ontology as a branch of philosophy
DESCRIPTION
Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy. A brief history of ontology. Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) Realist theory of categories Intelligible universals extending across all domains Central role of organisms Medieval scholastics: Aquinas, Scotus , Ockham, … (1200 – 1600) - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy
![Page 2: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
A brief history of ontology
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
Realist theory of categories
Intelligible universals extending across all domains
Central role of organisms
Medieval scholastics: Aquinas, Scotus, Ockham, … (1200 – 1600)
Aristotelianism as philosophia perennis
Common panscientific ontology and controlled vocabulary (Latin)
2
![Page 3: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
A brief history of ontology
Descartes (1596 – 1650)
Sceptical doubt initiates subversion of metaphysics, rise of epistemology
Central role of mind
Dualism of mind and matter
Kant (1724 – 1804)
Reality is unknowable
Metaphysics is impossible
We can only know the quasi-fictional domains which we ourselves create
3
![Page 4: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
A brief history of ontology
Brentano (1838 – 1917)
Rediscovery of Aristotle
Methods of philosophy and of science are one and the same
Husserl (1859 – 1938)
Inventor of formal ontology as a discipline distinct from formal logic
Showed how philosophy and science had become detached from the ‘life world’ of ordinary experience
4
![Page 5: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
The Four Phases of Philosophy
rapid practical scepticism mysticism
progress interest
5
![Page 6: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
First Cycle
Thales to Stoicism and Pyrrho, Neo-Pythagoreans,
Aristotle Epicureanism Eclectics Neo-Platonists
6
![Page 7: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Second Cycle
up to Scotism Ockham, Lull,
Aquinas Nominalists Nicholas of Cusa
7
![Page 8: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Third Cycle
Bacon, Rationalists Hume, Berkeley, Kant
Locke Reid German Idealism
8
![Page 9: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
A brief history of ontologyWittgenstein 1 (ca. 1910 – 1918)
Author of Tractatus
Bases ontology on formal logic in reductionistic atomism
Vienna Circle (1922 – ca. 1938)
Schlick, Neurath, Gödel, Carnap, Gustav Bergmann …
Centrality of logic to philosophy
Construction of philosophy from either physics or sensations as base
9
![Page 10: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
A brief history of ontologyWittgenstein 2 (ca. 1930 – 1951)
Centrality of language and of language games
Metaphysics = language goes on holiday
British Ordinary Language philosophy
Philosophical problems to be solved by the study of the workings of language
Speech Act Theory (J. L. Austin, 1911-1960)
10
![Page 11: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
A brief history of ontologyQuine (ca. 1930 – 1951)
Ontological commitment (study not: what there is, but: what sciences believe there is when logically formalized)
Analytical metaphysics (from ca. 1980): Chisholm, Lewis, Armstrong, Fine, Lowe, … beginnings of a rediscovery of metaphysics as first philosophy
What next?11
![Page 12: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Third Cycle
Bacon, Rationalists Hume, Berkeley, Kant
Locke Reid German Idealism
12
![Page 13: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Fourth Cycle (Continental)
Brentano Husserl Heidegger Derrida and
Polish School the French
13
![Page 14: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Fourth Cycle (Analytical)
Frege Vienna Circle Wittgenstein 2 Rorty
Wittgenstein 1 Quine
Russell
14
![Page 15: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
The Four Phases of Philosophy
rapid practical scepticism mysticism
progress interest
15
![Page 16: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Successive cycles begin with a rediscovery of Aristotle and a new theoretical orientation
Followed by practical interest = invention of new disciplines• Empirical natural science• Psychology• Logic ….
which break away from the mother ship of philosophy
16
![Page 17: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Fifth Cycle
Analytical Metaphysics Ontology (IFOMIS)
Rediscovery of Aristotle
17
![Page 18: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
18
![Page 19: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
19
http://labont.it/consequences-of-realism
![Page 20: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
An example of a practical problem
Increasingly, publishers are exploring ways to tag scientific literature in ways designed to make their contents more easily accessible via computers
For maximal effect, a single set of terms should be used for tagging all literature published in a given domain
How do we select the optimal set of terms (in first approximation: the ‘ontology’) for each domain?
20
![Page 21: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
from: http://www.ploscompbiol.org/doi/pcbi.1000361
21
![Page 22: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
http://www.biocurator.org
22
![Page 23: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
23
![Page 24: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Most successful ontology thus far
$200 mill. invested in literature and database curation using the Gene Ontology (GO) since 1999
over 11 million annotations relating gene products (proteins) described in the UniProt, Ensembl and other databases to terms in the GO
24
![Page 25: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
GO provides a controlled system of representations for use in annotating
data and literature that is
• multi-species
• multi-disciplinary
• multi-granularity, from molecules to population
25
![Page 26: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
26
![Page 27: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
are structured representations of the domains of molecules, cells, diseases ... which can be used by researchers in many different disciplines who are focused on one and the same biological reality
The GO and its sister ontologies
27
![Page 28: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
The goal: virtual science
• consistent (non-redundant) annotation
• cumulative (additive) annotation
yielding, by incremental steps, a virtual map of the entirety of reality that is accessible to computational reasoning
28
![Page 29: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
This goal is realizable if we have a common ontology framework
data is retrievable
data is comparable
data is integratable
only to the degree that it is annotated using a common controlled vocabulary
– compare the role of seconds, meters, kilograms … in unifying science
29
![Page 30: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
To achieve this end we have to engage in something like philosophy
is this the right way to organize the top level of this portion of the GO?how does the top level of this ontology relate to the top levels of other, neighboring ontologies? 30
![Page 31: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Aristotle’s Metaphysics
The world is organized via types/universals/categories which are hierarchically organized
31
![Page 32: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
This holds, too, of the biological world32
![Page 33: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Porphyrian Hierarchy
33
![Page 34: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Linnaean Hierarchy
34
![Page 35: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
From Species to Genera
canary
animal
bird
35
![Page 36: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
species-genus hierarchyas inference machine
36
![Page 37: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
fishhas finscan swimhas gills
37
![Page 38: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
animal
bird
canary
From Species to Genera
can singis yellow
has skin
moves
eatsbreathes
has wingscan flyhas feathers
species-genus hierarchyas inference machine
XX
38
![Page 39: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Question: Why are species-genus hierarchies good ways to represent the world for purposes of reasoning?
Answer: They capture the way the world is (Aristotelian realism)
39
![Page 40: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Transcription is_a biological process
Transcription part_of gene expression40
![Page 41: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Species-genusgenus trees can be represented also as map-like partitions
If Aristotelian realism is right, then such partitions, when correctly built are transparent to the reality beyond
41
![Page 42: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
From Species to Genera
canary
animal
bird
42
![Page 43: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canarycanary
43
![Page 44: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Alberti’s Grid c.1450
44
![Page 45: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Ontologies: windows on
the universals in reality 45
![Page 46: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Artist’s Grid
as through a transparent grid46
![Page 47: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Species-Genera as Map/Partition
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
canary
47
![Page 48: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
siamese
mammal
cat
organism
substancespecies, genera
animal
instances
frog
48
![Page 49: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Aristotle’s Metaphysics is focused on objects (things, substances, organisms)
The most important universals in his ontology are substance universals
cow man rock planet
which pertain to what a thing is at all times at which it exists
49
![Page 50: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
For Aristotle, the world contains also accidents
which pertain to how a thing is at some time at which it exists:
= what holds of a substance per accidens
red hot suntanned spinning
50
![Page 51: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Accidents, too, instantiate genera and species
Thus accidents, too, form trees of greater and lesser generality
51
![Page 52: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Accidents: Species and instances
this individual accident of redness (this token redness – here, now)
quality
color
red
scarlet
R232, G54, B24
52
![Page 53: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Nine Accidental Categoriesquid? substance quantum? quantity quale? qualityad quid? relationubi? placequando? timein quo situ? status/contextin quo habitu? habitusquid agit? actionquid patitur? passion
53
![Page 54: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
= relations of inherence(one-sided existential dependence)
John
hunger
Substances are the bearers of accidents
54
![Page 55: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Aristotle 1.0
an ontology recognizing:substance tokensaccident tokenssubstance typesaccident types
55
![Page 56: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Aristotle’s Ontological SquareSubstantial Accidental
Second substance
man
cat
ox
Second accident
headache
sun-tan
dread
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
56
![Page 57: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Some philosophers accept only part of this four category
ontology
57
![Page 58: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Standard Predicate Logic – F(a), R(a,b) ...
Substantial Accidental
Attributes
F, G, R
Individuals
a, b, c
this, that
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
58
![Page 59: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Bicategorial NominalismSubstantial Accidental
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
59
![Page 60: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Process MetaphysicsSubstantial Accidental
Events
Processes“Everything is flux”
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
60
![Page 61: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
In fact however we need more than the ontological square
Not everything in reality is either a substance or an accident
61
![Page 62: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Positive and negative parts
positivepart
negativepartor hole
(made of matter)
(not made of matter)
62
![Page 63: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Shoes
63
![Page 64: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Pipe
64
![Page 65: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Niches, environments are holes
65
![Page 66: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Places are holes
66
![Page 67: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Places are holes
67
![Page 68: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Nine Accidental Categoriesquid? substance quantum? quantity quale? qualityad quid? relationubi? placequando? timein quo situ? status/contextin quo habitu? habitusquid agit? actionquid patitur? passion
68
![Page 69: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Aristotle 2.0
scientific realism coupled with realism about the everyday world
69
![Page 70: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Universe/Periodic Tableanimal
bird
canary
ostrich
fishfolk biology
partition of DNA space
70
![Page 71: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Universe/Periodic Tableanimal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
both are transparent partitions of one and the same reality
71
![Page 72: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
An organism is a totality of atoms
An organism is a totality of molecules
An organism is a totality of cells
An organism is a single unitary substance
... all of these express veridical partitions
72
![Page 73: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Multiple transparent partitions
at different levels of granularity
operating with species-genus hierarchies and with an ontology of substances and accidents along the lines described by Aristotle
substances and accidents reappear in the microscopic and macroscopic worlds of e.g. of chemistry and evolutionary biology
73
![Page 74: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
we do not assert
that every level of granularity is structured in substance-accident form -- perhaps there are pure process levels, perhaps there are levels structured as fields
74
![Page 75: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Perspectivalism
PerspectivalismDifferent partitions may represent cuts through the same reality which are skew to each other
Not all need be structured in substance-accident terms – perhaps there are pure process levels, perhaps there are levels structured as fields
75
![Page 76: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Perspectivalism
PerspectivalismDifferent partitions may represent cuts through the same reality which are skew to each other
Different partitions may capture reality in ways which involve different degrees of vagueness
76
![Page 77: Ontology as a Branch of Philosophy](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062308/56812adc550346895d8ec4ab/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Basic Formal Ontology (BFO)
ContinuantOccurrent(Process)
IndependentContinuant
DependentContinuant
..... ..... ........77