onsite drinking water treatment. acknowledgement guidance and assistance on development of this...
TRANSCRIPT
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Onsite Drinking Water Onsite Drinking Water TreatmentTreatment
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Acknowledgement
• Guidance and assistance on development of this presentation was provided by the Texas Groundwater Protection Committee and the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. The effort was partially funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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OverviewOverview IntroductionIntroductionContaminates of concernContaminates of concern
• Public health issuesPublic health issues
• Maximum contaminant level (MCL)Maximum contaminant level (MCL)
• Areas of concernAreas of concern
• Treatment OptionsTreatment OptionsHow to select a treatment unitHow to select a treatment unitResourcesResources
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IntroductionIntroduction
Groundwater provides a large portion of our Groundwater provides a large portion of our drinking water.drinking water.
Fifteen percent of Americans have their Fifteen percent of Americans have their own sources of drinking water.own sources of drinking water.
It is up to well owners to ensure their water It is up to well owners to ensure their water is safe to drink.is safe to drink.
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How do Aquifers Become How do Aquifers Become Polluted?Polluted?
Aquifers become polluted through Aquifers become polluted through
• Leaching from rocksLeaching from rocks
• Pollutants carried down from the surface Pollutants carried down from the surface by percolating waterby percolating water
• Surface water rechargeSurface water recharge
• Interaquifer exchangeInteraquifer exchange
• Direct mitigationDirect mitigation
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Drinking Water QualityDrinking Water Quality
EPA rules do not apply to private wells; EPA rules do not apply to private wells; however, EPA standards are a good basis however, EPA standards are a good basis for determining what your drinking water for determining what your drinking water quality should be.quality should be.
MCL - Maximum contaminant level MCL - Maximum contaminant level
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Water Quality StandardsWater Quality StandardsNational Primary Drinking Water RegulationsNational Primary Drinking Water Regulations
• Protect public healthProtect public health
National Secondary Drinking Water RegulationsNational Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
• Aesthetic or cosmetic effectsAesthetic or cosmetic effects
Contaminant Candidate List (CCL)Contaminant Candidate List (CCL)
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/http://www.epa.gov/safewater/
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Contaminants of ConcernContaminants of Concern
ArsenicArsenicNitrateNitratePerchloratePerchlorateRadionuclidesRadionuclides
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ArsenicArsenic
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Arsenic - What is It?Arsenic - What is It?
Naturally occurring element Naturally occurring element
Natural sourcesNatural sources• Erosion, dissolution, and weathering of rocksErosion, dissolution, and weathering of rocks• VolcanoesVolcanoes• Forest firesForest fires
Manmade/man-affected sourcesManmade/man-affected sources• AgricultureAgriculture• Wood preservativesWood preservatives
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Acute Acute Stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea Stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea Numbness in hands and feet Numbness in hands and feet Periorbital swellingPeriorbital swelling
ChronicChronic Dermal EffectsDermal Effects HypertensionHypertension Cardiovascular EffectsCardiovascular Effects
Arsenic - Health RisksArsenic - Health Risks
DiabetesDiabetesCancerCancer
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Arsenic - MCLArsenic - MCL
The new Maximum Contaminant Level The new Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for arsenic is 10 (MCL) for arsenic is 10 ppbppb..
The EPA estimates that 350,000 people in The EPA estimates that 350,000 people in the U.S. drink water containing more than the U.S. drink water containing more than 50 50 ppbppb, and nearly 25 million people drink , and nearly 25 million people drink water containing more than 25 water containing more than 25 ppbppb..
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Arsenic Concentrations
in Texas
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High Arsenic Concentrations in
Texas Groundwater
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High Arsenic Concentrations
in the High Plains Aquifer
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High Arsenic Concentrations in the Gulf Coast Aquifer
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Arsenic - TreatmentArsenic - Treatment
Treatment is dependent on oxidation stateTreatment is dependent on oxidation state
Arsenate - As(V) Arsenate - As(V) • Effective removal Effective removal
Arsenite – As(III)Arsenite – As(III)• Must undergo oxidationMust undergo oxidation
to be effectively removedto be effectively removed
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Arsenic – Treatment OptionsArsenic – Treatment Options
AdsorptionAdsorptionReverse Osmosis (RO)Reverse Osmosis (RO)DistillationDistillationIon Exchange (IE)Ion Exchange (IE)
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Arsenic - AdsorptionArsenic - Adsorption Activated alumina and Activated alumina and
iron-based sorbents iron-based sorbents
AdvantagesAdvantages Simple operationSimple operation Low maintenanceLow maintenance Low relative cost Low relative cost Small under-the-counter Small under-the-counter
footprintfootprint Slow breakthrough Slow breakthrough
kineticskinetics
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Arsenic - Reverse OsmosisArsenic - Reverse OsmosisAdvantageAdvantage
Achieves greater than 95% removalAchieves greater than 95% removal
DisadvantageDisadvantage Relatively poor water recoveryRelatively poor water recovery
• Most units designed to achieve 20-30% recovery Most units designed to achieve 20-30% recovery • Used to treat drinking and cooking water onlyUsed to treat drinking and cooking water only
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Arsenic - Reverse OsmosisArsenic - Reverse Osmosis
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Arsenic - DistillationArsenic - Distillation
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Arsenic - DistillationArsenic - Distillation
Majority of the cost is associated with energy requirementMajority of the cost is associated with energy requirement
ExampleExample
Distillation units can be purchased for $300-$1200Distillation units can be purchased for $300-$1200
($/kWh)y electricit ofcost )/(Production
unitofWattage024.0/
daygalgalCost
galdaygal
/13.0$$0.07/kWh/15
1100024.0
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Arsenic - Ion ExchangeArsenic - Ion ExchangeRemoval based on the principle of Removal based on the principle of
charged particles (ions)charged particles (ions)• A positively charged particle is called a A positively charged particle is called a
CATION.CATION.• A negatively charged particle is called an A negatively charged particle is called an
ANION.ANION.
Cations and anions are attracted to each Cations and anions are attracted to each other.other.
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Ion Exchange
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Arsenic - Ion ExchangeArsenic - Ion Exchange
Not a good option if source water containsNot a good option if source water contains > 500 mg/L of TDS, > 500 mg/L of TDS, > 50 mg/L SO> 50 mg/L SO44
-2 -2 (sulfate)(sulfate)
high levels of nitrate or ironhigh levels of nitrate or iron
Chromatographic peaking Chromatographic peaking
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NitrateNitrate
NONO33--
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Nitrate- What is It?Nitrate- What is It?
Occurs naturally in both surface and groundwaterOccurs naturally in both surface and groundwater
Groundwater concentrations are elevated by Groundwater concentrations are elevated by • Natural occurrenceNatural occurrence• Overuse of fertilizersOveruse of fertilizers• Improper disposal of human and animal wasteImproper disposal of human and animal waste
Very soluble in waterVery soluble in water
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Nitrate – Health RisksNitrate – Health Risks
In the United States, the average dietary intake of In the United States, the average dietary intake of nitrate is about 75 to 100 mg per day. nitrate is about 75 to 100 mg per day. 5 to 10% comes from drinking water 5 to 10% comes from drinking water
In the body In the body nitratenitrate converts to converts to nitrite.nitrite. Conversion process oxidizes the iron in hemoglobin Conversion process oxidizes the iron in hemoglobin For children For children 6 months or younger6 months or younger - results in a blue baby - results in a blue baby
syndrome. syndrome.
Elevated nitrite intake may contribute to some cancersElevated nitrite intake may contribute to some cancers
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Nitrate - MCLNitrate - MCL
Drinking Water Standards (ppm): Drinking Water Standards (ppm):
MCLMCLNitrate:Nitrate: 10 as N10 as N Nitrite:Nitrite: 1 as N1 as N
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Nitrate Concentrations in TexasNitrate Concentrations in Texas
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High Nitrate Concentrations
in Texas Groundwater
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High Nitrate Concentrations in West Texas Groundwater
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Nitrate – Treatment OptionsNitrate – Treatment Options
Reverse Osmosis (RO)Reverse Osmosis (RO)DistillationDistillationIon Exchange (IE)Ion Exchange (IE)ElectrodialysisElectrodialysis
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ElectrodialysisElectrodialysis
Alternating anion- and Alternating anion- and cation-selective stacked cation-selective stacked membranesmembranes
Nitrate drawn into the Nitrate drawn into the brine wastebrine waste
DisadvantagesDisadvantages Complicated Complicated Costly Costly Potentially prohibited by Potentially prohibited by
local codeslocal codes
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PerchloratePerchlorate
ClOClO44
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Perchlorate – What is It?Perchlorate – What is It?
Natural occurring and manmade chemical Natural occurring and manmade chemical Very mobile in aqueous systemsVery mobile in aqueous systemsSources of contaminationSources of contamination
Fertilizer derived from Chilean caliche Fertilizer derived from Chilean caliche Ingredient in solid propellant for rockets, Ingredient in solid propellant for rockets,
missiles, and fireworksmissiles, and fireworks Naturally occurringNaturally occurring
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Perchlorate – Health RiskPerchlorate – Health RiskEffect of low level chronic exposure is still Effect of low level chronic exposure is still
not fully understood not fully understood
Exposure to perchlorate is via the diet Exposure to perchlorate is via the diet Examples: Lettuce, milk, and drinking water Examples: Lettuce, milk, and drinking water
Competitively blocks thyroid iodine uptakeCompetitively blocks thyroid iodine uptake Sensitive populations: fetuses, newborns, Sensitive populations: fetuses, newborns,
infants, young children, individuals with thyroid infants, young children, individuals with thyroid problems or iodide deficiencies. problems or iodide deficiencies.
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Perchlorate – MCLPerchlorate – MCL
No MCL No MCL
EPA reference dose is .0007 mg/kg per dayEPA reference dose is .0007 mg/kg per day
In Texas, current action level is 17 ppbIn Texas, current action level is 17 ppb 4 ppb is used for public water systems.4 ppb is used for public water systems.
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Perchlorate Occurrence in TXPerchlorate Occurrence in TX
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High Perchlorate Concentrations in the High Plains Aquifer
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Occurrence and Potential Sources of Perchlorate Occurrence and Potential Sources of Perchlorate Releases to the Environment as of April 2003Releases to the Environment as of April 2003
LocationLocation SuspectedSuspected
SourceSource
Type of Type of
ContaminationContamination
Max.Max.Concentration Concentration
(ppb)(ppb)
Andrews CountyAndrews County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply 15.815.8
Dawson CountyDawson County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply
Private WellPrivate Well2626
58.858.8Ector CountyEctor County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply 55
Gaines CountyGaines County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply
Private WellPrivate Well2727
3030Glasscock Glasscock CountyCounty
UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply
Private WellPrivate Well1.11.1
33
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Occurrence and Potential Sources of Perchlorate Occurrence and Potential Sources of Perchlorate Releases to the Environment as of April 2003Releases to the Environment as of April 2003
LocationLocation SuspectedSuspected
SourceSource
Type of Type of
ContaminationContamination
Max.Max.Concentration Concentration
(ppb)(ppb)
Howard CountyHoward County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply
Private WellPrivate Well1.41.4
2626Kleburg CountyKleburg County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply 4.54.5Hockley CountyHockley County Improper Improper
Cathodic Cathodic ProtectionProtection
Elevated Storage Elevated Storage TankTank
3232
Lone Star Army Lone Star Army Ammunition Ammunition Plant, TexarkanaPlant, Texarkana
Propellant and Propellant and Munitions Munitions HandlingHandling
Monitoring WellMonitoring Well
Surface WaterSurface Water2323
66Longhorn Army Longhorn Army Ammunition Ammunition Depot, KamakDepot, Kamak
Propellant Propellant HandlingHandling
Monitoring WellMonitoring Well 169,000169,000
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Occurrence and Potential Sources of Perchlorate Occurrence and Potential Sources of Perchlorate Releases to the Environment as of April 2003Releases to the Environment as of April 2003
LocationLocation SuspectedSuspected
SourceSource
Type of Type of
ContaminationContamination
Max.Max.Concentration Concentration
(ppb)(ppb)
Martin CountyMartin County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply
Private WellPrivate Well3232
19.119.1McGregor Naval McGregor Naval Weapons PlantWeapons Plant
Propellant Propellant HandlingHandling
Monitoring WellMonitoring Well 91,00091,000
Midland CountyMidland County UnknownUnknown Public Water SupplyPublic Water Supply 4646PANTEX Plant, PANTEX Plant, AmarilloAmarillo
ExplosivesExplosives Monitoring WellMonitoring Well 340340
Red River Army Red River Army Depot, Depot, TexarkanaTexarkana
Propellant Propellant HandlingHandling
Monitoring WellMonitoring Well 8080
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Perchlorate – Treatment OptionsPerchlorate – Treatment Options
Reverse OsmosisReverse Osmosis
Ion ExchangeIon Exchange Resin cannot be regenerated Resin cannot be regenerated
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RadionuclidesRadionuclides
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Radionuclides –What are They?Radionuclides –What are They?
Radioactive materialRadioactive material (Adjusted) Gross Alpha Emitters(Adjusted) Gross Alpha Emitters
• Positively charged Positively charged • Uranium and Radium-226 are examplesUranium and Radium-226 are examples
Beta particle emittersBeta particle emitters• Positively or negatively charged Positively or negatively charged • Radium-228 and TRadium-228 and Tritium are examplesare examples
RadonRadon• GasGas
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Radionuclides –How do They End Up Radionuclides –How do They End Up in My Water?in My Water?
Mostly naturally occurring Mostly naturally occurring From the Earth’s crust (released as the rocks From the Earth’s crust (released as the rocks
weather)weather) In the atmosphere (comes down with rain)In the atmosphere (comes down with rain)
Some manmade sourcesSome manmade sources
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Radionuclides lead to an increased risk of cancerRadionuclides lead to an increased risk of cancerUranium: kidney damageUranium: kidney damageRadiumRadium
Bone growths Bone growths Osteoporosis Osteoporosis Tooth breakage Tooth breakage Kidney disease Kidney disease Liver diseaseLiver disease
Radon-lung and stomach cancerRadon-lung and stomach cancer
Radionuclides –Health RisksRadionuclides –Health Risks
Tissue necrosisTissue necrosis Cataracts Cataracts Anemia Anemia Immunological suppression Immunological suppression Death Death
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Beta- and Photon-Emitters: 4 millirems / yearBeta- and Photon-Emitters: 4 millirems / year
Alpha-Emitters: 15 pCi/L Alpha-Emitters: 15 pCi/L
Uranium: Uranium: 30 30 µµg/Lg/L
Radium: 5 pCi/L Radium: 5 pCi/L
Radon: No current MCL (may become 4,000 pCi/L or Radon: No current MCL (may become 4,000 pCi/L or 300 pCi/L depending on state’s decision)300 pCi/L depending on state’s decision)
Radionuclides –MCLRadionuclides –MCL
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Gross Alpha Particle Activity in Texas Water Wells 1988-2004
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Gross Beta Particle Activity in Texas Water Wells 1988-2004
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High Radionuclides in
Texas Groundwater
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High Radionuclides in Texas Groundwater
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Radionuclides –Treatment Radionuclides –Treatment OptionsOptions
ContaminantContaminant Treatment TechnologyTreatment Technology
Radium (-226 and-228)Radium (-226 and-228) Ion Exchange (IE)- cation; Ion Exchange (IE)- cation; Reverse Osmosis (RO); Reverse Osmosis (RO); Distillation (D)Distillation (D)
Radon-222Radon-222 Aeration;Aeration; Granular Activated Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) Carbon (GAC)
UraniumUranium IE -anion; RO; DIE -anion; RO; D
Adjusted gross alpha Adjusted gross alpha emittersemitters
RO; DRO; D
Gross beta and photon Gross beta and photon emittersemitters
IE-mixed bed; RO; DIE-mixed bed; RO; D
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Radon RemovalRadon Removal
Granular activated carbon (GAC)Granular activated carbon (GAC) Do not use point-of-use systems Do not use point-of-use systems
AerationAeration Preferred method of removalPreferred method of removal Up to 99.9% removalUp to 99.9% removal Three main typesThree main types
• Spray aeration Spray aeration • Packed column aerationPacked column aeration• Shallow tray aerationShallow tray aeration
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Spray Spray AerationAeration
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Packed Packed Column Column AerationAeration
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Shallow Shallow Tray Tray
AerationAeration
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Which Treatment Which Treatment Option Should I Option Should I
Choose?Choose?
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Treatment Options SummaryTreatment Options Summary
TechnologyTechnology Contaminants*Contaminants* Initial Initial CostCost±±
LimitationsLimitations
Ion Ion ExchangeExchange
arsenic (As), arsenic (As), perchlorate (P), nitrate perchlorate (P), nitrate (N), radium (R), (N), radium (R), uranium (U), gross uranium (U), gross beta emitters (beta emitters (ββ))
$400- $400- $1500$1500
competing competing contaminantscontaminants
Reverse Reverse OsmosisOsmosis
As, P, N, U, R, As, P, N, U, R, ββ, , adjusted alpha adjusted alpha
emitters (emitters (αα))
$300-$300-$1000$1000
poor water poor water recoveryrecovery
DistillationDistillation As, N, R, UAs, N, R, U $300-$300-$1200$1200
energy energy requirementrequirement
* Does not imply co-treatment capabilities for all contaminants listed.
± Only estimate of unit cost– does not include installation or O & M costs.
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Treatment Options SummaryTreatment Options Summary
TechnologyTechnology ContaminantsContaminants Initial CostInitial Cost±± LimitationsLimitations
AerationAeration radonradon $3000-$3000- off-gasoff-gas
AdsorptionAdsorption•AA & IBSAA & IBS
•GACGAC
AsAs
radonradon
$100-$300$100-$300
$300-$800$300-$800
microbial microbial growthgrowth
aeration is a aeration is a better better choicechoice
± Only estimate of unit cost– does not include installation or O & M costs.
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Selecting a Treatment UnitSelecting a Treatment Unit
Qualified third-party lab water quality testing Qualified third-party lab water quality testing http://www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/permitting/waterperm/pdw/chemlabs.pdf
Find a system that will treat the constituents in Find a system that will treat the constituents in the water the water
Consider co-treatment compatibility if more than Consider co-treatment compatibility if more than one constituent is presentone constituent is present
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Selecting a Treatment UnitSelecting a Treatment Unit
CompareCompare Initial costInitial cost O&M costs O&M costs O&M requirementsO&M requirements Contaminant removal efficiency Contaminant removal efficiency
Will you have a means of waste disposal?Will you have a means of waste disposal?
WarrantiesWarranties
Life expectancy Life expectancy
Company reputationCompany reputation
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Product CertificationProduct CertificationWater Quality Association (WQA) Water Quality Association (WQA)
Gold Seal Product Validation from the WQAGold Seal Product Validation from the WQA http://www.wqa.orghttp://www.wqa.org
The National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)The National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) http://www.nsf.org/Certified/DWTU/http://www.nsf.org/Certified/DWTU/
EPA registrationEPA registration
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Need More Information?Need More Information? Environmental Protection AgencyEnvironmental Protection Agency
www.epa.gov/safewater/www.epa.gov/safewater/
Safe Drinking Water HotlineSafe Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) (1-800-426-4791) www.epa.gov/surfwww.epa.gov/surf““Drinking Water From Household Wells”Drinking Water From Household Wells”““Home Water Treatment Units”Home Water Treatment Units”
Contact your County Extension OfficeContact your County Extension Office