206 EXCURSION TO TONBRIDOE AND TUNBRIDGE WELLS.

has given outstanding masses, some most grotesque in form andappearance.

Permission was kindly given to visit the charming grounds ofthe Spa Hydropathic Establishment, which fronts Bishop's Downat the eastern extremity of the Common. In the grounds may beseen a good specimen of the beautiful little valleys which aboundin the neighbourhood, and which, with the fine timber adorningboth hills and valleys, render this district so attractive.

A little further to the east the Tunbridge Wells Sand is againcharacteristically seen on Rusthall Common, where the rocks arestill more striking than at Mount Ephraim. One of thesemasses has received the name of the "Toad Rock," from its re­semblance to that animal, and others, too, are known by distinctnames. They are fine examples of rocks of various degrees ofhardness, acted upon by atmospheric agencies.

Leaving Rusthall Common, the party crossed the " HappyValley," having Wadhurst Clay in the bottom, to the well-known,. High Rocks," again showing Tunbridge Wells Sand.here thrownup by a fault. After inspecting these huge masses of soft sand­stone, with their remarkable clefts, Members made their way bythe narrow valley along which runs one of the feeders of theMedway, the boundary between Kent and Sussex, to TunbridgeWeUs Station, for the return to London.

ORDINARY MEETING.

JULY 4TH, 1879.

Prof. T. RUPERT JONES, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in theChair.

The Donations to the Library received since the previous meet­ing were announced, and the donors received the thanks of theAssociation.

The President having left the chair, it was taken by Prof. J.MORRIS, M.A., F.G.S., Vice-President" when

Till': NATUIIE AND ORIGIN o~· PEAT AND PEAT-DOGS. 207

The following Paper was read :-

ON THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOGB.-

By PROF. T. RUPERT JONES, F.R.S., PresidentGeol. Assoc., &c., &c.

Abstract .. with Additions.

CO:\"fENTS :-

§ I. Description.1. General Description of Peat-bogs,2. The Internal Structure of Peat·bogs .3. The Surface of Peat-bogs.

§ II. Formation and Constituents of Peat.1. Snbmerged Peat.2. Emerged Peat.

§ III. Classification of Peat.I. Turf·moors and Heath-turf.

II. Peat-bogs of Valleys.J. At the heads of Valleys.2. River-peat.3. Peat of river-bends.4. Peat-marshea along rivers.5. Special Peat.bogs and the Blackearth.6. River-deltas.7. Maritime Marshes.

§ IV. Conclusion.Appendices I . and II.

§ I. This paper began with a description of P eat and Peat-bogs,noticing the former as a more or less brown or black, carbonizedmass of vegetable matter, accumulated by the growth of plants inmoist situations, either on high or lowground, mostly in temperateclimates,'] and presenting various muddy, spongy, and fibrous con-

*A paper by the author on the same snbject is published in " Sciencefor All," Cassell & Oo., No. 23.

t The "Dismal Swamp" is a morass in the United States of NorthAmerica, commencing south of Norfolk, in Virginia, and extending 30 milesinto North Carolina. Area about 235 square miles. It is thickly coveredwith wood , has Lake Drummond in its centre, and is traversed by theDismal-Swamp Canal, 23 mil es in length.-K. Johnston's" Gazetteer."The Peat.deposits of Calcutta and Nepi\l are noticed by the GeologicalSurveyors in the "Indian Survey Records," and the "Manual of theGeology of India,"

208 T. RUPERT JONES ON THE NATURE AND

ditions, at different depths in the mass , or at different places ofaccumulation.

Bogs, Mosses, Turbaries, &c., were described as continuous orbroken, flat, marshy, muddy, peaty, and watery tracts, here and therefirm enough, either by a local rising of the soil, or with the toughentanglement of vegetable roots and fibres, to bear animals andmen, but often dangerous sloughs, marked with a green coating ofBog-moss and oth er aquatic plants.

Walter Scott's description of the home of a Moss-trooper indi­cates these features with graphic force :-

"The ground up on which it (the tower) stood wa s gently elevated aboveth e marsh for the space of ab out a hundred yards, affording an esplanadeof dry turf, which extended its elf in the immediate neighbourhood of th etower; but beyond which the surface presented to strangers was that ofan impassable and dangerous bog. The owner of the tower and his inmatesalone knew the winding and intricate paths, which, leading over groundthat WRS comparatively sound, admi tted visitors to his resid ence."

-" The Black Dwarf," Chap. viii. And in another instance (" Layof the Last Minstrel," Canto iv.)-

" He led a small and shaggy nag,That through a bog, from hag to hag,*Could bound like any Bilhope stag."

Peat has been described in very many books and memoirs, as toits formative plants, its chemical constituents, and its economicaluses. In this paper the conditions of accumulation, and the kindof vegetation concern ed, were chiefly tr eated of; it being speciallyinsisted on that "on both plateaux and plains, every gradationfrom puddles and ponds to lakes, and from marshes and fens tobogs, is found wherever the gronnd, being flat and impervious, canhold water on its surface." A ferruginous crust (called" Alois "),lying underneath sands in the Landes, near Bordeaux, stopsthe soakage of the water, and makes marshes; bence the commonuse of stilts there: and in Jutland, the" -Iem-al " (iron-sand),from 2 to 4 feet thick, is a similar formation. See Reclus " LeTerre," Woodward's English Translation, 1871, p. 84 and p. 86.

At th e bottom of the peat at Windlesham, near Bagshot, Surrey,4 or 5 inches of porous limonite (bog-ironore) have been locallyaccumulated by the infiltration of irony water; just as the bardj , Pan" or "Ruot" is formed und er gravel, stopping water and

* "The broken ground in a bog."

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOOS. 209

roots , to the injury of vegetation, until it is broken up in trench­in g- t he ground for cultivati on.

In the "Geologist," 18fi3, Vol vi., p. 114, is an abstract from" Hameberg's J ournal," of Dr. Mega's account ofa kind of" P an"in the heaths of Hannover in Am erica, which is a hard and tough" peat-sandstone," that is, a quartzose sand cem ented by peatymat erial by means of th e bog-water.

Th e occurrence of clay und er peat has often been noticed-seefor late instances Dakyns , " Geological Magazin e," Ser. 2, Vol.vi ., p. 47 j and T. R. J ones, " T ransaction s Newbury Field Olub,"V oL ii., p. 132 note.

Th e growth of Alpine Mosses and Rushes in moist hollows, intams and other upland lakes, supplies both living and decomposingplant-material, which 1!radually takes the place of shallow wat er j

and the streams have th e brown or amber-coloured tint of bog­water in consequence. At lower levels, lakes, shelvin g river­banks, deserted river-bends, and maritime flats are invaded, andultimately become choked by marsh-plants, that is-such asflourish either in the wat er or on wet ground. So also in cul­tivated lands, the ponds, old canals, ditches, negl ected cuttings bythe side of railway s, and such like, are soon colunized , and in timewholly occupied, by similar wat er -plants. In turn, the areas ofmany natural lakes and of old beaver-ponds, repl aced by peatyformations, are eit he r used for th e extraction of peat for fuel, orare drained and cult ivated by modern agriculturist s.

§ II. In the natu ral process of P eat-formation, there are-(1.) Waterside plants, encroaching on the shelving mud, whether

this be a deposit from flood-water, or formed of the soft clays ofthe lake- or river-bed.

Th e flora which mainl y contributes, in our latitudes, to th eformation of Peat has been noticed more or less fully by numerouswrit ers. A list is given in A pPENDIX I.

(2). Plants growing in th c wat er itself, either rooted in thebottom, or floating on or below the surface. All the se, as they die,go to make a vegetable deposit, or Su bmerg ed Peat. This graduallyaccumulating, and approaching th e water-level, becomes an EmerqedPe at, and affords a floor for the growth, first, of the marginal marsh­plants, and ultimately of such larger herbs, bushes, and trees, askeep th eir roots iu wet ground only. Occasionally Emerged Peattak es th e form of free floating islands in lakes, or of broad raft-

210 T. RUl'ERT JONEl! 0 );' THE NA'l'URI!l AND

like crusts, which supply broken and rotten plant-matter to thelake. Such turf-islands or moss-islenda have been freqn entlydescribed :-for instance, thos e of Derwent 'Water, by Rennie," Essays ou Peat-mosses," p. 454; of Holland and Wackhusen, ib.,p. 461; of the Cleveetz or Beel Lake, by J . F. Julius Schmidt ," Zeitsch. d. d. Geol. Ges. ," Vol. viii., p. 494, &c.

Some floating masses originate at the sides of quiet lakes, wherecreeping Grasses and other plant s push off their floating andmatted growth from the banks, to be joined by Bog-moss, with theminute fibres of (lonferva, Batrachospermum, Bulbochate, and otherfilamentous simple plants, and with Duckweed, Watercrowfoot, andsuch like floating vegetation. Thus turfy masses form at th e sur­face. These, slowly sinking as they fade and decay, are thick enedand covered by the growth of other water-plants, and the wholeaccumulates in time as peaty material in the water.

In course of time, if no change in the local drainage takes place,th e mud and sand of floods have aided the marsh-plants, wetjungles, and damp forests, to raise th e level still high er; and Mansteps in to clear and culti vate the spots most suitable to his re­quirements.

In the wide shallow hollows on many table-lands and heathyplateaux, whether in the broad upp er valleys, or in the naturaldepressions of the surface, an analogous series of condit ions tak esplace with the local vegetation, which can scarcely form a Sub ­merged, but grows at once as an Em erged or Superficial P eat, andsoon coats it self with the entangled tissue of heath-roots andother fibrous material. This undergoes relatively little decompo­sition, and is best known, in some parts of England, as "Turf."

§ III. Under th ese circumstances Peat Illay be classified thu s(see" Science for All," No. 23, p. 344)-

" 1. Peat-bogs and 'I'urf-moors on such pla teaux as flat mountain. topean d wide hill -moors.

"II. Peat-bogs of vall eys :- 1. At the heads of vall eys. 2. At th esa lien t angles within r iver-ourves. 3 , In deserted bende of riv ers. 4. I nplaine and lakes of expanded va lleya, 5. Special Peat-bogs of Denmark,and the Black-earth of Russia . 6. River-deltas. 7. Maritime Peat­marshes, where certain valleys and plaine (which are but broad vall eys),open to the sea,"

1. In illustrat.ion of thi s division of the subject, (1.) the High­lands of Scotland were alluded to, where the general " turf" of

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOGS. 211

Dark reddish brown; mass oompaot; no fibres of Mossvisible; surface of Bog decomposed by the atmosphere.

Light reddish brown; fibres of Moss very perfect.Pale yellowish brown fibres of Moss very perceptible.Deep reddish brown; fibres of Moss peroeptible.Blaokish brown; fibres of Moss scarcely peroeptible; con­

tains numerous twigs and small branches of Birch, AlderaudFir.

Dnll yellowish brown; fibres not visible; contains mnoh em­pyreumatic oil; mass oompaot.

Blackish brown; mass oompact; fibres not visible; containsmuch empyreumatic oil.

Black mass, very compaot , has a strong resemblance to pitchor coal; fracture conchoidal in every direotion, and lustreshining. (Depth of Bog, 38! feet.)

Marl; contains 64 pr. ct. of oarbonate of lime.Blue olay.Clay mixed with limestone-gravel. (Depth unknown.)

1.

2. 33. 54. 815. 3

6. 3

7. 10

8. 4

9. 310. 411.

the higher surfaces passes into "peat" in the hollows." (2).The Bog of Allen in the hollows of the great limestone flats inthe middle of Ireland.

In that country "Turf" (Peat) is said to occupy 2,830,000 acres,or nearly one-seventh of the entire area.]

The Parliamentary Reports on the Bogs of Ireland, 1810, &c.,contain much information. The following is the detailed descrip­lion of a "Section ofa Turf-bank in Timahoe Bog, in the EasternDistrict of the Bog of Allen,t in Co. Kildare," as given in" The first Report of the Commissioners appointed to enquire intothe Nature and Extent of the several Bogs in Ireland, and thePracticability of Draining and Cultivating them. Ordered bythe Honse of Commons to be printed 20th June, 1810." 4to.

~T Dopth~'O. in feel;.

2

H. Schinz-Gesner, writing on Peat in 1857, stated that in thegreat Moors in Bavaria the observed increase of peat in 45 yearswas 2 to 3 feet j in Oldenberg, in 100 years, only 4 feet; in Ham­melsmoor, Denmark, 2t feet j and that in Alpine districts peat-pitshave been observed to fill 4 to 5 feet in from 30 to 50 years.

* See, for instance, " Geol. Survey Memoirs, Explan. Sheet 24, Sootland,"p.22. Consult also James Geikie's .. Memoir on the Peat-mosaes of Scotland,"(See ApPENDIX II.)

t For some notices of the Irish Peat-depoeits, see the" Geol. Surv.Memoirs. Ireland," Explan. Sheets :l5, 49, 50, 61, 128, 142,143, 153, &c.

t This Bog was also described by.l:'rof. Jukes in the" Quart. Journ. Geol,Soc.,' Yol. xviii., p. 379.

212 T. RUPERT JONES ON THE NATURE AND

The Rev. Mr. Jenyns (" Report Brit. Assoc.," 1845, Sect. p. 75),was informed that in Cambridgeshire the peat-pits filled slowly atthe rate of about 20 inches in 16 years. The pits in Speen Moor,Newbury, where Equisetum is a predominant plant, are said to fillat the rate of several inches every year (see above, p. 188).

II. (1). As a good illustration of upper-valley Peat, a picture ofsome mountains, by Crome, in the National Gallery, No. 1,037, en­titled "Slate Quarries," was referred to. In this painting thecondensing mountain-tops form the background, the lines of drain­age are traceable, and the great brown areas of massive peat, withcharacteristic green patches of deceptive sward-like surface, arenoticeable features. Chat-moss on a northern affluent of theMersey, in Lancashire, was also mentioned.

To this series belongs the small upland lake or pond, chokedwith peat 14 feet thick, lying on sandy clay, bog-iron-ore, andmarly sand, near Kildale, in Yorkshire, as described by Mr. A.G. Cameron, " Geological Magazine," 2nd ser., Vol. v., p. 351.

The bursting of bogs, when the wet spongy mass can no longerhold up by capillary attraction the black liquid mud above thehorizontal line, was also spoken of. The model of a burst andsliding bog, near Slamannan, in Lanarkshire, made by Mr. ThomasGibbs, and deposited in the Museum of Practical Geology, wasalluded to.

II. (2 & 3.) The Peat formed at the alluvial tongues stretchinginto shallow water, opposite to the high and hollow cliffs at theturns of a winding river, was noticed; also the gradual infilling oflake-like waters left when such rivers have cut across the neck ofsemi-circular bends, and deserted them for the new channel.

Sir C. Lyell (" Second Visit to the United States," Vol. ii.,p. 244), writing of the swamps on the alluvial slope of the Missis­sippi above and below the present head of the delta, states thatsand and mud are deposited over the plain by the river and its tribu­taries, and most of the area consists of swamps, surrounded byluxuriant growths of timber, " interspersed with lakes, which aredeserted river-bends. These lakes are slowly filling up, and everyswamp is gradually becoming shallower, the substance accumulatedin them being for the most part of vegetable origin, unmixedwith earthy matter."

II. (4.) The enormous gorges in which the larger valleys origi­nated were due probably to great earth-cracks j and after having

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-1I0GS. 213

been fashioned by glacial and strong aqueous action, they weregradually choked with blocks, boulders, gravel, sand, and mudfrom glaciers and torrents, until the now existing alluvial plainswere formed. These retain in their present rivers a mere trace ofthe original tumultuous drainage, which is occasionally imitatedby devastating- floods. These broad plains are sometimes grassyprairies, or extensive forests j but often they are "swampy flats,varied with desolate peat-bogs, rank cane-brakes, or sedgy moors,nIl characterised by the dead level of the former water-line." Theriver-freshets. from rain or snow, sometimes cover the peatyareas, just rising from lakes and backwaters, with heavy loads ofgravel and sand j and thus make fresh clear lakes again. Theseare fit to be inhabited by many generations of freshwater Mollusca,which leave layers of their white decomposing calcareous exuvialin the" Shell-marl," often seen in cuttings in feus and in drainedlakes.- The Diatomacea, too flourish until thick beds of theirmicroscopic siliceous frustules accumulate as" Mountain-meal,"

* See H. Warburton, "On some Beds of Shell-marl in Scotland,'• Transact. Geol. Soo.,' Vol. iv., 1817, p. 305, &0.; Sir C. Lyell, "On a RecentFormation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire, and on some ReoentDeposits of Freshwater Marl," • Transact. Geol. Soo.,' Ser. 2, Vol. ii., 1826,p. 73, &0.; W. Buckland, "Notil'06 of the Shell-marl in the Valley of theKennet," in a Memoir in the' Transact. Geol. Soo.,' Ser. 2, Vol. ii., 1826, p.128, &0.; W. J. Hamilton, "On the Occurrence of a Freshwater Bed ofMarl in the Fens of Cambridgeshire," • Quart. Journ, Geol. Soo.,· Vol. vi.,1850, p. 451; T. R. Jones," Lecture on the Geological History of New.bury," 8vo., 1854, p, 40, &0.; "Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Explana­tion of Sheet 12," 8vo., 1862, p, 47, &0. Shell-marl associated with Peat inIreland is noticed in several of the Explanations of Sheets of the Geol,Surv. Map. From the grey marl of an old lake-floor in a valley near Ape.thorp, not far from Stamford, on whioh a Roman Station (discovered in1859) had been established, thongh subject to inundation, the followingfreshwater shells and other organisms were found by Mr. John F.Bentley. They were named by Dr. S. P. Woodward-

Planorbis nautileus, Clausilia plicatula PPI. spirorbis, CI. laminata,Sucoinea putris, Cyolostoma elegans,Physa fontinalis, Zua lubrica,Bithynia tentaculata, Helicella crystallina,B. Leachii, H. cella ria,Limneea peregra, H. radiatnla,L. palustris, H. lucida,L. truncatula, Helix fulva,Valvata apirorbis, H. aculeate,Pupa mnscorum, H. rufescens,Caryohium minimum, H. hispida,Vertigo pygmlll8, H. pnlchella,V. pnsilla, H. arbustorum,V. antivertigo, H. rotundata,Cionella acicula, Candona lucens,Aoicilia lineata, Beed-veesela.

214 T. RUPERT JONKS ON THE NATURE AND

H Polishing-powder," &c. Submerged and emerged Peat againare formed, supplanting the lake j and, may be, land is graduallysecured, and a forest-growth in time succeeds. The II Broads" ofNorfolk, abounding with water-plants, and choked in places withvegetation, are probably hollows left in old river-valleys of thePost-Tertiary Period.s

The wooded valley-ground, which owed its constitution to thePeat, is time after time inundated by the Hooded river, swollen bysudden increase in its head-waters, or checked by Isndslips,gravel-heaps, fallen timber, and other hiudrance to the drainage;or perhaps the forest-fastness of an enemy has been drowned-outby the skilful interference of a destroying conqueror. Then theforests of the river-side, thus swamped, die and rot, and " thespongy Bog-moss, creeping up among their prostrate trunks andbranches, raises its water-laden mass of rotten fibres and false greenmask above the ancient forest-land" (ll Science for All," No. 23,p. 346.)

Thus cane-brakes, jungles, and forests, one over another, arefound in Peat-bogs, with or without intervening beds of alluviumand lake-deposits ; the overloaded surface having frequently sub­sided and renewed itself again by the growth of peat. Where thearboreal vegetation has persistently retained the same character,no external change has led to specific differentiation through thelong periods of peat- and forest-growths j but sometimes greatclimatal changes have brought about a succession of faunal andfloral characteristics in the slowly passing ages.

Geological evidences of oscillations of level, and changes ofsuperficial conditions have been frequently noted from sectionsexposed in peat-beds of various kinds. Such sections have beendescribed, for instance, in Shropshire (HProceed. Geol. Soc.," Vol.ii., p. 200); in South Wales (" Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.," Vol.xii., p. 169) j in Somerset (Vol. xxii., p.L) j Scotland (Vol. xxxiii.,p. 196), &c.

II. (5.) "In Denmark, where Peat-mosses abound, there are someof great interest, though of limited extent, which have been formedin caldron-like cavities in the Boulder-clay. These great pot-holesarc of obscure origin; they may have originated by great massesof ice, or of frozen mud, having been deposited and subsequentlymelted, letting down the overlying beds j or they may be due to

* " Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc.," Vol. xxv., p. 259.

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOGS. 215

the Boulder-clay having been laid down over fissures and pot-holesin the rock on which old glaciers had worked, and so sunk down.At all events, they have been the receptacles of lakes, with bed­clays retaining well pr eserved remain s of true Arctic plants, suchas Betula nana, Dryas octopetala , Salix reticulata, S . polaris, andS . herbacea, and with shell-marls, on which were formed variouspeat -beds in succession. On the margin s of thes e, tre es of succes­sive forests grew and fell in. F irst Populus tremula, and thenPin e-forests , with the Stone weapons of the aborigines j andsucceeding Oaks, with B ronze weapons of another race of men j

lind Beeches at last, with the I ron implements of Hi storic Man j

these are clearly seen th ere, one aft er another." (" Sc. for All ," l.c.Steenstrup's Memoirs" Transact. Acad, SeL, Copenhagen, " Vol.ix. , 1842, &c., &c.; and especially his paper, ., Sur les Kojkkeu­ruoddings' de l'age de la pierre et sur la faune et la flore pre­historiques de Danmark," Extr. des Bulletins du Congres Inter­national d' Areheologie prehist orique a. Copenhagne en 1869.8vo., Copenhagen, 1872. See also" Lecture on the Antiquity ofMan ," by T. Rupert J ones, 8vo., Van Voorst, 1877, pp. 10-18.)

Th e enormous stretch of country covered with th e Black­earth (Tchernay-zem), in South Russia, was referred to as theresult of long-continued decay of plants over a large area where thedrainage has not allowed the permanent formation of watery peat.

II , (6). The D eltas of river-valleys, or partially filled gorgesmentioned above, where they meet the sea-le vel, and the suspendedmud falls in the slackened current , comprise many kinds of peat­forming water-areas. There are isolated bends and desertedreac hes of devious watercourses, lakes in sunken hollows of thesoil, " slakes" or stagnant side-wa ters of th e river, and imprisonedback-waters and lagoons of the sea. These become choked withwater-plants and silt, either continu ously or in successive stages.Various kinds of morasses are thus formed, which here and therecontain seams of sand , shells, and weeds left by the sea aft erstormy irruptions, or aft er quiet temporary possession,

Mr. A. G. Cameron has described in the" Geol. Mag .," Ser . 2,Vol. v., p. 351, a small maritim e peat-deposit at West Hartlepool,consisting of eight feet of peat, with 32 inches of under-clay. Thealluvial flats in Sussex arenoticed in Dixqn 's " Geology of Sussex,"

new edition, 1878, Chap ter viii. ; and Mr. E. H. Butl er's explana-

216 T. RUPERT JONES ON THE NATURE AND

tion of the history of tho se near Hastings is alluded to atpage 149.

The famous swamp in th e Delta of the Nile, anciently known as" Lacus Serbonis," and subj ect to inundations from the Mediter­ranean, although not a true Peat-bog, comes under thi s division ofdeltaic morasses. Treacherous sands and mud, overgrown withreeds and reed-like plants (the " Sea of Reeds," in Hebrew," Contemporary Review," Vol. xxxiv., p. 757), constitute-

"That Serbonian bog,Betwixt Damiata and Mount Caeiue old,Where armies whole have ennk."-Milton.

II. (i.) Where the pr esent sea-line intercepts the br oadestvalley-flats or alluvial plains, we have Maritime Marsh es, often ofvast extent, especially acr oss the embouchure of several neighbour­ing rivers, formerly effluents of one great river, then running inits gorge-track, but now obliterated by the encroachment of anarrow sea, or lost in it by the subsidence of the country.

In Lyell's" Second Visit to the United States" (2 vols., 1850),it is stated at page 30, Vol. i., that partial subsidence of the landon the eastern coast within recent periods has formed swamps,with stumps of C UPl'USIlS thyoides still standing. Such cedar­swamps on the east side of Delaware Bay contain large prostratetrees to an unknown depth. In one case a tree with upwards ofa thousand annual rings was found to lie over one of five hundredyears' growth. See also Dr. Dawson's " Notices of the ModernSubmerged Forests of Nova Scotia, " Quart. Jonrn. Geol. Soc.,"Vol. xi., p. 119, &c.; and" Acadian Geology," 2nd Edit., p.28, &c.

The Fen -Iands of England were referr ed to in illustration, espe­cially the "Levels,"· in Cambridgeshire and neighbouringcounties j also the low grounds of the ancient gulf of Poitou, thefilled-up estnary of Flanders, the largest part of Holland, and ofGerman and Danish Friesland.

"The Tundras of Northern Russia and Siberia, now perma­nently frozen below, and covered with snow nine or ten months of

• These are the-I, "North Level;" 2, "~Iiddle Level ;" 3, "SouthLevel;" and 4, "Bedford Level ." The sluice at St. Germaine, drainingthe "Middle Level," broke in 1862, and inundated more than a thousandscree of the" Marshland," between that and the sea. The" Marshland "was enclosed before the ., Middle Level," which was drained between fortyand lif ty years ago.

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOGS. 217

the year, are also characteristic maritime swamps, involving thebroad, low deltas of the great rivers that enter the Arctic Ocean.These extensive and melancholy flats are varied with lakes of saltand fresh water, and are green with coarse grass, rushes, andsedge, and with plots of bog-moss, during their short summer ofnine or ten weeks. Whatever else the unsearchable Tundras maycontain, the ancient Mammoth and Rhinoceros, still preservedentire in their frozen muds, tell of long past changes in NorthernAsia. But in Europe and the British Isles, where nation haspressed upon nation in forced emigrations, the Peat-bogs teem atplaces with recognisable relics of the past.

" § IV. Weapons and tools of stone, bronze, and iron, besidesthe bones, garments, and ornaments of man, also his canoes, hiscrannoges or artificial island-forts, and his pile-structures oncesupporting huts, and even villages, in marshes and lakes, with theassociated rude or finished implements and other belongings of hisdomestic life, are all found in Peat-bogs, and can be referred todifferent peoples. Thus, when fully studied, a Peat-bog oftenenables us to obtain an insight, not only into many geologicalchanges in far back time, but also into the history of races of menwho have left no written records, no buildings of brick or stone, tobear witness of their life. and nevertheless played an active part infounding the civilisation in the midst of which we now live"(" Science for All," No. 23, pages 347, 348).

APPENDIX I.

A Catalogue of the more important British Plants that, livingin wet and marshy places, in rivers and lakes, and on bogs, supplyvegetable material for the formation of Peat.

1. CRYPTOGAMS.

Of the many Conferuoid Algals that abound in fresh water, we maytake as types-Lemania, Batrachospermum \ Knotweed), Chato­phora, Conjerva (Crowsilk), Zygnema, Bulbochcete (Bristleweed),Vaucheria. Oscillatoria (Quickthread), and Scytonema (Leather-thread), Nostoc, Desmidium, Diatoma, and Volvox. See" Mico­graphic Dictionary," Van Voorst, 1875.

In the remainder of this List of Aquatic Plants the names arid

218 T. RUPERT JONES ON TIlE NATURE AND

order given in S. F . Gray's" Natural Arrangement of Briti shPlants," 8vo., 2 vols., 1821 (a very useful, though old-fashionedwork), is mainly followed.

The affixed signs mean-s- [

• growing in the water.t growing on bogs.

l t growing in wet situations.§ growing in salt marshes.

::: Osmunda regalis::: Bleobuum boresle

J,yrr>poditur.te . t Lycopodium inundatnm

(Alpine

..

"

"

Scalystreams).

Grey or Spring Marshmo8B.Bowed " (MO'Untain bogs).Straw Feathermoss.StarredBladedShiningFloating

. .. Needle-like Hairymouth,River Brlstlemosa.Fireproof Springmoss j Water­

moss.squamosa'"

Royal Flowerfern ; Water.fern.Northern Spicant; Hard Fern.BogWolfsolaw; Creeping Club·

moss .::: abietiforme Firlike Otub-mosa (Mountains) .'" Isoetes laonstris Lake Quillwort (Alpine lak es).• Pilularia globnlifera Peppergrass; Pill wort.::: Equisetum fluviatile Great or River Horsetail.::: hyemale". WillterHorsetail j Dutch Rush.::: Iimosnm Mud Horsetail.::: variegatum .,. Variegated Horsetail.t palustre . .. Marsh Horsetail.• Chara vulgaris Common Stonewort.'" " hispida Hispid'" .. crinita Hairy'" NiteUa fiexilis " . Flexible* stella.ta. •.• Starred

(Some Hepatica, especially Jungermann~.)

t Sphagnum (Bogmosa) obtusifolium, squarrosum, acntifo,Iinm, cnapidatnm.

tt Splachnum (Glandmoea) tenne (Mountains), vasculceum(Alpine bogs).

tt Dricanum (Forkmoss), adiantoides, cervicnlatnm, flexuo.sum, virens and strnmiferum (Mounta in bogs), squarrosum, crispnm.

• Triohostomum aoicula.re'" Orthotrichnm rivnlare• Fontinalis antipyretica

t Batramia fontunat arcllatat Hypnum szraminenm

:t " stellatumt ouspidatum

t " niOOns'" f1.nitaws

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"MarmiJzcete.Equisetacete.

"Charadee,

MltBci.

onrors Ol" PEAT AND PEAT·BOGS. 219

Musci. t Hypnum palustre.. t "filicinum

" * "ruscifolium

" t " aduncum

t cordifolium

t "scorpioides

+ riparium+ ".." molle

""

..

t Bryum palustre

t "trichodes

t "dealbatum

t "triquetum

2. PHANEROGAMB.

... Marsh Feathermoss.FernButcher's-broom-Ieavsd

Feathermoss.Crooked Feathermoss.Heart-leaved "ScorpionBankside

. .. Soft(Alpine rivulets\.

Marsh Threadmoss.Hair-leaved Threadmoss

(MO'U1l,tain bogs).

... Whitened Threadmoss(Mountain bogs).

... Three-edged 'I'hreadmoss.

Fluviatiles. * Zanichellia palustris Marsh Pondweed •

"..

" dentata Toothed

" § Ruppia. maritima Sea Taeselgrass.

* Potamogetou natans Swimming Riverweed."" * "

heterophyllum... oaa.leaved.."

fluitans Floating"

"..

"Iuoens Shiuing

"* crispnm Crisp" " "..

" Ianceolatnm Spear-shaped Riverweed..(Mountain lakes).

* "perfoliatum Thorough-leaved Riverweed.

" * densnm Thick" * compressnm Flat" " "* " pectinatum Fennel-leaf" "* "

gramineum Grasslike" ".. pusillum Small

"".. §" marinum Maritime

.. § Zostera marina Sea Grasswrack.Lenvnadear .. Lemna trisulca 'I'hree-Iobed Duckmeat; Duck.

weed... .."

minor Smaller Duckmeat; Duckweed.

* "polyrhiza Many-rooted

" ".."

gibba Bunched"J!ypMCetB. t Sparganium ramosnm Branched Bnrreed.

" t "simplex Unbranched Burreed.

"t Platanaria natans Floating Ribandweed.

"t Typha latifolia Broadleaved Reedmace... :t "

angnstifolia Narrowleaved"

220 T. RUPERT JONES ON THE NATURE AND

(Wet

Carer (Grassrusb) dioica, Davalliana, pnlicaris, teretiua­cula, paniculata, vulpina, intermed ia, div isa (maritime),ovalis, elongata, stellata, curta, axillaria, ceespitosa,stricta, scuta.

Trasus (Sedge) pauciflorus (Alpine bogs), hirtus, fili­formis (bogs), vesicarius and ampullacens (bogs), flavusand fulvus (bogs), distans (ma1'itime bogs), riparius,paludosua, nstulosua (mountains),llllvigatus, limosns (bogs).

t Cyperus longus Sweet Cyperus; English Galiu-gale.

Picklerush ; Prickly Bogmsh,Flat Marsbrush.

Reddish "White Beakrush.Brown "Black Bogrush,Thorny " (Mountain bogs)•

.. . Tufted Rush (TU1,!y heaths).

... Few-flowered .. (Hill bogs).Many-atemmed ..

. . Lake Bullrush.Middling Bnllrush,

Keeled "Three-aided ..Prickly ..Seaside "

. .. Needly Clubrnsh (Wet heaths)•... Marsh ..

Floating Smoothrush.... Panioled ..

Alpine Harestail.... Headed Cottongrass

heaths).Sheathed Oottongrasa.Karrow-leaved Cottongrass.Broad-leafed "Slender "Stiff :Matgrass (Wet heaths:.Water Meadowgrass.

Seaside "Glaucous "Floating Maundgrass; Flote­

grass.

t vaginatumt " angustifolium.. .t latifolinm

t " gracilet Nardus strictat Poa aqnatica§ .. maritima§ .. glauco.::: Glyceria fluitans

§ Cladium Germanicumt Cheetoepora compressat rufat Rh yuehospora albat fuseat Bchoenns uigricanst .. ferrugiueust Scirpus ceeapitosust " pauciflorust multicaulis

t " lacns trist med iust .. carinatus§ triqueter§ ,. puugeus§ maritimust Eleeocharis acicnlaris::: palustrist Isolepis fluitans::: paniculatat Tricbophornm alpinumt Eriophornm capitatum

tt§

tt§

"

"

"

"

""

"

"

"

"

..

""

II

"

""

..

..

..

..

"

""

"

Cypera ceU!.

(lram ineal.

"..

::: Arundo vallatoria (phrag­mitis)

::: Catahrosia aqnaticat Phalaris arnndinacea

Baukside Reed.Water Sweetgrass.Reedy Phalaris.

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOOS. 221

"""

Bulbous Foxtail.Kneed "Reddish "Stifl' Seagrass.

... White Bent; Marsh Bentgrass,Seaside Bent.Marsh Silkgrass.Neglected Reedgrass.Shore Beards.5evenangled Pipewort

(Lakes, Hebride!).Wavy Sweetfiag.Sharp Junk or Rush.

... SeasideMudToadSlender

(Alpine bogs).Three-cut Junk or Rush

(Alpine bogs).Downlying Junk or Rush.Woolly (Wet heaths).Floating "Three-chaffed ..Whorled "Sharp-fiowered "Shiny-fruit "Blunt-flowered "Flaxen Rush; Crowded Lu­

aula,Many.flowered Luzula.Bonebreaking or Lancashire

Bastard Asphodel.Marsh Tofield; Scottish As­

phodel (Mountain bogs).Marsh B'Ieur-de-luce s Yellow

flag; Seggs.Changeable "Broad-leaved Orchis; Marsh

Satyrion, &c.Heart-leaved Twayblade.Marshy Helleborine.Marsh Twayblade.Water Arrowhead.Greater Water.plantain.Floating "

(A lpine lake!).

trifidus

macer

ceenosusbufonius

supinusuliginosusfluitanstriglumissubverticillatusacutifloruslampocarpus

"

""

""

"

"

t

:l: Iris palustris

t Tofieldia palustris

t " multiflorat Abama ossifragum

:I: Acorus undulatus (calamus)§ Juncns ecutns§ " maritimus§:I:t

§ Alopecurus bulbosus::: " geniculatns:I: ., fulvus§ Spartina stricta::: Vilfa alba§ "maritima:I: Apera? paluatris:I: Calamagrostis neglects.§ Polypogon littorale::: Eriocaulon septangulare

:I: Listera cordata:I: Epipactis palustrist Malaxis paludosa:I: Sagittaria aquatica:I: Alisma major: n natans

t:I:tt:I::I:t:I: obtusiflorust Luzula congesta

:I: .. variabilis:I: Orchis latifolia

"

""

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

""

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

""

"

"

"

"OrchidetZ.

ColchicaceaJ.

"RestiaceaJ.

JuncetZ.

Graminel/;l.

Iridee;

"Alilmacem.

R

222 T . RUPERT JONES ON THE NAT URE AND

Droseraoeee, t Drosera rotundifolia.. t" longifolia

" t" an glieaNymphreacetl!. * Nuphar luteum

'" Rannncnlne-like Water.plan­tain.

Starhead .Umbelle d Glad iole.Marsh Scheuchzer.Spiked Watergrass; Marsh

Arrowgrass.Sal tmarsh Watergrass; Sea

Arrowgrass.

Asarum-leaved F rogb it,Aloe-like Watersoldier.Marsh Buckb ean.Marsh Mouse-ear; Forget-

me-not.Round-leaved Sundew.Long-leaved "English ..Yellow Watercan or Water.

lily.Smallest ..Wbi te Waterlily.Marsh Marygold.

.. Wicked Crowfoot .Cre epi ng Crowfoot (A lpine

la kes).Flame Crowfoot; Banewort,

. .. Long-leaved Crowfoot;Great Spearwort.

... Iv y-like Wa ter-crowfoot... . Three-parted "

Blun t -pe taled ".. . Odd-l eav ed "... Trimmed "

Tufted "... River ..

flammeuslongifolius(lingua)

maritimum

....

t Alisma ranunculoides

§

t Damaaonium Dalecbampii.•.::: Butomns umb ellat ust Scbeucbzeria palustri a:t: Trigloehin palustre

t:t:

"

.. • Ba trachium hed eraeeum

" • "t r ipartitum

* " obtusifolium" * het erophyllum" "* panto tb rix.. ..

* czespitosum" * fluviatile" "

..

.."..

..B-utomacetl!.Juncagin eQ1.

..

Alismacetl!.

H ydrocharidw•• Hydrocbaris asarifolia(mors us-ranre)

§ Stratiot es aloidest Menyan thes pa lust ri a:t: Myosoti s pa lnstrls

• .. minim um* Nympbrea alb a

Banunculacetl!.:t: Caltha palustria* Ranunculua sceleratus

t " r eptans

Gentianetl!.B oraginetl!.

APPENDIX II.

Besides the books and memoirs mentioned in the foregoing paper,the following list of published works treating of Peat may beuseful to some who wish to study the subject. They are mentionednot as forming by any means an exhaustive catalogue, but a8th e t itles of, and notes on such as occurred to me whilst lookingup lecture-notes on the subject.

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-HOGS. 223

1810. Essays on the Natural History and Origin of Peat Moss:the peculiar qualities of that substance; the means of improvingit as a soil; the methods of converting it into a manure ; and theother economical purposes to which it may be made subservient.By the Rev. R. Rennie, D.D., &c. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1810.

Essay 1. treats of ligneous plants: the former abundance offorests, their destruction, and origin of Peat-mosses therefrom.II. On aquatic plants: the part they play in forming Peat-mossesin lakes, &c. III. On the changes and combinations by whichvegetable matter is converted into Peat-moss. IV. On the simpleand compound substances that may be expected, and are reallyfound in Peat-moss. V. On the alliance between Peat, Snrtur­brandt, Coal, and Jet. VI. On the alliance between Peat andother Bituminous Substances. VII. The distinguishing qualitiesof Peat-moss. VIII. The sterility (If Peat-moss in its naturalstate, and causes of it. IX. The different kinds and classificationof Peat-moss.

The outlines of four "Practical Essays on Peat-moss as aSoil, Manure, Fuel," &c., are appended to the volume, butthese do not appear to have been published. Numerousobservers and writers are referred to and quoted in Rennie'sEssays, which are full of local and general information aboutPeat, which was then better kuown as "Moss" (from the CelticMoe ; see Essay IlL, p. 240), whilst the word "Peat" referredonly to the piece dug out for fuel. (Dr. James Geikie has kindlygiven me notes on the contents of Nos. T. and IL, which arewanting in some published volumes of the "Essays.")

[?] In his "Practical Treatise on Peat," Dr. Anderson tried toshow that Peat is a plant sui qeneris l It is a useless, preposterous,and absurd book, and looks as if meant for a kind of heavy joke.(J. Geikie, in a letter).

1811. A Treatise on the Origin, Qualities, and Cultivation ofMoss-earth, with directions for converting it into Manure. ByWilliam Airton, Writer (lawyer), Strathaven, Lanarkshire. 8vo.Ayr., 1811.

He concludes that Moss-earth has been produced by plants in aclimate of low temperature with excess of moisture; and he classifiesthe different sorts found in Britain as-I. Hill-moss ; on hill-topsand hilly acclivities, where Heather and the Mosses-Hypnum,Bryum, Polytrichum, and Sphagnum form a kind of thin half­peat. 2. Bent-moss, much thicker, on the sides and skirts of hills,

224 T. RUPERT JONES ON THE NATURE AND

and composed largely of the coarse grasses (Bent, &c.), mixedwith the usual bogforming mosses. 3. Flow-moss, or quaking­bog, composed chiefly of Sphagnum, filling old lakes, and coveringoverthrown forests. (From Dr. James Geikie).

1821. J. Templeton, of Belfast, "On the Formation of Peat­bogs," in a letter to Dr. Berger, "Transactions GeologicalSociety," Vol. v., pp. 608, &c. 4to., London, ] 821.

This was written from observations made wbilst doubts stillexisted with some geologists and mineralogists as to the originand formation of Peat. Mr. Templeton states-" No bog is everformed without au abundant stock of moisture..... The greatestmass of bog almost uniformly derives its origin from impedimentsintercepting the flow of water from a valley. A lake is thusformed, in whose waters is only nourished, if in mountain regions,the Lobelia Dortmanni, and sometimes the Sparqonium natans,witb a few straggling stunted plants of Scirpu« lacustris, If inthe lowlands a greater variety appear-we may observe the curiousConferea eehinulata, floating like powdered verdigris; immersed ateven greater depths grow Sponges, the Charce, the Ceratophyllre,with numerous (lonferna ; and around the shores, gradually ap­proaching the centre as their annual decay lessens tbe depth ofwater, we find various species of Potamoqeton, tbe Nymphreu alba,N. lutea, the Lobelia Dortmanni (if the shore is composed of sandor gravel)," and upwards of thirty enumerated water-loving plants.To these plants succeed tbose which require to have themselvesaltogether uncovered with the water, or their roots fixed in awatery or soft mud, as the fourteen Mosses then enumerated.Among these Mosses grow other plants that like moisture, and"when the bog rises higher and is somewhat drier" another groupof plants flourish until a firmer and fibrous kind of plant is furmed.Sound conclusions are drawn by the author.

1826. Natural and Agricultural History of Peat-moss or Turf­bog, to which are annexed corroborative writings, correspondence,and observations on the qualities of Peat or Fen-earth, as a soiland manure, and on the methods used in Scotland for convertingMoss-soils into arable and pasture grounds, plantation of trees,&c. By Andrew Steele, Esq., &c. Edinburgh, 8vo., ]826.

Very many references to other writers and practical observersare herein made; the special flora of Peat mosses is mentioned,with the common names of the plants (p. 299, &c.), and at p. 399

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOGS. 225

&c., are Prof. Robert Jameson's " Observations on Peat," fromhis "Mineralogical Travels through the Hebrides," &c.

1826. Gordon. Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 2, Vol. ii., p. 140.A notice of three successive forests of Fir in a Peat-moss.1841. The History and Description of Fossil Fuel, the Col-

lieries, and the Coal-trade of Great Britain. [By - Holland].2nd edit., 8vo., London, 1841. Chapter III., Peat, p. 40., &c.

1841. Practical Geology and Mineralogy, &c. By JoshuaTrimmer. 8vo., London, 1841, p. 413, &c. Turf-moors and Peat­bogs.

Chief authors mentioned: Peat between vegetable matter andlignite: growth of Sphagnum: Peat over ruined forests: Anti­quities in Hatfield Moss: human bodies, &c., in Peat.

1847. Lesquereux. "On the Formation of Peat in the Northof Europe." Bulletin Soc. Sci. Nat. Neufchatel, 1847, vol. i., p.472; and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. iv., Miscell., p. 29.

The formation of (1) Immersed or Submerged Peat, (2) ofEmerqed or Superficial Peat, (3) Superficial Peat sinking to formBottom Peat, is noticed; and some different Peat- bogs are com­pared. The passage from peat to lignite and coal, and the greatquantity of successive forests in some Peat-bogs is noticed.

1853 (7). D. T. Ansted's" Physical Geography and Geology."(Orr's Circle of Sciences.) 8vo., London, 1853 (?), p. 219, &c.

1855. In Rowland and Richardson's" Chemical Technology,"2nd edition, 2 vols., 8vo., 1855, the changes of wood into peat, &c.,or the process of transformation from living and dead vegetablefibre to compact lignite,jet, and coal-or carbonization by the pro­cess of hystolysis (retrograde decay), are treated of in some de­tail.

1856. Studi sopra alcuni Torbe Veronesi, Rapporto dellaCommissione incaricata della ricerca della torba nella Provincia diVerona. 8vo., Verona, 1856, PP' 37.

1857. Der Torf, seine Enstehung, Naturund Bonutzung, nebstAufforderuingdurch Berarbeitung desselben eincn zu weitem Trans­port und zu jeder Art von Feuerung zeeigneten Brennstoff darzu­stellen, Von H. Schinz- Gessner. Zurich, 1857, 8vo., pp. 43.

1860. In the Article "Turf," in the "Aide-memoire to theMilitary Sciences," Vol. ii., 1860, pp. 175 et seq., J. E. Portlock(afterwards General) enumerated the Alt·Warmbriicher Moor;Franzensbad; Ireland; Banks of North Sea; Gordauer Lake;

226 T. RUPERT JONES ON THE NATURE AND

East Sea; San Paulo, Brazils; Langensalza; Wittgendorf. Healso refers to marine remains in alluvium, and to antiquities inthe alluvium of Sweden; a Roman bridge in peat, and the buriedhut in Galway.

1860. Pokorny. On Peat and Brown-coal. Proceed. Imp.Geol. Instit., Vienna, 1860; Transact. Vienna Zoolog.-Botan.Soc., 1860 j and Quart Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xvii., Miscel., p. 6.

Prof. Pokorny, in publishing the results of his examination ofthe principal Peat-bogs of the Austrian Empire, groups his mate­rials under these headings :-1 Vegetables in progres8 towardsconversion into Peat. 2. Peat of the plains and of the mountain­moors. 3. Resinous substances, such as the dopplerite of theAussee in Styria, and analogous substances from Switzerland andBerchtesgaden, described by Deicke and Giimbel. 4. Half-peat,with much inorganic matter, but combustible.

1862. F. Senft. Die Humus-, Marsch-, Torf- und Limonit-Bil­dungen alz Erzeugungsmittel neuer Erdrindlagen [fiir Geognosten,Bergleute, Forst- und Landwirthe]. Von Dr. Ferdinand Senft,&c. 8vo., Leipzig, 1862.

In this useful work the following grouping is adopted (p,126, &c.):-

1. Moos-torf, consisting of Sphagnum chiefly.2. Gras- oder Wiesen-torf (Darg). CypemceaJ, &c.3. Haide- or Hochmoor-torf (Hagetorf). Erica, Calluna, &e.4. Blatter- or Wald-tor£. Yellowish, flaky; made of needles

of Pines and leaves of Alder, Birch, Willow, Aspen, andsometimes Elm, Maple, &c.

5. Algen- (oder Meeres- )torf. Of Alga, as at Flensburg, Ose­land, Trelleberg, &c.

1862. In the Official Catalogue of the Mining and Metallur­gical Products, Zollverein Department of the International Exhi­bition, 1862, MM. von Dechen and Wedding gave some valuableinformation on the German Peat at pp. 26,27.

1864. T. Sterry Hunt: "Peat and its Uses," Svo., in the" Canadian Naturalist and Geologist," 1864. See also the Re­ports of the Geological Survey of Canada.

1866. James Geikie, "On the Buried Forests and Peat­mosses of Scotland, and the Changes of Climate they indicate."Transactions R. Soc. Edinb., Vol. xxiv., 1866, p. 363, &c.

Full of both detailed and generalized information, and rich with

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT_B OGB. 227

references to other writers and observers. Two kind s of Peat-bogare particularly distingui shcd-e-L. The ordinary Peat-moss, dueto the upgrowth of Sphagnum and its associates from th e soil, andoften including tim ber. 2. The Flow-moss, formed of float ingintermatt ed vegeta tion over a basin of water, which receives, andmay be filled by, a thick deposit of rotting plants from the bot tomof the raft-like Moss. Th e former g reat extent of the Mosses,th eir antiquity, and the changes of climate connected with th eirhistory, are also treated of in full.

1866 (?) . P eat and its Us es as Fertilizer and Fuel. BySamuel W. J ohnson, Professor at Yale College. Illustrated, 8vo.,New York, 1866(7).

At page 168, &c., the origin and varieties of Peat are treatedof; also the floating islands of turfy material in Germany, &c.The constituent Plants mentioned at page 12 sse-s-Soqiuaria,P antederia, Lemna, Potamogeton, Polygonum, Nymph tXa, andNuphar.

1867. Prof. Archibald Geikie, has favoured me with the fol­lowing copy of Title-pages :-

1. "Facts about P eat, as an article of Fuel, with remarks uponits Origin and Composition, th e Localities in which it is found, theMethods of Prepara tion and Mannfacture, ami th e various uses towhich it is applicable; together with many other matters of prac­tical and scientific interest . To which is added a Chapter on theUtilization of Coal Dust with P eat, for the production of anexcellent fuel at moderate cost, specially adapt ed for steam service.By T. H. Leavit t. Brd edition, revised and enlarged. Boston:Lee and Shepard, 1867."

2. "Leavitt's P eat J onrnal: a Newspaper devoted especially tothe dissemination of information relating to Peat, its preparationand use as an article of Fuel, and generally to all that pertainsto the economical production and use of fuel of all kinds. Issuedmonthly, by Leavitt and Hunnewell, 49, Congress Street, Boston.Price fifty cents. per annum. F or sale by all newsmen."

1868. "The Observatiuns on the Formation of Peat, in Lyell's" Principles," 10th ed., 1868, pages 496, &c., deal with thegrowth of Peat and preservation of Vegetable and Animal Re­mains therein j the analysis of P eat; Peat abundant in cold andhumid climates (N orth and South) j extent of surface coveredwith Peat j supposed recent origin of some Peat-mosses j source

228 T. RUPERT JONEB ON THE NATURE ANn

of Bog-iron-ore j Preservation of animal substances in Peat;cause of the antiseptic property of Peat j the miring of Quadru­peds j Solway Moss j bursting of Peat-mosses j bones of Herbi­vorous Quadrupeds in Peat, and the Great Dismal Swamp, p. 505.

1868. J. W. Dawson, in his" Acadian Geology," 2nd ed.,p. 33, 1868, treats of Freshwater Alluvia, " River intervales," anddeposits forming in the beds of lakes; Intervales ou the banks ofstreams j Soil on gravel j Lake-beds; Diatomaceous earths j Bogsand peaty swamps, p. 35, numerous in Nova Scotia in the rockydistricts of the Atlantic coast.

1870. Traitecomplet de la Tourbe formation, gisement et com­position des diverses especes, extraction, desiccation natnrelle etartificielles, travanx mecaniqnes, carbonisation, &c. Cnlture destourbieres, roselieres, riaieres et engrais. Legislation des maraiset des Tourbieres, Benzine, acide phenique, etc. Emploi de latourbe en metallurgie. Par Ernest Bose. Paris, 8vo., 1870, pp.242. 20 figs. in the text.

1871. On the economicalproduction ofPeat and Peat-charcoal,with incidental reference to the processes pursued at the RedmossWorks (Peat-engineering and Sewage-filtration Company Limited),Horwich, near Bolton, Lancashire. Liverpool, 8vo., 1871, pp., 24.

1874. "Die Turfmoore Oesterreichs und der angrenzendenLander, ihre Wichtickeit fiir Staats-<Ekonomie nnd Industrie.Nebst einem Anhange: Ueber die Darstellung der Anilinfarben."Von Georg Thenius. Wien, 1874, 8vo., pp.202.

In this work we have a plan and several sections of a part ofthe great Biirhmoos,

1876. "The Geology of England and Wales." By H. B. Wood­ward, F.G.S. 8vo., London, 1876. Alluvial deposits, p. 326, &c.Peat, p. 357, &c. Mr. Alfred Gillett's list of water-plants, p. 358-9.

1876. Oswald Heer. « Primeval World of Switzerland."English Translation by W. S. Dallas, edited by J. Heywood. 2vols., 8vo., London, 1876.

In VoL i., p. 24, &c., the following points are especially referredto :-Origin and formation of Pcat ; stagnant water; bottom im­pervious j Algals and other plants j Sphagnum, &c. Peat of riversand lakes; Peat of Gonten and Oberburgen ; Pfaffikon, Wetzi­kon, Robenbausen, Katzensee, &c. Drowned forests j generalstatement; p. 29, formation and action of acids j changes in Peat j

paper-coals j Peat of Virginia and Carolina (Lesquereux).

ORIGIN OF PEAT AND PEAT-BOGS. 22!)

On hills.

1877. Report of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin. 1877.Peat deposits, p. 29, p. 241, &c. Marsh Vegetation, p. 181.1877. The Danish Peat (after Steenstrup),in T. Rupert Jones's

" Antiquity of Man." 8vo., London, 1877, pages 10 to 17.(Lyngmose (Heath), Svampmose (Spongy), Hmr­

mose(Flax-like, from the superficialdead Mosses):Denmark.

Heidenmoor (Heath), Hockmoor (High); NorthGermany.

Moor-turf, Hill-moss; Britain.rKjermose (Marsh), Engmose (Meadow) ; Denmark.

I II Wiesenmoor (Meadow); Germany.n va eys. tPeat-moor, Peat-moss, Bent-moss, Marsh, &c. j

Britain.

fSkovmose j Denmark.

In forests. Woldmoor; Germany.Forest-bog ; Britain.

1877. S. B. J. Skertchley, Geology of the Fenlands: Me­moirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, &c., 1877.

1878. S. H. Miller and S. B. J. Skertchley. The FenlandsPast and Present. 8vo., 1878.

1. In the Peat.-The Animal remains (p.340) :-Man, Celticshorthorned Ox (Bos longifi'ons), a variety (B. euryceros), Bos(Urus)primigenius, Wolf, Fox, Goat, Beaver, Roe, Stag, IrishDeer (Megace1"Os hibernicus), Reindeer, Otter, Marten, Brown Bear,Wild Boar, Horse; Bittern, Wild Swan (Cygnus masicus), TameSwan (C. olor), Coot, Pelican, Crested Grebe, Teal; Tortoise;Pike j Insects j Molluscs-Bithinia, Helix, Limsuza, Planorbes,Physa, Cyclas, Valvata, Pisidium.

The Plants found in the Peat (p. 341) :-Betula nana, Hypnum fluitans.Fagus sylvatica. - filicinum.Fraxinus. Juncus aquaticus.Salix capra, Lastrea.-- repens. Sphagnum.Quercus robnr. Confervre.Pinus sylvestris. Polyporus fomentarius.Taxus baccatus, ---- squamosus.Ulmus. Sphreria ~1) concentrica.Hydrodictyon utriculum.

230 T . RUPERT JONES ON PEAT-BOGS.

2. In the Silt (marine) below the Peat:-Walrns. Cockles:Grampus, Mussels.1878. T. Mellarde Reade, in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,

Vol. xxxiv., p. 447, on the submarine forest at Altmoutl1; and atp. 808, on Glazebrook Moss, Lancashire.

1878. Transactions of the Newbury District Field Club, Vol.ii., 1878; Dr. S. Palmer on the Antiquities found in the Peatof Newbury, p. 123, &c., and Appendix by T. Rupert Jones;reprints of Dr. Collet's and Dean Buckland's descriptions of thePeat-formation in the Valley of the Kennet, and various notes onthe Newbury Peat; p. 135, p.138, p. 141, &c.

1879. A. Bailey: Overflow of a Peat-bog" in the FalklandIslands. Quart. JOUI'll. Geol, Soc., Vol. xxxv., p. 96.

1879. I combnstibili minerali d' Italia, W. Jervis. Svo., 89 pp.Turin, 1879; 'I'he Peat of Italy, in the Alpine Region, ApennineRegion, and Islands, pp. 64-89.

EXCURSIoN TO TUNBRIDGE WELLS ANDCROWBOROUGH BEACON.

MONDAY, JULY 12TH, 1879.

FIFTH OF THE WEALD SERIES.

Director.-J. LOGAN LOBLEY, Esq., F.G.S.

(Report by WILLIAM FAWCETr, Es~., B.Sc.)

On alighting from the train at Tunbridge Wells, the Membersproceeded by way of the Common, where the Director explainedthe route to be followed, then to the Parade to taste the waters,to the Pump Room, lind, after crossing the boundary of Kent andSussex, to Broadwater Down. Here, with almost the whole ofTunbridge Wells in view, Mr. Lobley pointed out that the townwas built just at the junction of two valleys. The higher groundis Tunbridge Wells Sand, with outlying patches on Rusthall

* In the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, is a good model ofa burst Bog in Lanarkshire,