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Operant ConditioningCompare and contrast the four methods used to

modify behavior in operant conditioning (positive

reinforcement, negative reinforcement,punishment, and response cost), giving original

examples of how each can be used in the

classroom. Include in your answer a discussion of

the four schedules of reinforcement, describingthe likely response pattern associated with each.

Give original examples of how each can be used

in the classroom.

Developed by W. Huitt (1998)

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Operant Conditioning

The major theorists for the development of

operant conditioning are:

Edward Thorndike

John Watson

B.F. Skinner

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Operant conditioning investigates the influence

of consequences on subsequent behavior.

Operant conditioning investigates the learning

of voluntary responses.

It was the dominant school in American

psychology from the 1930s through the 1950s.

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Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R

learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as

R-->S learning

It is the consequence that follows the response

that influences whether the response is likely or

unlikely to occur again.

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The three-term model of operant conditioning

(S--> R -->S) incorporates the concept that

responses cannot occur without an

environmental event (e.g., an antecedentstimulus) preceding it.

While the antecedent stimulus in operant

conditioning does not ELICIT or CAUSE the

response (as it does in classical conditioning), itcan influence its occurance.

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When the antecedent does influence the

likelihood of a response occurring, it is

technically called a discriminative stimulus.

It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary

response (i.e., the response's consequence) that

changes the probability of whether the

response is likely or unlikely to occur again.

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There are two types of consequences:

positive (sometimes called pleasant)

negative (sometimes called aversive)

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Two actions can be taken with these stimuli:

they can be ADDED to the learners

environment.

they can be SUBRACTED from the learnersenvironment.

If adding or subtracting the stimulus results in

a change in the probability that the response will

occur again, the stimulus is considered a

CONSEQUENCE.

Otherwise the stimulus is considered a

NEUTRAL stimulus.

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There are 4 major techniques or methods used

in operant conditioning.

They result from combining:

the two major purposes of operantconditioning (increasing or decreasing the

probability that a specific behavior will occur

in the future),

the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant

or negative/aversive), and

the action taken (adding or removing the

stimulus).

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Outcomes of Conditioning

Increase

Behavior

Decrease

Behavior

Stimulus

Positive/

pleasant

Negative/

Aversive

Add

Positive

Reinforcement

Subtract

Response Cost

Subtract

Negative

Reinforcement

Add

Punishment

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Schedules of consequences

Stimuli are presented in the environment

according to a schedule of which there are two

basic categories:

Continuous

Intermittent

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Continuous reinforcement simply means that

the behavior is followed by a consequence each

time it occurs.

Excellent for getting a new behavior

started.

Behavior stops quickly when reinforcement

stops.

Is the schedule of choice for punishment

and response cost.

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Intermittent schedules are based either on the

passage of time

OR number of correct responses

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The consequence can be delivered based on

a fixed amount of time or number of

correct responses

OR

a slightly different amount of time or

number of responses that vary around aparticular number

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This results in an four classes of intermittent

schedules.

Fixed Interval

The first correct response after a set amount of

time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is

delivered).

The time period required is always the same.

Example: Spelling test every Friday.

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Pattern of behavior for fixed interval schedule

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Variable Interval

The first correct response after a set amount of

time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is

delivered).

After the reinforcement, a new time period

(shorter or longer) is set with the average equalinga specific number over a sum total of trials.

Example: Pop quiz

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Pattern of behavior for variable interval schedule

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Fixed Ratio

A reinforcer is given after a specified number of

correct responses. This schedule is best forlearning a new behavior.

The number of correct responses required for

reinforcement remains the same.

Example: Ten math problems for homework

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Pattern of behavior for fixed ratio schedule

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Variable Ratio

A reinforcer is given after a set number of correct

responses.

After reinforcement the number of correct

responses necessary for reinforcement changes.

This schedule is best for maintaining behavior.

Example: A student raises his hand to be

called on.

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Pattern of behavior for variable ratio schedule

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Premack Principle

The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's

rule," states that a high-frequency activity can be

used to reinforce low-frequency behavior.

Access to the preferred activity is contingent on

completing the low-frequency, non-preferred

behavior.

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Premack Principle

The high frequency behavior to use as a

reinforcer can be determined by:

1. Asking students what they would like to do.

2. Observing students during free time.

3. Knowledge of interests of a particular age

group.

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Rules In Analyzing Examples

The following questions can help in determiningwhether operant conditioning has occurred.

a. What behavior in the example was increased

or decreased?

b. Was the behavior

increased (if yes, the process has the be either

positive or negative reinforcement),

OR

decreased (if the behavior was decreased

the process is either response cost or

punishment).

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Rules In Analyzing Examples

The following questions can help in determining

whether operant conditioning has occurred.

c. What was the consequence / stimulus that

followed the behavior in the example?d. Was the consequence (stimulus) added or

removed?

If added, the process was either

positive reinforcement or punishment.

If it was subtracted, the process was either

negative reinforcement or response cost.

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Analyzing An Example

Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-

out on every Friday during the month of June. The

last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to

his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of

cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three

weeks.

a. What behavior was changed?

Camping out

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weeks.

b. Was the behavior strengthened or

weakened?Weakened (Behavior decreased)

Eliminate positive and negative

reinforcement

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weeks.

Having water thrown on him.

c. What was the consequence?

d. Was the behavior consequence added or

subtracted?

Added

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weeks.

Since a consequence was ADDED and thebehavior was WEAKENED (REDUCED),

the process was PUNISHMENT.

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Additional examples are provided in the webmaterials.

An excellent web-based presentation on positive

reinforcement is provided at:

http://server.bmod.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm

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