeconomic variables are insignificant in explaining Most policy and macroeconomic variables are insignificant in explaining migrationmigration However, increased boarder expenditures in the U.S. significantly deter However, increased boarder expenditures in the U.S. significantly deter migration by women but does not have a significant impact on male migrationmigration by women but does not have a significant impact on male migration Overall: the determinants of Mexico-to-U.S. migration and their changes over Overall: the determinants of Mexico-to-U.S. migration and their changes over time are gender specific.time are gender specific.

CHAPTER 4CHAPTER 4

Gender-Specific Determinants of Remittances: Differences in Gender-Specific Determinants of Remittances: Differences in Structure and MotivationStructure and Motivation Manuel Orozco, B. Lindsay Lowell, and Johanna Schneider Manuel Orozco, B. Lindsay Lowell, and Johanna Schneider

New data on remittances, channeled through formal channels, collected in New data on remittances, channeled through formal channels, collected in major metropolitan areas in Germany, the U.K. and the U.S. major metropolitan areas in Germany, the U.K. and the U.S.

Main messages:Main messages: Female remitters from most countries (except for Mexico and the Caribbean) Female remitters from most countries (except for Mexico and the Caribbean) remit smaller amounts of money than menremit smaller amounts of money than men In total, women remit greater amounts to distant family membersIn total, women remit greater amounts to distant family members They also remit more over timeThey also remit more over time Female remittances tend to be spent on food and clothing, while male Female remittances tend to be spent on food and clothing, while male remittances tend to be spent for business purposes and to pay off loansremittances tend to be spent for business purposes and to pay off loans Overall, results indicate that female and male remittances behavior seem to Overall, results indicate that female and male remittances behavior seem to differ differ

CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5

Gender and the Impacts of International Migration: Gender and the Impacts of International Migration: Evidence from Rural Mexico Evidence from Rural Mexico

Lisa Pfeiffer and J. Edward Taylor Lisa Pfeiffer and J. Edward Taylor

Same data as in chapter 3 in a probit model, IV- historical migration rates by Same data as in chapter 3 in a probit model, IV- historical migration rates by gendergender

Main messages:Main messages: Strikingly different impacts of male and female migration on production Strikingly different impacts of male and female migration on production activitiesactivities Impacts of male migration on household production are negative, while those Impacts of male migration on household production are negative, while those of female migration are positive or zeroof female migration are positive or zero Households receive more remittances from female migrants compared to Households receive more remittances from female migrants compared to male migrantsmale migrants Households with female remitters spend significantly less on education but Households with female remitters spend significantly less on education but more on health than otherwise similar householdsmore on health than otherwise similar households

CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 6

The impact of remittances and gender on household expenditure The impact of remittances and gender on household expenditure patterns: Evidence from Ghanapatterns: Evidence from Ghana

Juan Carlos Guzmán, Andrew R. Morrison, Mirja SjöblomJuan Carlos Guzmán, Andrew R. Morrison, Mirja Sjöblom

a) Does the sex of the household (HH) head and remittances matter for HH a) Does the sex of the household (HH) head and remittances matter for HH expenditure allocations? b) Does the sex of the remitter matters for HH expenditure allocations? b) Does the sex of the remitter matters for HH expenditure allocations?expenditure allocations?GLSS 1998/99, fractional logit model GLSS 1998/99, fractional logit model

Main messages:Main messages: International remittances have a significant impact on spending on food, c&d International remittances have a significant impact on spending on food, c&d goods, housing, health and other goods in female-headed households (FHH), goods, housing, health and other goods in female-headed households (FHH), but not in male-headed households (MHH)but not in male-headed households (MHH) Internal remittances have a significant impact on expenditure share to health Internal remittances have a significant impact on expenditure share to health and education in FHH, but no impact on MHHand education in FHH, but no impact on MHH HH receiving from female remitters have a different expenditure pattern than HH receiving from female remitters have a different expenditure pattern than those receiving from male remitters once we control for the remitter’s ability to those receiving from male remitters once we control for the remitter’s ability to monitormonitor HH with female remitters spend more on health and other goods and less on HH with female remitters spend more on health and other goods and less on food food

CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7

Immigrant Women’s Participation and Performance in the U.S. Labor MarketImmigrant Women’s Participation and Performance in the U.S. Labor Market Çağlar Özden and Ileana Cristina NeaguÇağlar Özden and Ileana Cristina Neagu

US Census data from 1990 and 2000 US Census data from 1990 and 2000 What factors influence performance of female migrants in US labor market?What factors influence performance of female migrants in US labor market?Performance measures: wage income and average occupation requirement in the Performance measures: wage income and average occupation requirement in the migrant’s occupationmigrant’s occupation

Main messages:Main messages:Significant variation of performance of migrants from different countries and by Significant variation of performance of migrants from different countries and by educational leveleducational level Participation is lowest for migrants from South Asia, MENA while it is highest for Participation is lowest for migrants from South Asia, MENA while it is highest for migrants from Europe, East and South Asia and Africamigrants from Europe, East and South Asia and Africa Migrants from Latin America have the lowest wages Migrants from Latin America have the lowest wages Placed in higher skilled jobs: Europeans and migrants from EN-speaking Placed in higher skilled jobs: Europeans and migrants from EN-speaking developing countriesdeveloping countriesPlaced in lower skilled jobs: Latin Americans and Eastern EuropeansPlaced in lower skilled jobs: Latin Americans and Eastern Europeans Most important determinants of participation: Edu level, yrs in US, # children, Most important determinants of participation: Edu level, yrs in US, # children, martial statusmartial status

CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8

Future Directions For Research And PolicyFuture Directions For Research And Policy

Andrew R. Morrison and Maurice Schiff Andrew R. Morrison and Maurice Schiff

Summaries most important findings of the volumeSummaries most important findings of the volume Explores how these are related to policy Explores how these are related to policy Identifies some of the burning research and policy issues in this field Identifies some of the burning research and policy issues in this field

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND POLICY RESEARCH AND POLICY

• Migration and empowerment of women• Human development impacts of migration (fertility, child welfare)• Trafficking of women• Brain drain• Mode IV and liberalization of service sectors• Better measurement of migration flows

Migration and empowerment of women

To date, work almost exclusively qualitative To date, work almost exclusively qualitative Operationalization of “empowerment” difficult: core Operationalization of “empowerment” difficult: core

related concepts include:related concepts include: options, choice, control and poweroptions, choice, control and power ability to make and influence decisionsability to make and influence decisions

Research questions:Research questions: Impact of gender equality (beyond wage equality) on Impact of gender equality (beyond wage equality) on

migration flows in origin and destinationmigration flows in origin and destination Impact of migration on women’s empowermentImpact of migration on women’s empowerment

Human development impacts of migration (fertility, child welfare)

Poorer or better educational and other developmental Poorer or better educational and other developmental outcomes for children: income vs. parenting effectsoutcomes for children: income vs. parenting effects

The “accepted wisdom”:The “accepted wisdom”:

"If one or both parents emigrate, household and child-rearing "If one or both parents emigrate, household and child-rearing responsibilities fall to older adults, second or third degree responsibilities fall to older adults, second or third degree relatives, or even brothers or sisters. In any of these relatives, or even brothers or sisters. In any of these scenarios there is a real or potential risk that the children will scenarios there is a real or potential risk that the children will not receive the same health and nutritional care, and not receive the same health and nutritional care, and protection against abuse and exploitation, that they would protection against abuse and exploitation, that they would have received from their parents," have received from their parents,"

Nils Kastberg, UNICEF regional director for LACNils Kastberg, UNICEF regional director for LAC

But knowledge about impacts of absent But knowledge about impacts of absent parents only for a few countries parents only for a few countries

(El Salvador, Indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines, (El Salvador, Indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand)Thailand)

Most show better educational outcomes for Most show better educational outcomes for children of migrants; similar other children of migrants; similar other developmental outcomes (pyschological developmental outcomes (pyschological probs, drugs/alcohol, premarital sex)probs, drugs/alcohol, premarital sex)

Must be disaggregated by identity of absent Must be disaggregated by identity of absent parent(s) and age/sex of child left behindparent(s) and age/sex of child left behind

Policy angle: Policy angle: Sri Lankan odditiesSri Lankan oddities

Sri Lanka govt to restrict migration of mothers Thursday, March 8, 2007, 14:02 GMT, ColomboPage News Desk, Sri Lanka.

Colombo: The Sri Lankan government plans to limit migration of mothers inorder to ensure the welfare of their children.

“It is clear from available statistics and various reports that children of manymothers who migrate, especially for employment to the Middle East and othercountries, have become helpless and vulnerable, and lack nutrition and health-care,” Cabinet spokesperson Minister Anura Priyadharshana Yapa said….

Attempting to find a solution, the Sri Lankan Cabinet has granted itsapproval to prohibit of migration for employment by mothers with childrenunder five years of age. In the case of mothers with children over five years,for the purpose of registration at the Foreign Employment Bureau, a reportwill be required with a recommendation from a committee headed by theDivisional Secretary certifying that appropriate arrangements have beenmade with regard to the children. This committee can include a WomenDevelopment Officer, Relief Sister, Social Services Officer and Labour Welfare

Officer, the Minister said.

courtesy D. Rathacourtesy D. Ratha

Human development impacts…continued

FertilityFertility Good existing work on impact on fertility of migrant Good existing work on impact on fertility of migrant

women (selection, spousal separation, income effects—women (selection, spousal separation, income effects—see Lindstrom, 2002; Brockerhoff/Yang 1994)see Lindstrom, 2002; Brockerhoff/Yang 1994)

More work needed on impact on fertility in SOURCE More work needed on impact on fertility in SOURCE countries. Fargues (2007 on Morocco and Turkey vs. countries. Fargues (2007 on Morocco and Turkey vs. Egypt) shows that destination matters. Egypt) shows that destination matters.

Does sex composition of flows matter as well?Does sex composition of flows matter as well? Family cohesionFamily cohesion

Informal divorce (Ecuador and Philipines, but mostly Informal divorce (Ecuador and Philipines, but mostly anecdotal)anecdotal)

Trafficking of women

No chapter in the migration volume on No chapter in the migration volume on trafficking…and no accidenttrafficking…and no accident

But huge policy issue…upcoming Bank policy But huge policy issue…upcoming Bank policy brief to explore Bank’s comparative advantage brief to explore Bank’s comparative advantage (HDNSP) (HDNSP)

Analytical work: EWS and impact evaluation?Analytical work: EWS and impact evaluation?

The Brain drain

Sex-disaggregated extenstion to Docquier Sex-disaggregated extenstion to Docquier and Marfouk DEC databaseand Marfouk DEC database

Brain drain and productivity growth (Schiff Brain drain and productivity growth (Schiff and Wang, 2007)—gendered extension?and Wang, 2007)—gendered extension?

Mode IV and liberalization of service sectors

Temporary migration may have a series of Temporary migration may have a series of advantages for both sending and receiving advantages for both sending and receiving countries (vis-à-vis permanent migration)countries (vis-à-vis permanent migration)

On the research side, two important gender On the research side, two important gender issues:issues: Sex/occupational composition of Mode IV Sex/occupational composition of Mode IV

migrantsmigrants Over-staying (sex and occupational composition, Over-staying (sex and occupational composition,

effectiveness of incentive schemes, etc.)effectiveness of incentive schemes, etc.)

Better measurement of migration flows

Estimation of share of women in migration flows sensitive to Estimation of share of women in migration flows sensitive to type of data used:type of data used: Using Mexican 2000 census data: 23%Using Mexican 2000 census data: 23% Using U.S. 2000 census data: 40%*Using U.S. 2000 census data: 40%*

Why does this matter?Why does this matter? Undercounting leads to biased estimates of total flowsUndercounting leads to biased estimates of total flows Using destination censuses, leads to biased estimates of Using destination censuses, leads to biased estimates of

cross-country distribution of migrants if there are cross-country distribution of migrants if there are differences in sex-sequencing or illegality of moves differences in sex-sequencing or illegality of moves among countriesamong countries

* Ibarraran and Lubotsky, 2005

OPERATIONAL ENTRY POINTS OPERATIONAL ENTRY POINTS

maximizing the development impact of migration

Anti-poverty impact of remittances: women’s access to low-cost remittance channels and control over remittances (financial literacy, etc.)

Financial instruments that earmark expenditures (Banco Solidario)

Temporary migration (Mode IV)

social safety nets for children left behind

Sri Lankan solution not optimal.

Community and school-based programming…but be clear: what is the problem?

CCTs targeting households with children left behind (again, what’s the problem and is response non-distortionary?)

trafficking

Pre-movement (prevention)*Pre-movement (prevention)* Movement (border controls)Movement (border controls) Post-movement/exploitation (i.d. and Post-movement/exploitation (i.d. and

outreach)outreach) Post-exploitation (repatriation)*Post-exploitation (repatriation)*

* Areas of Bank comparative advantage* Areas of Bank comparative advantage

Source: Clert and Gomart, 2005Source: Clert and Gomart, 2005

WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE: WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE: YOUR INPUT YOUR INPUT

Peer reviewers for upcoming volumePeer reviewers for upcoming volume Thoughts on priorities for new analytical Thoughts on priorities for new analytical and operational workand operational work

THANK YOU !