on the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason – arthur schopenhauer.doc

8/11/2019 On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason Arthur Schopenhauer.doc

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ON THE FOURFOLD ROOT OF THE PRINCIPLE OFSUFFICIENT REASON

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER wikisource

The Author's Preface To The Secon E itionTHIS treatise on E!e"entar# Phi!oso$h#% which first a$$eare in the #ear & &(% when it $rocure for "e the of octor% afterwar s *eca"e the su*structure for the who!e of "# s#ste"+ It cannot% therefore% *e a!!owe to rout of $rint% as has *een the case% without "# know!e )e% for the !ast four #ears+

On the other han % to sen a ,u-eni!e work !ike this once "ore into the wor! with a!! its fau!ts an *!e"ishes%see"e to "e un,ustifia*!e+ For I a" aware that the ti"e cannot *e -er# far off when a!! correction wi!! *ei"$ossi*!e . *ut with that ti"e the $erio of "# rea! inf!uence wi!! co""ence% an this $erio % I trust% wi!! *e a one% for I fir"!# re!# u$on Seneca's $ro"ise/ 0Etia"si o"ni*us tecu" -i-enti*us si!entiu" !i-or in i1erit . -enient2ui sine offensa% sine )ratia ,u icent+03&4 I ha-e one what I cou! % therefore% to i"$ro-e this work of "# #ouconsi erin) the *re-it# an uncertaint# of !ife% I "ust e-en re)ar it as an es$ecia!!# fortunate circu"stance% to ha *een thus $er"itte to correct in "# si1tieth #ear what I ha written in "# twent#5si1th+

Ne-erthe!ess% whi!e oin) this% I "eant to ea! !enient!# with "# #oun)er se!f% an to !et hi" iscourse% na#%s$eak his "in free!#% where-er it was $ossi*!e+ 6ut where-er he ha a -ance what was incorrect or su$erf!uouor ha e-en !eft out the *est $art% I ha-e *een o*!i)e to interru$t the threa of his iscourse+ An this has ha$$often enou)h . so often% in ee % that so"e of "# rea ers "a# $erha$s think the# hear an o! "an rea in) a #oun)"an's *ook a!ou % whi!e he fre2uent!# !ets it ro$% in or er to in u!)e in i)ressions of his own on the sa"e su*

It is eas# to see that a work thus correcte after so !on) an inter-a!% cou! ne-er ac2uire the unit# an roun eco"$!eteness which on!# *e!on) to such as are written in one *reath+ So )reat a ifference wi!! *e foun e-en in

st#!e an e1$ression% that no rea er of an# tact can e-er *e in ou*t whether it *e the o! er or #oun)er "an who s$eakin)+ For the contrast is in ee strikin) *etween the "i! % unassu"in) tone in which the #outh7who is sti!!si"$!e enou)h to *e!ie-e 2uite serious!# that for a!! whose $ursuit is $hi!oso$h#% truth% an truth a!one% can hai"$ortance% an therefore that whoe-er $ro"otes truth is sure of a we!co"e fro" the"7$ro$oun s his ar)u"entswith confi ence% an the fir"% *ut a!so at ti"es so"ewhat harsh -oice of the o! "an% who in course of ti"e hasnecessari!# isco-ere the true character an rea! ai"s of the no*!e co"$an# of "ercenar# ti"e5ser-ers into whichhe has fa!!en+ Na#% the ,ust rea er wi!! har !# fin fau!t with hi" shou! he occasiona!!# )i-e free -ent to hisin i)nation. since we see what co"es of it when $eo$!e who $rofess to ha-e truth for their so!e ai"% are a!wa#soccu$ie in stu #in) the $ur$oses of their $owerfu! su$eriors% an when the e 2uo-is !i)no fit 8ercurius is e1tene-en to the )reatest $hi!oso$hers% an a c!u"s# char!atan% !ike He)e!% is ca!"!# c!asse a"on) the"9 :eri!# ;er"anPhi!oso$h# stan s *efore us !oa e with conte"$t% the !au)hin)5stock of other nations% e1$e!!e fro" a!! honesscience7!ike the $rostitute who se!!s herse!f for sor i hire to a# to one% to"orrow to another . an the *rains of $resent )eneration of sa-ants are isor)anise *# He)e!ian nonsense / inca$a*!e of ref!ection% coarse an

*ewi! ere % the# fa!! a $re# to the !ow 8ateria!is" which has cre$t out of the *asi!isk's e))+ ;oo s$ee to the"+return to "# su*,ect+

8# rea ers wi!! thus ha-e to )et o-er the ifference of tone in this treatise . for I cou! not o here what I ha onin "# chief work% that is% )i-e the !ater a itions I ha "a e in a se$arate a$$en i1+ 6esi es% it is of no conse2that $eo$!e shou! know what I wrote in "# twent#5si1th an what in "# si1tieth #ear . the on!# "atter of rea!i"$ortance is% that those who wish to fin their wa# throu)h the fun a"enta! $rinci$!es of a!! $hi!oso$hi


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itse!f strict!# to the research of the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason% shows the "atter fro" a new an $ecu!iar si e *ut then it fin s its co"$!etion in the First 6ook of 0The =or! as =i!! an Re$resentation%0 to)ether with thosecha$ters of the Secon :o!u"e which refer to it% an a!so in "# Criti2ue of >antian Phi!oso$h#+

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUERFRAN>FURT A8 8AIN%

Se$te"*er% & ?@+

3e it4 E itor's Preface To The Thir E itionIN the $resent -o!u"e I !a# *efore the $u*!ic the Thir E ition of the 0 Fourfo! Root%0 inc!u in) the e"en atioan a itions !eft *# Scho$enhauer in his own inter!ea-e co$#+ I ha-e a!rea # ha occasion e!sewhere to re!atehe !eft co$ies of a!! his works thus inter!ea-e % an that he was wont to ,ot own on these f!#5!ea-es an# correcan a itions he "i)ht inten insertin) in future e itions+

Scho$enhauer hi"se!f $re$are for the $ress a!! that has *een a e in the $resent e ition% for he has in icatesi)ns in the ori)ina! conte1t corres$on in) to other si"i!ar si)ns in the 8S+ $assa)es% the $!aces where he wishe ha itions to *e inserte + A!! that was !eft for "e to o% was to )i-e in e1ten e for" a few citations he ha $ur$a in)+

No essentia! corrections an a itions% such as "i)ht "o if# the fun a"enta! thou)hts of the work% wi!! *e founthis new e ition% which si"$!# contains corrections% a"$!ifications% an corro*orations% "an# of the" interestian i"$ortant+ Let "e take on!# a sin)!e instance B&% on the 0 Inte!!ectua! Nature of E"$irica! Perce$tion+0 AScho$enhauer attache )reat i"$ortance to his $roof of the inte!!ectua! nature of $erce$tion% na#% *e!ie-e he ha"a e a new isco-er# *# it% he a!so worke out with s$ecia! $re i!ection a!! that ten e to su$$ort% confir"% astren)then it+ Thus we fin hi" in this B& 2uotin) an interestin) fact he ha hi"se!f o*ser-e in & & . then thinstances of Cas$ar Hauser an others taken fro" Fran


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a$$earance of the rea! antithesis to ancient 8ateria!is"% which was the "ost consistent startin) fro" the O*,ect% ,uas Fichte's $hi!oso$h# was the "ost consistent startin) fro" the Su*,ect+ As 8ateria!is" o-er!ooke the fact% thatwith the si"$!est O*,ect it forthwith $osite the Su*,ect a!so . so Fichte not on!# o-er!ooke the fact% that with thSu*,ect what e-er na"e he "i)ht choose to )i-e it he ha a!rea # $osite the O*,ect a!so% *ecause no Su*,ect ca *e thou)ht without it. he !ikewise o-er!ooke the fact% that a!! eri-ation a $riori% na#% a!! e"onstration whatsrests u$on a necessit#% an that a!! necessit# itse!f rests entire!# an e1c!usi-e!# on the Princi$!e of SufficientReason% *e cause to *e necessar#% an to resu!t fro" a )i-en reason% are con-erti*!e ter"s . that the Princi$!e ofSufficient Reason is sti!! nothin) *ut the co""on for" of the O*,ect as such / therefore that it a!wa#s $resu$$osesthe O*,ect an oes not% as -a!i *efore an in e$en ent!# of it% first intro uce it% an cannot "ake the O*,ein confor"it# with its own !e)is!ation+ Thus this startin) fro" the O*,ect an the a*o-e5"entione startin) fro" theSu*,ect ha-e in co""on% that *oth $resu$$ose what the# $reten to eri-e/ i+e+% the necessar# corre!ate of theirstartin)5$oint+0

This !ast assertion0 that the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason a!rea # $resu$$oses the O*,ect% *ut oes not% as -a! *efore an in e$en ent!# of it% first intro uce it% an cannot "ake the O*,ect arise in confor"it# with its own!e)is!ation%0 see"e to "e so far to c!ash with the $roof )i-en *# Scho$enhauer in B& of the 0Fourfo! Root%accor in) to the !atter% it is the function of the Su*,ect's un erstan in) which $ri"ari!# creates the o*,ecti-e wor!out of the su*,ecti-e fee!in)s of the sensuous or)ans *# the a$$!ication of the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason . so tha!! that is O*,ect% as such% after a!! co"es into *ein) on!# in confor"it# with the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason%conse2uent!# that this $rinci$!e cannot% as Scho$enhauer asserte in his $o!e"ic a)ainst Fichte% a!rea # $resu$the O*,ect+ In & B% therefore% I wrote as fo!!ows to Scho$enhauer/7

0In #our ar)u"ents a)ainst Fichte% where #ou sa# that the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason a!rea # $resu$$oses theO*,ect% an cannot% as -a!i *efore an in e$en ent!# of it% first intro uce it% the o*,ection occurre to "e ain #our 0Fourfo! Root0 #ou ha "a e the O*,ect of $erce$tion first co"e into *ein) throu)h the a$$!ication of thePrinci$!e of Sufficient Reason% an that #ou #ourse!f% there fore% eri-e the O*,ect fro" the Su*,ect% as% for $+ @( of the 0 Fourfo! Root 0 Bn e ition + How then can #ou "aintain a)ainst Fichte that the O*,ect is a!wa $resu$$ose *# the Su*,ect9 I know of no wa# of so!-in) this ifficu!t# *ut the fo!!owin)/ The Su*,ect on!# $resu$$oses in the O*,ect what *e!on)s to the thin) in itse!f% what is inscruta*!e . *ut it creates itse!f there$resentation of the O*,ect% i+e+ that *# which the thin) in itse!f *eco"es $heno"enon+ For instance% when I stree% "# Su*,ect assu"es the thin) in itse!f of that tree . whereas the re$resentation of it con-erse!# $resu$$oses tho$eration of "# Su*,ect% the transition fro" the effect in "# e#e to its cause+0

To this Scho$enhauer re$!ie as fo!!ows on the &Bth of Gu!#% & B /0 our answers to the o*,ection in 2uestion are not the ri)ht ones+ Here there cannot #et *e a 2uestion of the thiin itse!f% an the istinction *etween re$resentation an o*,ect is ina "issi*!e / the wor! is re$resentation+ The"atter stan s rather as fo!!ows Fichte's eri-ation of the Non5E)o fro" the E)o% is 2uite a*stract / A J A% er)o% &&% an so forth+ Taken in an a*stract sense% the O*,ect is at once $osite with the Su*,ect+ For to *e Su*,ect "know. an to know "eans% to ha-e re$resentations+ O*,ect an re$resentation are one an the sa"e thin)+ In the Fourfo! Root%0 therefore% I ha-e i-i e a!! o*,ects or re$resentations into four c!asses% within which the Prof Sufficient Reason a!wa#s rei)ns% thou)h in each c!ass un er a ifferent for" . ne-erthe!ess% the Princi$!e ofSufficient Reason a!wa#s $resu$$oses the c!ass itse!f% an in ee % $ro$er!# s$eakin)% the# coinci e+ 3?4 Norea!it#% the e1istence of the Su*,ect of knowin) is not an a*stract e1istence+ The Su*,ect oes not e1ist for itse!fin e$en ent!#% as if it ha ro$$e fro" the sk# . it a$$ears as the instru"ent of so"e in i-i ua! $heno"enon of t=i!! ani"a!% hu"an *ein) % whose $ur$oses it is estine to ser-e% an which there*# now recei-es a

consciousness% on the one han % of itse!f% on the other han % of e-er#thin) e!se+ The 2uestion ne1t arises% aor out of what e!e"ents the re$resentation of the outer wor! is *rou)ht a*out within this consciousness+ This I haa!rea # answere in "# 0Theor# of Co!ours0 an a!so in "# chief work% 3 4 *ut "ost thorou)h!# an e1hausti-ea!! in the Secon E ition of the 0Fourfo! Root%0 B&% where it is shown% that a!! those e!e"ents are of su*ori)in . wherefore attention is es$ecia!!# rawn to the )reat ifference *etween a!! this an Fichte's hu"*u)+ For twho!e of "# e1$osition is *ut the fu!! carr#in) out of >ant's Transcen enta! I ea!is"+0 3K4

I ha-e thou)ht it a -isa*!e to )i-e this $assa)e of his !etter% as *ein) re!e-ant to the "atter in 2uestion+ As to thei-ision in cha$ters an $ara)ra$hs% it is the sa"e in this new e ition as in the !ast+ 6# co"$arin) each sin)!e


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$ara)ra$h of the secon with the sa"e $ara)ra$h of the $resent e ition% it wi!! *e eas# to fin out what has *eennew!# a e + In conc!usion% howe-er% I wi!! sti!! a a short !ist of the $rinci$a! $assa)es which are new+

LIST OF ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION+

% $+ &(% the $assa)es fro" 0Notan u"%0 c+% to 0E1 necessitate0 an $+ &?% fro" 0 unachst a o$tirt0 en of the $a)e En)!ish -ersion% $+ &?% 0 Not+0 c+% to 0E1 nec+0. $+ & % fro" 0First he a o$ts0 own tthe $ara)ra$h% $+ &K% 0est causa sui0 % in confir"ation of his assertion that S$ino!einhaus+ E+ -+% B&% $+ K@% the wor s 0 an constructsto 0 of the Un erstan in)%0 an the note+

B&% $$+ K@5K % fro" 0Ein s$ecieUer un interessanter 6e!e)0 own to 0a!* ernes eu) a


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the $ro"iscuous e"$!o#"ent of the un erstan in)% *e!on)s to a s$ecia! kin of know!e )e% as we!! as its $ecu!ia-a!ue an inf!uence+0 3 4

3e it4 (+ Uti!it# of this In2uir#+Shou! I succee in showin) that the $rinci$!e which for"s the su*,ect of the $resent in2uir# oes not issue irectfro" one $ri"iti-e notion of our inte!!ect% *ut rather in the first instance fro" -arious ones% it wi!! then fo!!ow% tneither can the necessit# it *rin)s with it% as a fir"!# esta*!ishe a $riori $rinci$!e% *e one an the sa"e in a!! ca *ut "ust% on the contrar#% *e as "anifo! as the sources of the $rinci$!e itse!f+ =hoe-er therefore *ases a conc!uu$on this $rinci$!e% incurs the o*!i)ation of c!ear!# s$ecif#in) on which of its )roun s of necessit# he foun s hisconc!usion an of esi)natin) that )roun *# a s$ecia! na"e% such as I a" a*out to su))est+ I ho$e that this "a# *este$ towar s $ro"otin) )reater !uci it# an $recision in $hi!oso$hisin) . for I ho! the e1tre"e c!earness to *eattaine *# an accurate efinition of each sin)!e e1$ression to *e in is$ensa*!e to us% as a efence *oth a)ainst ean a)ainst intentiona! ece$tion% an a!so as a "eans of securin) to ourse!-es the $er"anent% una!iena*!e $ossession of each new!# ac2uire notion within the s$here of $hi!oso$h# *e#on the fear of !osin) it a)ain onaccount of an# "isun erstan in) or ou*!e "eanin) which "i)ht hereafter *e etecte + The true $hi!oso$her wi!!in ee a!wa#s seek after !i)ht an $ers$icuit#% an wi!! en ea-our to rese"*!e a Swiss !ake which throu)h its $eacefu!ness is ena*!e to unite )reat e$th with )reat c!earness% the e$th re-ea!in) itse!f $recise!# *# the c!ear 7rather than a tur*i % i"$etuous "ountain torrent+ 0La c!artQ est !a *onne foi es $hi!oso$hies0 sa#s :au-enar)uePseu o5$hi!oso$hers% on the contrar#% use s$eech% not in ee to concea! their thou)hts% as 8+ e Ta!!e#ran *ut rather to concea! the a*sence of the"% an are a$t to "ake their rea ers res$onsi*!e for the inco"$rehensi*i!it#of their s#ste"s% which rea!!# $rocee s fro" their own confuse thinkin)+ This e1$!ains wh# in certain writers7 Sche!!in)% for instance7the tone of instruction so often $asses into that of re$roach% an fre2uent!# the rea er ie-en taken to task *eforehan for his assu"e ina*i!it# to un erstan +

3e it4 ?+ I"$ortance of the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason+Its i"$ortance is in ee -er# )reat% since it "a# tru!# *e ca!!e the *asis of a!! science+ For *# science weun erstan a s#ste" of notions% i+e+ a tota!it# of connecte % as o$$ose to a "ere a))re)ate of isconnecte % n6ut what is it that *in s to)ether the "e"*ers of a s#ste"% if not the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason9 That which

istin)uishes e-er# science fro" a "ere a))re)ate is $recise!#% that its notions are eri-e one fro" another as fro"their reason+ So it was !on) a)o o*ser-e *# P!ato/ VW XYZ [ \]^_ ` b \\ b [ _ d[ % `

bg V X ] g ` \ [d etia" o$iniones -er non "u!ti $retii sunt% onec 2uis i!!as ratiocinatione a causis

ucta !i)et + 3M4 Near!# e-er# science% "oreo-er% contains notions of causes fro" which the effects "a# *e ean !ikewise other notions of the necessit# of conc!usions fro" reasons% as wi!! *e seen urin) the course of thisin2uir#+ Aristot!e has e1$resse this as fo!!ows/ d [dg ] X[ ]g[ % _gj ldm g[ X[

W m` dg[ o"nis inte!!ectua!is scientia% si-e a!i2uo "o o inte!!ectu% $artici$ans% circa causas et $rinc 3& 4 Now% as it is this -er# assu"$tion a $riori that a!! thin)s "ust ha-e their reason% which authori


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m % m g gb [ _ X[m g[ g _d [ ` mW V W ` g bg [ [g . 3&B4 necesse est%2u cun2ue fiunt% $er a!i2ua" causa" fieri / 2uo"o o eni" a*s2ue ea fierent9 an then a)ain / X_ V g V

[ Y _ b g g[ V _ VZ V m ]` _ [ g W Xb g W ` g j _d[ d _ 3&)i)nitur% e1 a!i2ua causa necessario )i)nitur/ sine causa eni" oriri 2ui 2ua"% i"$ossi*i!e est + At the en of his *ook 0De fato%0 P!utarch cites the fo!!owin) a"on) the chief $ro$ositions of the Stoics / m\[ g _ V W g_ [ X Z_[_ g V ]X_ V V [g[ ` _ [% V\\ V g V W ] _ ` g ` 3&?4 "a1i"e i $ri"u" esse -i e*itur%nihi! fieri sine causa% se o"nia causis ante)ressis +

In the 0Ana!#t+ $ost+0 i+ B% Aristot!e states the $rinci$!e of sufficient reason to a certain e)ree when he sa#s/_ dg ^ [ X_ V Y _^ dg \ `% g g] V g' g Y _^ [ pd _[ % X[' g V W dg[ % g[ _

g dg % ] V Xj _d^ [ g bg \\ ` _ [+ Scire aute" $uta"us una"2ua"2ue re" si"$!iciter% 2uu" $uta"us causa" co)noscere% $ro$ter 2uu" res est% e,us2ue rei causa" esse% nee $osse ea" a!iter se ha*ere+ 3&his 08eta$h#sics%0 "oreo-er% he a!rea # i-i es causes% or rather $rinci$!es% W % into ifferent kin s%which he a "its ei)ht . *ut this i-ision is neither $rofoun nor $recise enou)h+ He is% ne-erthe!ess% 2uite ri)ht isa#in)% d b [ V g W % g V W g _ [% ^_ _g [% [ pd _g l+ 3&@4 O"n $rinci$iis co""une est% esse $ri"u"% un e aut est% aut fit% aut co)noscitur+ In the fo!!owin) cha$ter he istin)se-era! kin s of causes% a!thou)h so"ewhat su$erficia!!# an confuse !#+ In the 0Ana!#t+ $ost+0 ii+ &&% he skin s of causes in a "ore satisfactor# "anner / g [ X_ V gjdd W_` gY g[ _ [ X_ V g V g[ g % m ] g bg _ [ gjW X_ V% g[ W g ]d_ g_gmWg] X_ V% g V g ` _ + 3& 4 Caus aute" 2uatuor sunt/ un

2u e1$!icat 2ui res sit . a!tera% 2ua"% si 2u a" sint% necesse est esse . tertia% 2u 2ui $ri"u" "o-it . 2uartacu,us )ratia+ Now this is the ori)in of the i-ision of the causes uni-ersa!!# a o$te *# the Scho!astic Phi!oso$hinto caus "ateria!es% for"a!es% efficientes et fina!es% as "a# *e seen in 0Suarii is$utationes "eta$h#sic 0 3&Mrea! co"$en iu" of Scho!asticis"+ E-en Ho**es sti!! 2uotes an e1$!ains this i-ision+ 3B 4 It is a!so to *e founanother $assa)e of Aristot!e% this ti"e so"ewhat "ore c!ear!# an fu!!# e-e!o$e 08eta$h+0 i+ (+ an it is a)a *rief!# notice in the *ook 0De so"no et -i)i!ia%0 c+ B+ As for the -ita!!# i"$ortant istinction *etween reason acause% howe-er% Aristot!e no ou*t *etra#s so"ethin) !ike a conce$tion of it in the 0Ana!#t+ $ost+0 i+ &(% whshows at consi era*!e !en)th that knowin) an $ro-in) that a thin) e1ists is a -er# ifferent thin) fro" knowin) an $ro-in) wh# it e1ists / what he re$resents as the !atter% *ein) know!e )e of the cause. as the for"er% know!e )e othe reason+ If% howe-er% he ha 2uite c!ear!# reco)ni


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6# this we see that the Ancients ha not #et arri-e at a c!ear istinction *etween re2uirin) a reason as the )rouna conc!usion% an askin) for a cause for the occurrence of a rea! e-ent+ As for the Scho!astic Phi!oso$hers of !atti"es% the !aw of causa!it# was in their e#es an a1io" a*o-e in-esti)ation / 0non in2uiri"us an causa sit%2uia nihi!est $er se notius0 sa#s Suare

nee s no further $roof . if% on the contrar#% it has *een hatche in #our own sinci$ut% a!! its $re icates are of for it is a "ere $hantas"+ 6ut we for" an unfa-oura*!e $re,u ice a)ainst the $retensions of a theo!o)# whichnee e to ha-e recourse to such $roofs as this in or er to )ain a footin) on the territor# of $hi!oso$h#% to which i2uite forei)n% *ut on which it !on)s to tres$ass+ 6ut oh for the $ro$hetic wis o" of Aristot!e He ha ne-er e-hear of the Onto!o)ica! Proof . #et as thou)h he cou! etect this $iece of scho!astic ,u))!er# throu)h the sha es co"in) arkness an were an1ious to *ar the roa to it% he carefu!!# shows 3B(4 that efinin) a thin) an $ro-in)e1istence are two ifferent "atters% se$arate to a!! eternit# . since *# the one we !earn what it is that is "eant% anthe other that such a thin) e1ists+ Like an orac!e of the future% he $ronounces the sentence / g V X' _ [ b bd

bX_ b VW j ` g V / ESSE aute" nu!!ius rei essentia est% 2uan o2ui e" ens non est )enus which "eans / E1istence ne-er can *e!on) to the essence of a thin)+0 On the other han % we "a# see how )reat was Herr -on


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Sche!!in)'s -eneration for the Onto!o)ica! Proof in a !on) note% $+ & B% of the &st -o!+ of his 0 Phi!oso$hischSchriften0 of & M+ =e "a# e-en see in it so"ethin) sti!! "ore instructi-e% i+e+% how easi!# ;er"ans a!!ow san thrown in their e#es *# i"$u ence an *!usterin) swa))er+ 6ut for so thorou)h!# $itia*!e a creature as He)e!% whwho!e $seu o5$hi!oso$h# is *ut a "onstrous a"$!ification of the Onto!o)ica! Proof% to ha-e un ertaken its efena)ainst >ant% is in ee an a!!iance of which the Onto!o)ica! Proof itse!f "i)ht *e asha"e % howe-er !itt!e it "a# i)enera! *e )i-en to *!ushin)+ How can I *e e1$ecte to s$eak with eference of "en% who ha-e *rou)ht $hi!oso$hinto conte"$t9

3e it4 + S$ino


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$ossunt% $erfectu" one" $r e1istente"% 2ue" et $roarchen% et $ro$atore"% et 6#thu" -ocant+ Eu" aute"% 2uu"inco"$rehensi*i!is et in-isi*i!is% se"$iternus i e" et in)enitus esset% infinitis te"$oru" secu!is in su""a% 2uiete actran2ui!!itate fuisse+ Un etia" cu" eo Co)itatione" e1stitisse% 2ua" et ;ratia" et Si!entiu" Si)en nuncu$ant+Hunc $orro 6#thu" in ani"u" a!i2uan o in u1isse% reru" o"niu" initiu" $roferre% at2ue hanc% 2ua" in ani"u"in u1erat% $ro uctione"% in Si)en si!entiu" 2u un cu" eo erat% non secus at2ue in -u!-a" e"isisse+ Hanc-ero% susce$to hoc se"ine% $r )nante" effecta" $e$erisse Inte!!ectu"% $arenti suo $are" et 2ua!e"% at2ue itaco"$aratu"% ut so!us $atern "a)nitu inis ca$a1 esset+ At2ue hunc Inte!!ectu" et 8ono)ene" et Patre" et $rinci$u" o"niu" reru" a$$e!!ant+

So"ehow or other this "ust ha-e co"e to Gaco* 6vh"e's hearin) fro" the Histor# of Heres#% an Herr -onSche!!in) "ust ha-e recei-e it fro" hi" in a!! faith+

3e it4 M+ Lei*nit


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we ha-e sai % istin)uishes a PRINCIPIU8 CO;NOSCENDI% an refers a!so un er causa to a causa i"$u!si-a%si-e ratio -o!untate" eter"inans+

3e it4 &&+ Phi!oso$hers *etween =o!f an >ant+6au")arten re$eats the =o!fian istinctions in his 0 8eta$h#sica%0 B 5B?% an ( K5(&(+

Rei"arus% in his 0:ernunft!ehre%0 3(@4 &% istin)uishes &+ Inwar reason% of which his e1$!anation a)r=o!f's ratio essen i% an "i)ht e-en *e a$$!ica*!e to the ratio co)noscen i% if he i not transfer to thin)s what oa$$!ies to conce$tions . B+ Outwar reason% i+e+ causa+ &B et se22+% he ri)ht!# efines the ratio co)nosccon ition of the $ro$osition . *ut in an e1a"$!e% &B % he ne-erthe!ess confoun s it with cause+

La"*ert% in the new Or)anon% oes not "ention =o!f's istinctions . he shows% howe-er% that he reco)niant's schoo! . Hof*auer% 8aass%Gako*% >iesewetter an others% ha-e efine $rett# accurate!# the istinction *etween reason an cause+ >ies"ore es$ecia!!#% )i-es it thus 2uite satisfactori!# / 3?&4 0Reason of know!e )e is not to *e confoun e with reas


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fact cause + The Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason *e!on)s to Lo)ic% that of Causa!it# to 8eta$h#sics+ 3?B4 The fis the fun a"enta! $rinci$!e of thou)ht . the !atter that of e1$erience+ Cause refers to rea! thin)s% !o)ica! reason hon!# to o with re$resentations+0

>ant's a -ersaries ur)e this istinction sti!! "ore stron)!#+ ;r+ E+ Schu!tant 3? 4 for eri-in) $rinci$!e of causa!it# fro" the !o)ica! for" of h#$othetica! ,u )"ents+

F+ H+ Gaco*i3?K4 sa#s% that *# the confoun in) of the two conce$tions% reason an cause% an i!!usion is $rowhich has )i-en rise to -arious fa!se s$ecu!ations . an he $oints out the istinction *etween the" after his ownfashion+ Here% howe-er% as is usua! with hi"% we fin a )oo ea! "ore of se!f5co"$!acent $hrase5,u))!er# thaserious $hi!oso$h#+

How Herr -on Sche!!in) fina!!# istin)uishes reason fro" cause% "a# *e seen in his 0A$horis"s intro uctor# to thPhi!oso$h# of Nature%0 3?@4 & ?% which o$en the first *ook of the first -o!u"e of 8arcus an Sche!!in)'s 0Aof 8e ecine+0 Here we are tau)ht that )ra-it# is the reason an !i)ht the cause of a!! thin)s+ This I "ere!# 2uote ascuriosit#. for such ran o" ta!k wou! not otherwise eser-e a $!ace a"on) the o$inions of serious an honestin2uirers+

3e it4 &?+ On the Proofs of the Princi$!e+=e ha-e sti!! to recor -arious fruit!ess atte"$ts which ha-e *een "a e to $ro-e the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason%"ost!# without c!ear!# efinin) in which sense it was taken / =o!f's% for instance% in his Onto!o)#% @ % re$6au")arten in his 08eta$h#sics%0 B + It is use!ess to re$eat an refute it here% as it o*-ious!# rests on a -er*a2ui**!e+ P!attner 3? 4 an Gako* 3?M4 ha-e trie other $roofs% in which% howe-er% the circ!e is easi!# etec $ur$ose ea!in) with those of >ant further on% as I ha-e a!rea # sai + Since I ho$e% in the course of this treatis $oint out the ifferent !aws of our co)niti-e facu!ties% of which the $rinci$!e of sufficient reason is the co""one1$ression% it wi!! resu!t as a "atter of course% that this $rinci$!e cannot *e $ro-e % an that% on the contrar#%Aristot!e's re"ark / 3 4 \Y ~]g bd[ V b dg[ \Y ` V X_ Z_ ` VW W ] V b YX_[Z ` dg[ ratione" eoru" 2u rant% 2uoru" non est ratio / e"onstrationis eni" $rinci$iu" non est e"onstratio "a# *e a$$!ie withe2ua! $ro$riet# to a!! these $roofs+ For e-er# $roof is a reference to so"ethin) a!rea # reco)nise . an if wecontinue re2uirin) a $roof a)ain for this so"ethin)% whate-er it *e% we at !ast arri-e at certain $ro$ositions which

e1$ress the for"s an !aws% therefore the con itions% of a!! thou)ht an of a!! know!e )e% in the a$$!ication oconse2uent!# a!! thou)ht an a!! know!e )e consists / so that certaint# is nothin) *ut corres$on ence with thosecon itions% for"s% an !aws% therefore their own certaint# cannot a)ain *e ascertaine *# "eans of other $ro$ositions+ In the fifth cha$ter I "ean to iscuss the kin of truth which *e!on)s to $ro$ositions such as these+

To seek a $roof for the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason% is% "oreo-er% an es$ecia!!# f!a)rant a*sur it#% which shwant of ref!ection+ E-er# $roof is a e"onstration of the reason for a ,u )"ent which has *een $ronounce % anwhich recei-es the $re icate true in -irtue $recise!# of that e"onstration+ This necessit# for a reason is e1act!#what the Princi$!e of Sufficient Reason e1$resses+ Now if we re2uire a $roof of it% or% in other wor s% a

e"onstration of its reason% we there*# a!rea # assu"e it to *e true% na#% we foun our e"an $recise!# u$onassu"$tion% an thus we fin ourse!-es in-o!-e in the circ!e of e1actin) a $roof of our ri)ht to e1act a $roof+

3e it4 Cha$ter III+ 5 Insufficienc# Of The O! An Out!ines Of A New De"onstration+3e it4 & + Cases which are not co"$rise a"on) the o! esta*!ishe "eanin)s of the Princi$!e+FRO8 the su""ar# )i-en in the $rece in) cha$ter we )ather% that two istinct a$$!ications of the $rinci$!e ofsufficient reason ha-e *een reco)ni


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si es9 No. for here we ha-e to o with no chan)e% conse2uent!# with no effect which "ust ha-e a cause+7Is it"ere!# a !o)ica! reason 9 No . for the e2ua!it# of the an)!e is not on!# a $roof of the e2ua!it# of the si es% it is noon!# the foun ation of a ,u )"ent / "ere conce$tions a!one wou! ne-er suffice to e1$!ain wh# the si es "ust *ee2ua!% *ecause the an)!es are so . for the conce$tion of the e2ua!it# of the si es is not containe in that of thee2ua!it# of the an)!es+ Here therefore we ha-e no connection *etween conce$tions an ,u )"ents% *ut *etween san an)!es+ The e2ua!it# of the an)!es is not the irect% *ut the in irect reason% *# which we know the e2ua!it#si es . for it is the reason wh# a thin) is such as it is in this case% that the si es are e2ua! / the an)!es *ein) e2uthe si es "ust therefore *e e2ua!+ Here we ha-e a necessar# connection *etween an)!es an si es% not a irect%necessar# connection *etween two ,u )"ents+7Or a)ain% if I ask wh# infecta facta% *ut ne-er facta infecta fieri $ossunt% conse2uent!# wh# the $ast is a*so!ute!# irre-oca*!e% the future ine-ita*!e% e-en this oes not a "it of $ure!# !o)ica! $roof *# "eans of "ere a*stract conce$tions% nor oes it *e!on) either to causa!it#% which on!# ruoccurrences within Ti"e% not Ti"e itse!f+ The $resent hour hur!e the $rece in) one into the *otto"!ess $it of the $ast% not throu)h causa!it#% *ut i""e iate!#% throu)h its "ere e1istence% which e1istence was ne-erthe!essine-ita*!e+ It is i"$ossi*!e to "ake this co"$rehensi*!e or e-en c!earer *# "eans of "ere conce$tions . wereco)nise it% on the contrar#% 2uite irect!# an instincti-e!#% ,ust as we reco)ni


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that co"$!e1 without *e)innin) or en which for"s our E"$irica! Rea!it#+ As% ne-erthe!ess% accor in) to the resuof >ant's teachin)% this E"$irica! Rea!it# oes not annu! their Transcen enta! I ea!it#% we sha!! consi er the" hwhere we ha-e on!# to o with the for"a! e!e"ents of know!e )e% "ere!# as re$resentations+

3e it4 & + Out!ine of a Transcen enta! Ana!#sis of E"$irica! Rea!it#+The for"s of these re$resentations are those of the inner an outer sense . na"e!#% Ti"e an S$ace+ 6ut these areon!# $erce$ti*!e when fi!!e + Their $erce$ti*i!it# is 8atter% to which I sha!! return further on% an a)ain in BTi"e were the on!# for" of these re$resentations% there cou! *e no coe1istence% therefore nothin) $er"anent anno uration+ For Ti"e is on!# $ercei-e when fi!!e % an its course is on!# $ercei-e *# the chan)es which take $!ace in that which fi!!s it+ The $er"anence of an o*,ect is therefore on!# reco)ni


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The necessar# con ition "entione in the $rece in) $ara)ra$h for the i""e iate $resence of a re$resentation of thisc!ass% is its causa! action u$on our senses an conse2uent!# u$on our or)anis"% which itse!f *e!on)s to this c!aso*,ects% an is therefore su*,ect to the causa! !aw which $re o"inates in it an which we are now a*out to e1a"i Now as therefore% on the one han % accor in) to the !aws of the inner an outer wor! % the Su*,ect cannot stoat that one re$resentation . *ut as% on the other han % there is no coe1istence in Ti"e a!one/ 3that sin)!ere$resentation "ust a!wa#s -anish an *e su$erse e *# others% in -irtue of a !aw which we cannot eter"ine a $riori% *ut which e$en s u$on circu"stances soon to *e "entione + It is "oreo-er a we!!5known fact% that thei"a)ination an rea"s re$ro uce the i""e iate $resence of re$resentations . the in-esti)ation of that fact%howe-er% *e!on)s to e"$irica! Ps#cho!o)#+ Now as% notwithstan in) the transitor#% iso!ate nature of ourre$resentations with res$ect to their i""e iate $resence in our consciousness% the Su*,ect ne-erthe!ess retains there$resentation of an a!!5co"$rehensi-e co"$!e1 of rea!it#% as escri*e a*o-e% *# "eans of the function of theUn erstan in) . re$resentations ha-e% on the stren)th of this antithesis% *een -iewe % as so"ethin) 2uite ifferewhen consi ere as *e!on)in) to that co"$!e1 than when consi ere with reference to their i""e iate $resence inour consciousness+ Fro" the for"er $oint of -iew the# were ca!!e rea! thin)s . fro" the !atter on!#% re$resentationZ + This -iew of the "atter% which is the or inar# one% is known un er the na"e of Rea!is"+ On the a$$e

of "o ern $hi!oso$h#% I ea!is" o$$ose itse!f to this Rea!is" an has since *een stea i!# )ainin) )roun +8a!e*ranche an 6erke!e# were its ear!iest re$resentati-es% an >ant enhance it to the $ower of Transcen enta!I ea!is"% *# which the co5e1istence of the E"$irica! Rea!it# of thin)s with their Transcen enta! I ea!it# *eco"esconcei-a*!e% an accor in) to which >ant e1$resses hi"se!f as fo!!ows / 3 (4 0Transcen enta! I ea!is" teaches ta!! $heno"ena are re$resentations on!#% not thin)s *# the"se!-es+0 An a)ain/ 3 ?4 0S$ace itse!f is nothin) *ut "re$resentation% an what e-er is in it "ust therefore *e containe in that re$resentation+ There is nothin) whate-eS$ace% e1ce$t so far as it is rea!!# re$resente in it+0 Fina!!# he sa#s / 3 4 0If we take awa# the thinkin) Su*,who!e "ateria! wor! "ust -anish . *ecause it is nothin) *ut a $heno"enon in the sensi*i!it# of our own su*,ect ana certain c!ass of its re$resentations+0 In In ia% I ea!is" is e-en a octrine of $o$u!ar re!i)ion% not on!# of6rah"inis"% *ut of 6u his" . in Euro$e a!one is it a $ara o1% in conse2uence of the essentia!!# an una-oi a*!rea!istic $rinci$!e of Gu ais"+ 6ut Rea!is" 2uite o-er!ooks the fact% that the so5ca!!e e1istence of these rea! thia*so!ute!# nothin) *ut their *ein) re$resente ein :or)este!!t5wer eri % or7if it *e insiste % that on!# the i""e $resence in the consciousness of the Su*,ect can *e ca!!e *ein) re$resente g' _g\j _[ 7it is e-en on!# a $ossi*i!it# of *ein) re$resente g V Xl [ + The rea!ist for)ets that the O*,ect ceases to *e O*,ect a$art fro" itsreference to the Su*,ect% an that if we take awa# that reference% or think it awa#% we at once o awa# with ao*,ecti-e e1istence+ Lei*nit


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efinite wa#+ =e are% for instance% infor"e % now% that it is that *# which so"ethin) e!se co"es into *ein) . nothat it is what $ro uces another thin) or )i-es it rea!it#% c+ c+ =o!f sa#s/ Causa est $rinci$iu"% a 2uo e1istentisi-e actua!itas% entis a!terius e$en et. whereas it is o*-ious that in causa!it# we ha-e on!# to o with chan)es infor" of uncreate % in estructi*!e 8atter% an that a s$rin)in) into e1istence of what i not $re-ious!# e1ist is ani"$ossi*i!it#+ =ant of c!earness of thou)ht "a#% no ou*t% in "ost cases ha-e !e to these -iews of the causa!re!ation . *ut sure!# so"eti"es an arrire5$ensQe !urks in the *ack)roun 7a theo!o)ica! intention co2uetin) with tCos"o!o)ica! Proof% for whose sake it is rea # to fa!sif# e-en transcen enta!% a $riori truths% the "other's "i!k ohu"an un erstan in)+ =e fin the c!earest instance of this in Tho"as 6rown's *ook% 0On the Re!ation of Cause aEffect%0 a work of ?K $a)es% which% in & ( % ha a!rea # reache its fourth e ition% an has $ro*a*!# sthrou)h se-era! "ore% an which% in s$ite of its weariso"e% $e antic% ra"*!in) $ro!i1it#% oes not han !e the *a !#+ Now this En)!ish"an ri)ht!# reco)nises% that it is in-aria*!# with chan)es that the causa! !aw has to o% athat e-er# effect is accor in)!# a chan)e+ et% a!thou)h it can har !# ha-e esca$e hi"% he is unwi!!in) to a "it te-er# cause is !ikewise a chan)e% an that the who!e $rocess is therefore nothin) *ut the uninterru$te ne1us ofchan)es succee in) one another in Ti"e+ On the contrar#% he $ersists in c!u"si!# ca!!in) the cause an o*,ect orsu*stance% which $rece es the chan)e% an in tor"entin) hi"se!f throu)hout his te ious *ook with this entire!# fe1$ression% which s$oi!s a!! his e1$!anations% notwithstan in) his own *etter know!e )e an a)ainst his conscisi"$!# in or er that his efinition "a# on no account stan in the wa# of the Cos"o!o)ica! Proof% which others"i)ht hereafter state e!sewhere+76ut what can a truth *e worth which nee s e-ices such as these to $re$are itswa# 9

An what ha-e our own worth#% honest ;er"an $rofessors of $hi!oso$h# *een oin) in *eha!f of their ear!# *e!o-e Cos"o!o)ica! Proof% since >ant ea!t it the eath *!ow in his Criti2ue of Pure Reason97the#% who $riant% has *een critici


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re!ation *etween cause an effect is a necessar# one% so that the causa! !aw authori


21/71

*e#on our so!ar s#ste" . an astrono"ers carefu!!# ca!! attention to an# in ications corro*orati-e of itsou*tfu!ness with which the# "a# ha$$en to "eet% there*# showin) that the# re)ar it as "ere!# e"$irica!+ The

2uestion "a# of course *e raise % whether )ra-itation takes effect *etween *o ies which are se$arate *# ana*so!ute -acuu"% or whether its action within a so!ar s#ste" "a# not *e "e iate *# so"e sort of ether% an "a#not cease a!to)ether *etween fi1e stars . *ut these 2uestions on!# a "it of an e"$irica! so!ution% an this $ro-esthat here we ha-e not to o with a know!e )e a $riori+ If% on the other han % we a "it with >ant an La$!ace th#$othesis% as the "ost $ro*a*!e one% that each so!ar s#ste" has e-e!o$e out of an ori)ina! ne*u!a *# a )ra ua $rocess of con ensation% we sti!! cannot for a "o"ent concei-e the $ossi*i!it# of that ori)ina! su*stance ha-in)s$run) into *ein) out of nothin) / we are force to assu"e the anterior e1istence of its $artic!es so"ewhere or other%as we!! as their ha-in) *een *rou)ht to)ether so"ehow or other% $recise!# *ecause of the transcen enta! nature ofthe $rinci$!e of the $er"anence of Su*stance+ In "# Criti2ue of >antian Phi!oso$h#% 3K&4 I ha-e shown at !en)tthat Su*stance is *ut another wor for 8atter% the conce$tion of su*stance not *ein) rea!isa*!e e1ce$tin) in 8atteran therefore eri-in) its ori)in fro" 8atter% an I ha-e a!so s$ecia!!# $ointe out how that conce$tion was for"eso!e!# to ser-e a surre$titious $ur$ose+ Like "an# other e2ua!!# certain truths% this eternit# of 8atter ca!!e the $er"anence of su*stance is for*i en fruit for $rofessors of $hi!oso$h# . so the# s!i$ $ast it with a *ashfu!% si)!ance+

6# the en !ess chain of causes an effects which irects a!! chan)es *ut ne-er e1ten s *e#on the"% two e1istin)thin)s re"ain untouche % $recise!# *ecause of the !i"ite ran)e of its action / on the one han % 8atter% as we ha ,ust shown . on the other han % the $ri"ar# forces of Nature+ The first "atter re"ains uninf!uence *# the causne1us% *ecause it is that which un er)oes a!! chan)es% or on which the# take $!ace . the secon the $ri"ar# for *ecause it is the# a!one *# which chan)es or effects *eco"e $ossi*!e . for the# a!one )i-e causa!it# to causes% i+efacu!t# of o$eratin)% which the causes therefore ho! as "ere -assa!s a fief+ Cause an effect are chan)es connecto)ether to necessar# succession in Ti"e . whereas the forces of Nature *# "eans of which a!! causes o$erate% aree1e"$t fro" a!! chan)e . in this sense therefore the# are outsi e Ti"e% *ut $recise!# on that account the# are a!wa#an e-er#where in reser-e% o"ni$resent an ine1hausti*!e% e-er rea # to "anifest the"se!-es% as soon as ano$$ortunit# $resents itse!f in the threa of causa!it#+ A cause% !ike its effect% is in-aria*!# so"ethin) in i-i ua!%sin)!e chan)e . whereas a force of Nature is so"ethin) uni-ersa!% unchan)ea*!e% $resent at a!! ti"es an in a!! $!aces+ The attraction of a threa *# a"*er% for instance% at the $resent "o"ent% is an effect . its cause is the $rece in) friction an actua! contact of the a"*er with the threa . an the force of Nature which acts in% an $resi es o-er% the $rocess% is E!ectricit#+ The e1$!anation of this "atter is to *e foun in "# chief work% 3KB4there I ha-e shown in a !on) chain of causes an effects how the "ost hetero)eneous natura! forces successi-e!#co"e into $!a# in the"+ 6# this e1$!anation the ifference *etween transitor# $heno"ena an $er"anent for"s of

o$eration% *eco"es e1cee in)!# c!ear . an as% "oreo-er% a who!e section BK is e-ote to the 2uestion%sufficient here to )i-e a *rief sketch of it+ The ru!e% *# which a force of Nature "anifests itse!f in the chain of cauan effects7conse2uent!# the !ink which connects it with the"7is the !aw of Nature+ 6ut the confusion *etweenforces of Nature an causes is as fre2uent as it is etri"enta! to c!earness of thou)ht+ It see"s in ee as thou)h noone ha accurate!# efine the ifference *etween these conce$tions *efore "e% howe-er )reat "a# ha-e *een theur)enc# for such a istinction+ Not on!# are forces of Nature turne into causes *# such e1$ressions as% E!ectric;ra-it#% c+% are the cause of so5an 5so% *ut the# are e-en often turne into effects *# those who search for a for E!ectricit#% ;ra-it#% c+ c+% which is a*sur + Di"inishin) the nu"*er of the forces of Nature% howe-er%re ucin) one to another% as for instance 8a)netis" is in our a#s re uce to E!ectricit#% is a tota!!# ifferent thinE-er# true% conse2uent!# rea!!# $ri"ar# force of Nature7an e-er# fun a"enta! che"ica! $ro$ert# *e!on)s to theseforces7is essentia!!# a 2ua!itas occu!ta% i+e+ it oes not a "it of $h#sica!% *ut on!# of "eta$h#sica! e1$!anationother wor s% of an e1$!anation which transcen s the wor! of $heno"ena+ No one has carrie this confusion% rather i entification% of causes with forces of Nature further than 8aine e 6iran in his 0Nou-e!!es consi eration

es ra$$orts u $h#si2ue au "ora!%0 for it is essentia! to his $hi!oso$h#+ It is *esi es re"arka*!e% that when hes$eaks of causes% he rare!# uses the wor cause a!one% *ut a!"ost a!wa#s s$eaks of cause ou force% ,ust as we seen S$ino


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A cause% in its narrowest sense% is that u$on which chan)es in the inor)anic kin) o" a!one ensue / those chan)esthat is to sa#% which for" the the"e of 8echanics% Ph#sics% an Che"istr#+ Newton's thir fun a"enta! !aw% 0an reaction are e2ua! to one another%0 a$$!ies e1c!usi-e!# to this cause% an enunciates% that the state which $rece es the cause un er)oes a chan)e e2ui-a!ent to that $ro uce *# it the effect + In this for" of causa!it#a!one% "oreo-er% oes the e)ree of the effect a!wa#s e1act!# corres$on to the e)ree of the cause% so as to enus accurate!# to ca!cu!ate the one *# "eans of the other+

The secon for" of causa!it# is the sti"u!us . it rei)ns o-er or)anic !ife% as such% i+e+ o-er $!ant !ife an the-e)etati-e% that is% the unconscious% $art of ani"a! !ife+ This secon for" is characteriant's $ractica! Reason with its


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Cate)orica! I"$erati-e which% un er the na"e of the 8ora! Law% is sti!! use *# these )ent!e"en as the corner5stoof their own sha!!ow s#ste"s of "ora!it#+ I ha-e shown it to *e a futi!e assu"$tion so c!ear!# an irrefuta*!#% thatone with a s$ark of ,u )"ent can $ossi*!# *e!ie-e an# !on)er in this fiction+70=e!!% an so the# $ro*a*!# i +07Oh no The# take )oo care not to -enture on such s!i$$er# )roun Their a*i!it# consists in ho! in) their ton)usi!ence is a!! the# ha-e to o$$ose to inte!!i)ence% earnestness% an truth+ In not one of the $ro ucts of their usescri**!in)s that ha-e a$$eare since & ?&% has the s!i)htest notice *een taken of "# Ethics7un ou*te !# the "osi"$ortant work on 8ora! Phi!oso$h# that has *een $u*!ishe for the !ast si1t# #ears7na#% their terror of "e an of"# truth is so )reat% that none of the !iterar# ,ourna!s issue *# Aca e"ies or Uni-ersities has so "uch as "entionethe *ook+ itto%


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istance% an nature of *o ies% an re$resents the" at once $erce$ti*!#+ On the other han % touch certain!# u$on contact . sti!! its ata are so -arie an so trustworth#% that it is the "ost searchin) of a!! the senses+ E-en $erce$tion *# si)ht "a#% in the !ast resort% *e referre to touch . na#% si)ht "a# *e !ooke u$on as an i"$erfect te1ten in) to a )reat istance% which uses the ra#s of !i)ht as !on) fee!ers . an it is ,ust *ecause it is !i"ite to tho2ua!ities which ha-e !i)ht for their "e iu" an is therefore one5si e % that it is so !ia*!e to ece$tion . whereastouch su$$!ies the ata for co)nisin) si


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an ark with their inter"e iate )ra ations an to that of co!ours $ro$er+ This sensation is entire!# su*,ecti-e/ thato sa#% it on!# e1ists within the or)anis" an un er the skin+ =ithout the Un erstan in)% in ee % we shou! ne-en *eco"e conscious of these )ra ations% e1ce$tin) as of $ecu!iar% -arie "o ifications of the fee!in) in our e#which wou! *ear no rese"*!ance to the sha$e% situation% $ro1i"it#% or istance of o*,ects outsi e us+ For senin seein)% su$$!ies nothin) "ore than a -arie affection of the retina% e1act!# !ike the s$ectac!e of a $ainter's $a!with i-ers s$!ashes of co!our+ Nor wou! an#thin) "ore re"ain o-er in our consciousness% were we su en!#

e$ri-e of a!! our Un erstan in)7!et us sa# *# $ara!#sis of the *rain7at a "o"ent when we were conte"$!atin)a rich an e1tensi-e !an sca$e% whi!e the sensation was !eft unchan)e / for this was the raw "ateria! out of whiour Un erstan in) ha ,ust *efore *een constructin) that $erce$tion+

Now% that the Un erstan in) shou! thus *e a*!e% fro" such !i"ite "ateria! as !i)ht% sha e an co!our% to $rthe -isi*!e wor! % ine1hausti*!# rich in a!! its ifferent sha$es% *# "eans of the si"$!e function of referrin) effeccauses assiste *# the intuition of S$ace% e$en s *efore a!! thin)s u$on the assistance )i-en *# the sensation itswhich consists in this / first% that the retina% as a surface% a "its of a ,u1ta$osition of i"$ressions . secon !#% t!i)ht a!wa#s acts in strai)ht !ines% an that its refraction in the e#e itse!f is recti!inear . fina!!#% that the retina $ossesses the facu!t# of i""e iate!# fee!in) fro" which irection the !i)ht co"es that i"$in)es u$on it% an thiscan% $erha$s% on!# *e accounte for *# the ra#s of !i)ht $enetratin) *e!ow the surface of the retina+ 6ut *# this)ain% that the "ere i"$ression at once in icates the irection of its cause . that is% it $oints irect!# to the $ositionthe o*,ect fro" which the !i)ht $rocee s or is ref!ecte + The $assa)e to this o*,ect as a cause no ou*t $resu$$osethe know!e )e of causa! re!ations% % as we!! as of the !aws of S$ace . *ut this know!e )e constitutes $recise!# tfurniture of the Inte!!ect% which% here a!so% has a)ain to create $erce$tion out of "ere sensation+ Let us now eits $roce ure in oin) so "ore c!ose!#+

The first thin) it oes is to set ri)ht the i"$ression of the o*,ect% which is $ro uce on the retina u$si e own+ Tori)ina! in-ersion is% as we know% *rou)ht a*out in the fo!!owin) "anner+ As each $oint of the -isi*!e o*,ect senforth its ra#s towar s a!! si es in a recti!inear irection% the ra#s fro" its u$$er e1tre"it# cross those fro" its !owee1tre"it# in the narrow a$erture of the $u$i!% *# which the for"er i"$in)e u$on the *otto"% the !atter u$on the to$those $ro,ecte fro" the ri)ht si e u$on the !eft% an -ice -ersa+ The refractin) a$$aratus of the e#e% which consof the hu"or a2ueus% !ens% et cor$us -itreu"% on!# ser-es to concentrate the ra#s of !i)ht $rocee in) fro" the o*,so as to fin roo" for the" on the s"a!! s$ace of the retina+ Now% if seein) consiste in "ere sensation% we shou! $ercei-e the i"$ression of the o*,ect turne u$si e own% *ecause we recei-e it thus . *ut in that case we shou! $ercei-e it as so"ethin) within our e#e% for we shou! sto$ short at the sensation+ In rea!it#% howe-er% theUn erstan in) ste$s in at once with its causa! !aw% an as it has recei-e fro" sensation the atu" of the irectio

which the ra# i"$in)e u$on the retina% it $ursues that irection retro)ressi-e!# u$ to the cause on *oth !ines . sothat this ti"e the crossin) takes $!ace in the o$$osite irection% an the cause $resents itse!f u$ri)ht as an e1ternao*,ect in S$ace% i+e+ in the $osition in which it ori)ina!!# sent forth its ra#s% not that in which the# reache the

see fi)+ & +

The $ure!# inte!!ectua! nature of this $rocess% to the e1c!usion of a!! other% "ore es$ecia!!# of $h#sio!o)ica!%e1$!anations% "a# a!so *e confir"e *# the fact% that if we $ut our hea s 0*etween our !e)s% or !ie own on a hea ownwar s% we ne-erthe!ess see o*,ects in their ri)ht $osition% an not u$si e own . a!thou)h the $ortio


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the retina which is usua!!# "et *# the !ower $art of the o*,ect is then "et *# the u$$er / in fact% e-er#thin) is to$s#tur-# e1ce$tin) the Un erstan in)+

The secon thin) which the Un erstan in) oes in con-ertin) sensation into $erce$tion% is to "ake a sin)!e $erce$tion out of a ou*!e sensation . for each e#e in fact recei-es its own se$arate i"$ression fro" the o*,ect we are!ookin) at . each e-en in a s!i)ht!# ifferent irection / ne-erthe!ess that o*,ect $resents itse!f as a sin)!e one+ Thiscan on!# take $!ace in the Un erstan in)% an the $rocess *# which it is *rou)ht a*out is the fo!!owin) / Our e#eare ne-er 2uite $ara!!e!% e1ce$tin) when we !ook at a istant o*,ect% i+e+ one which is "ore than B feet fro" other ti"es the# are *oth irecte towar s the o*,ect we are -iewin)% where*# the# con-er)e% so as to "ake the !i $rocee in) fro" each e#e to the e1act $oint of the o*,ect on which it is fi1e % for" an an)!e% ca!!e the o$tic an)the !ines the"se!-es are ca!!e o$tic a1es+ Now% when the o*,ect !ies strai)ht *efore us% these !ines e1act!# i"$inu$on the centre of each retina% therefore in two $oints which corres$on e1act!# to each other in each e#e+ TheUn erstan in)% whose on!# *usiness it is to !ook for the cause of a!! thin)s% at once reco)nises the i"$ression asco"in) fro" a sin)!e outsi e $oint% a!thou)h here the sensation is ou*!e% an attri*utes it to one cause% whichtherefore $resents itse!f as a sin)!e o*,ect+ For a!! that is $ercei-e *# us% is $ercei-e as a cause7that is to sa#%the cause of an effect we ha-e e1$erience % conse2uent!# in the Un erstan in)+ As% ne-erthe!ess% we take in a sin)!e $oint% *ut a consi er a*!e surface of the o*,ect with *oth e#es% an #et $ercei-e it as a sin)!e o*,ect% it *e necessar# to $ursue this e1$!anation sti!! further+ A!! those $arts of the o*,ect which !ie to one si e of the -ertthe o$tic an)!e no !on)er sen their ra#s strai)ht into the centre% *ut to the si e% of the retina in each e#e . in *otsi es% howe-er% to the sa"e% !et us sa# the !eft% si e+ The $oints therefore u$on which these ra#s i"$in)e% cos#""etrica!!# to each other% as we!! as the centres7in other wor s% the# are ho"on#"ous $oints+

The Un erstan in) soon !earns to know the"% an accor in)!# e1ten s the a*o-e5"entione ru!e of its causa!

$erce$tion to the" a!so . conse2uent!# it not on!# refers those ra#s which i"$in)e u$on the centre of each retina% those a!so which i"$in)e u$on a!! the other s#""etrica!!# corres$on in) $!aces in *oth retinas% to a sin)!e ra iant $oint in the o*,ect -iewe / that is% it sees a!! these $oints !ikewise as sin)!e% an the entire o*,ect a!so+ Now%shou! *e we!! o*ser-e % that in this $rocess it is not the outer si e of one retina which corres$on s to the outerof the other% an the inner to the inner of each% *ut the ri)ht si e of one retina which corres$on s to the ri)ht sithe other% an so forth . so that this s#""etrica! corres$on ence "ust not *e taken in a $h#sio!o)ica!% *ut in a)eo"etrica! sense+ Nu"erous an -er# c!ear i!!ustrations of this $rocess% an of a!! the $heno"ena which areconnecte with it% are to *e foun in Ro*ert S"ith s 0O$tics%0 an $art!# a!so in >astner's ;er"an trans!ation

&@ + I on!# )i-e one fi)+ B % which% $ro$er!# s$eakin)% re$resents a s$ecia! case% "entione further "a# a!so ser-e to i!!ustrate the who!e% if we !ea-e the $oint E out of 2uestion+ Accor in) to this i!!ustration% we


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in-aria*!# irect *oth e#es e2ua!!# towar s the o*,ect% in or er that the s#""etrica!!# corres$on in) $!aces on *oretinas "a# catch the ra#s $ro,ecte fro" the sa"e $oints+ Now% when we "o-e our e#es u$war s an ownwar sto the si es% an in a!! irections% the $oint in the o*,ect which first i"$in)e u$on the centra! $oint of each retstrikes a ifferent $!ace e-er# ti"e% *ut in a!! cases one which% in each e#e% corres$on s to the $!ace *earin) thsa"e na"e in the other e#e+ In e1a"inin) $er!ustrare an o*,ect% we !et our e#es )!i e *ackwar s an forwar s it% in or er to *rin) each0 $oint of it successi-e!# into contact with the centre of the retina% which sees "ost ist/ we fee! it a!! o-er with our e#es+ It is therefore o*-ious that seein) sin)!# with two e#es is in fact the sa"e $rocesas fee!in) a *o # with ten fin)ers% each of which recei-es a ifferent i"$ression% each "oreo-er in a ifferent

irection/ the tota!it# of these i"$ressions *ein) ne-erthe!ess reco)nise *# the Un erstan in) as $rocee in) fro"one o*,ect% whose sha$e an si


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B+ The h#$othesis of a conf!uence or $artia! intersection of the o$tic ner-es *efore enterin) the *rain% ori)inate Newton%3@@4 is fa!se% si"$!# *ecause it wou! then *e i"$ossi*!e to see ou*!e *# s2uintin)+ :esa!ius anCaesa!$inus *esi es ha-e a!rea # *rou)ht forwar anato"ica! instances in which su*,ects saw sin)!e% a!thou)hneither fusion nor e-en contact of the o$tic ner-es ha taken $!ace+ A fina! ar)u"ent a)ainst the h#$othesis of a"i1e i"$ression is su$$!ie *# the fact% that on c!osin) our ri)ht e#e fir"!# an !ookin) at the sun with our !eft% *ri)ht i"a)e which $ersists for a ti"e is a!wa#s in the !eft% ne-er in the ri)ht% e#e / an -ice -ersa+

The thir $rocess *# which the Un erstan in) con-erts sensation into $erce$tion% consists in constructin) *o iesof the si"$!e surfaces hitherto o*taine 7that is% in a in) the thir i"ension+ This it oes *# esti"atin) thee1$ansion of *o ies in this thir i"ension in S$ace7which is known to the Un erstan in) a $riori7throu)hCausa!it#% accor in) to the e)ree in which the e#e is affecte *# the o*,ects% an to the )ra ations of !i)ht ansha e+ In fact% a!thou)h o*,ects fi!! S$ace in a!! three i"ensions% the# can on!# $ro uce an i"$ression u$on thwith two . for the nature of that or)an is such% that our sensation% in seein)% is "ere!# $!aui"etrica!% notstereo"etrica!+ A!! that is stereo"etrica! in our $erce$tion is a e *# the Un erstan in)% which has for its so!e the irection whence the e#e recei-es its i"$ression% the !i"its of that i"$ression% an the -arious )ra ations of !ian ark/ these ata irect!# in icate their causes% an ena*!e us to istin)uish whether what we ha-e *efore us

isk or a *a!!+ This "enta! $rocess% !ike the $rece in) ones% takes $!ace so i""e iate!# an with such ra$i it#%we are conscious of nothin) *ut the resu!t+ It is this which "akes $ers$ecti-e rawin) so ifficu!t a $ro*!e"% that can on!# *e so!-e *# "athe"atics an has to *e !earnt . a!thou)h a!! it has to o% is to re$resent the sensation ofseein) as it $resents itse!f to our Un erstan in) as a atu" for the thir $rocess / that is% -isua! sensation in its"ere!# $!ani"etrica! e1tension% to the two i"ensions of which e1tension% to)ether with the sai ata in the"% thUn erstan in) forthwith a s the thir % in conte"$!atin) a rawin) as we!! as in conte"$!atin) rea!it#+ Pers$ecti

rawin) is% in fact% a sort of writin) which can *e rea as easi!# as $rinte t#$e% *ut which few are a*!e to wr $recise!# *ecause our inte!!ect% in $ercei-in)% on!# a$$rehen s effects with a -iew to constructin) their causes%i""e iate!# !osin) si)ht of the for"er as soon as it has isco-ere the !atter+ For instance% we instant!# reco)nise achair% whate-er $osition it "a# *e in . whi!e rawin) a chair in an# $osition *e!on)s to the art which a*stracts fro"this thir $rocess of the Un erstan in)% in or er to $resent the ata a!one for the s$ectator hi"se!f to co"$!ete+ Inarrowest acce$tation% as we ha-e a!rea # seen% this is the art of rawin) in $ers$ecti-e . in a "ore co"$rehensi-sense% it is the who!e art of $aintin)+ A $aintin) $resents us with out!ines rawn accor in) to the ru!es of $ers$ecti-e . !i)hter an arker $!aces $ro$ortione to the effect of !i)ht an sha e. fina!!# $atches of co!ourin)%which are eter"ine as to 2ua!it# an intensit# *# the teachin) of e1$erience+ This the s$ectator rea s aninter$rets *# referrin) si"i!ar effects to their accusto"e causes+ The $ainter's art consists in conscious!# retainin)the ata of -isua! sensation in the artist's "e"or#% as the# are *efore this thir inte!!ectua! $rocess . whi!e we% w

are not artists% cast the" asi e without retainin) the" in our "e"or#% as soon as we ha-e "a e use of the" for the $ur$ose escri*e a*o-e+ =e sha!! *eco"e sti!! *etter ac2uainte with this thir inte!!ectua! $rocess *# now $assion to a fourth% which% fro" its inti"ate connection with the thir % ser-es to e!uci ate it+

This fourth o$eration of the 0Un erstan in) consists in ac2uirin) know!e )e of the istance of o*,ects fro" us / it this $recise!# which constitutes that thir i"ension of which we ha-e *een s$eakin)+ :isua! sensation% as we ha-sai % )i-es us the irection in which o*,ects !ie% *ut not their istance fro" us / that is% not their $osition+ It is Un erstan in) therefore to fin out this istance. or% in other wor s% the istance "ust *e inferre fro" $ure!# c

eter"inations+ Now the "ost i"$ortant of these is the -isua! an)!e% which o*,ects su*ten . #et e-en this is 2uitea"*i)uous an una*!e to eci e an#thin) *# itse!f+ It is !ike a wor of ou*!e "eanin) / the sense% in which it is *e un erstoo % can on!# *e )athere fro" its connection with the rest+ An o*,ect su*ten in) the sa"e -isua! an)!e"a# in fact *e s"a!! an near% or !ar)e an far off . an it is on!# when we ha-e $re-ious!# ascertaine its si


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therefore un eci e % whether the & occu$ie *# a )i-en o*,ect *e!on) to a s$here of B "i!es% or of & feetia"eter+ Con-erse!#% if the si


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6e#on it% the Un erstan in) has recourse to at"os$heric $ers$ecti-e% which in icates a )reater istance *# "eaof the increasin) i"ness of a!! co!ours% of the a$$earance of $h#sica! *!ue in front of a!! ark o*,ects accor in;oethe's $erfect!# correct an true 33w/theor# of co!ourstheor# of co!ours % an a!so of the )rowin) in istinctna!! out !ines+ In Ita!#% where the at"os$here is -er# trans$arent% % this atu" !oses its $ower an is a$t to "is!eaTi-o!i% for instance% see"s to *e -er# near when seen fro" Frascati+ On the other han % a!! o*,ects a$$ear !ar)e"ist% which is an a*nor"a! e1a))eration of the atu" . *e cause our Un erstan in) assu"es the" to *e further fro"us+

Fina!!#% there re"ains the esti"ation of istance *# "eans of the si


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That this know!e )e throu)h the Un erstan in) is in e$en ent of Reason's assistance% is shown e-en *# the factthat when% at an# ti"e% the Un erstan in) attri*utes a )i-en effect to a wron) cause% actua!!# $ercei-in) that cauwhere*# i!!usion arises% our Reason% howe-er c!ear!# it "a# reco)nise in a*stracto the true state of the "atter% ine-erthe!ess una*!e to assist the Un erstan in)% an the i!!usion $ersists un istur*e in s$ite of that *etterknow!e )e+ The a*o-e5"entione $heno"ena of seein) an fee!in) ou*!e% which resu!t fro" an a*nor"a! $ositioof the or)ans of touch an si)ht% are instances of such i!!usions . !ikewise the a$$arent!# increase si


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con-ince hi"se!f ti!! after so"e ti"e urin) his wa!ks out of oors% that what ha at first a$$eare to hi" as a shuttof -arious co!ours% as we!! as "an# other o*,ects% were in rea!it# -er# ifferent thin)s. an that at !en)th the shut

isa$$eare % an he saw an reco)nise a!! thin)s in their ,ust $ro$ortions+ Persons *orn *!in who o*tain thei *# an o$eration in !ater #ears on!#% so"eti"es i"a)ine that a!! o*,ects touch their e-es% an !ie so near to the" thathe# are afrai of stu"*!in) a)ainst the" . so"eti"es the# !ea$ towar s the "oon% su$$osin) that the# can !a# ho!of it . at other ti"es the# run after the c!ou s "o-in) a!on) the sk#% in or er to catch the"% or co""it other suche1tra-a)ancies+ Since i eas are )aine *# ref!ection u$on sensation% it is further necessar# in a!! cases% in or ean accurate i ea of o*,ects "a# *e for"e fro" the sense of si)ht% that the $owers of the "in shou! *euni"$aire % an un istur*e in their e1ercise+ A $roof of this is affor e in the instance re!ate *# Has!a"% 3 *o# who ha no efect of si)ht% *ut was weak in un erstan in)% an who in his se-enth #ear was una*!e to estthe istances of o*,ects% es$ecia!!# as to hei)ht . he wou! e1ten his han fre2uent!# towar s a nai! on the ceior towar s the "oon% to catch it+ It is therefore the ,u )"ent which corrects an "akes c!ear this i ea% or $erce$of -isi*!e o*,ects+0

The inte!!ectua! nature of $erce$tion as I ha-e shown it% is corro*orate $h#sio!o)ica!!# *# F!ourens 3 &4 as fo

0I! faut faire !ine )ran istinction entre !es sens et & inte!!i)ence+ L'a*!ation un tu*ercu!e eter"ine !a $erte sensation% u sens e !a -ue. !a retine e-ient insensi*!e% !'iris e-ient i""o*i!e+ L'a*!ation 'un !o*e cere*ra! !!a sensation% !e sens% !a sensi*i!ite e !a retine% !a "o*i!ite e !'iris . e!!e ne etruit 2ue !a $erce$tion seu!e+ Dcas% c'est un fait sensoria!. et% ans !'autre% un fait cere*ra!. ans un cas% c'est !a $erte u sens . ans !'autre% $erte e !a $erce$tion+ La istinction es $erce$tions et es sensations est encore un )ran resu!tat . et i! est

e"ontre au1 #eu1+ II # a eu1 "o#ens e faire $er re !a -ision $ar !'ence$ha!e / & $ar !es tu*ercu!es% c'est !a $u sens% e !a sensation . B $ar !es !o*es% c'est !a $erte e !a $erce$tion% e !'inte!!i)ence+ La sensi*i!ite n'e

$as !'inte!!i)ence. $enser n'est one $as sentir . et -oi!a toute une $hi!oso$hic rcn-ersee+ L'i ee n'est one $as% !sensation . et -oi!a encore une autre $reu-e u -ice ra ica! e cette $hi!oso$hie+0 An a)ain% $+ @@% un er thhea in)/ Se$aration e !a Sensi*i!ite et e !a Perce$tion /70 I! # a une e "es e1$erences 2ui se$are nette"ent !asensi*i!ite e !a $erce$tion+ uan on en!e-e !e cer-eau $ro$re"ent it !o*es ou he"is$heres cere*rau1 a unani"a!% Pani"a! $er !a -ue+ 8ais% $ar ra$$ort a I cei!% rien n'est chan)e / !es o*,ets continuent a se $ein re surretine . !'iris reste contracti!e% !e nerf o$ti2ue sensi*!e% $arfaite"ent sensi*!e+ Et ce$eu ant !'ani"a! ne -oit $!us # a $!us -ision% 2uoi2ue tout ce 2ui est sensation su*siste % i! n # a $!us -ision% $arce 2u i! n # a $!us $erce$tio $erce-oir% et non !e sentir% est one !e $re"ier e!e"ent e : inte!!i)ence+ La $erce$tion est $artie e inte!!i)enccar e!!e se $er a-ec inte!!i)ence% et $ar !'a*!ation u "e"e or)ane% !es !o*es ou he"is$heres cert*rau1 . et !asensi*i!it# n en est $oint $artie% $uis2u e!!e su*siste a$res !a $erte e !'inte!!i)ence et !'a*!ation es !o*es ou

he"is$heres0The fo!!owin) fa"ous -erse of the ancient $hi!oso$her E$ichar"us% $ro-es that the ancients in )enera! reco)nia! :O: a>o-ti Ta a cw a cat r- a+ 8ens -i et% "ens auccetera sur a et cceca+ 3 B4 P!utarch in 2uotin) this -erse% a s / 3 (4 w c TO: Tre$! TO+ u uarct >OI wrair o-)% a- $t4 Tra$f, TO f#$o-o--% air riTi- o- TTOLO::TO )uia affectio ocu!oru" et auriu" nu!!u" affertsensu"% inte!!i)entia a*sents + Short!# *efore too he sa#s / B@5$arw oc TO: f#-ai>oii K#o !ort:% a:o tiei>:-a= O: aiff -E- ai Toira$ ira- a-t- TO: -oii- -ir $et+ Stratonis $!i#sici e1stat ratiocinatio% 2ua 0 sineinte!!i)entia sentiri o"nino nihi! $osse 0 e"onstrat+ 3 ?4 A)ain short!# after he sa#s / oOe- a:a#CT9% Tr cri-oT) TO a!a , e at% >a! TO -oti- -ira,O ei-% e! T: -oii- aia6 -ta cu re ->a - 2uars necesse est% o"nia% 2usentiunt% etia" inte!!i)ere% si2ui e" inte!!i)en o e"u" sentia"us 3 4 A secon -erse of E$ichar"us "i)ht *econnecte with this% which is 2uote *# Dio)enes Laertes iii+ &K /

Ef#"i)% TO ;Of#-: i;TI: O: >O+O t: GLO:O:% oaa 9re$ Eu"aee% sa$ientia non uni tantu" co"$etit% se 2ucecun2ue -i-unt etia" inte!!ectu" ha*ent+ Por$h#r# !ikewise

en ea-ours to show at !en)th that a!! ani"a!s ha-e un erstan in)+ 3 K4

Now% that it shou! *e so% fo!!ows necessari!# fro" the inte!!ectua! character of $erce$tion+ A!! ani"a!s% e-ento the -er# !owest% "ust ha-e Un erstan in) that is% know!e )e of the causa! !aw% a!thou)h the# ha-e it in -er#

ifferent e)rees of e!icac# an of c!earness . at an# rate the# "ust ha-e as "uch of it as is re2uire for $erce$tion *# their senses . for sensation without Un erstan in) wou! *e not on!# a use!ess% *ut a crue! )ift of Nature+ Nwho has hi"se!f an# inte!!i)ence% can ou*t the e1istence of it in the hi)her ani"a!s+ 6ut at ti"es it e-en *eco"es


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un enia*!# e-i ent that their know!e )e of causa!it# is actua!!# a $riori% an that it oes not arise fro" the ha*it seein) one thin) fo!!ow u$on another+ A -er# #oun) $u$$# wi!! not% for instance% ,u"$ off a ta*!e% *ecause heforesees what wou! *e the conse2uence+ Not !on) a)o I ha so"e !ar)e curtains $ut u$ at "# *e roo" win ow%which reache own to the f!oor% an were rawn asi e fro" the centre *# "eans of a strin)+ The first "ornin) thwere o$ene I was sur$rise to see "# o)% a -er# inte!!i)ent $oo !e% stan in) 2uite $er$!e1e % an !ookin) uan si ewar s for the cause of the $heno"enon / that is% he was seekin) for the chan)e which he knew a $riori "uha-e taken $!ace+ Ne1t a# the sa"e thin) ha$$ene a)ain+76ut e-en the !owest ani"a!s ha-e $erce$tion7 conse2uent!# Un erstan in)7 own to the a2uatic $o!#$us% which has no istinct or)ans of sensation% #et wanfro" !eaf to !eaf on its water$!ant% whi!e c!in)in) to it with its fee!ers% in search of "ore !i)ht+

Nor is there% in ee % an# ifference% *e#on that of e)ree% *etween this !owest Un erstan in) an that ofwhich we howe-er istinct!# se$arate fro" his Reason+ The inter"e iate )ra ations are occu$ie *# the -ariousseries of ani"a!s% a"on) which the hi)hest% such as the "onke#% the e!e$hant% the o)% astonish us often *# thinte!!i)ence+ 6ut in e-er# case the *usiness of the Un erstan in) is in-aria*!# to a$$rehen irect!# causa!re!ations / first% as we ha-e seen% those *etween our own *o # an other *o ies% whence $rocee s o*,ecti-e $erce$tion. then those *etween these o*,ecti-e!# $ercei-e *o ies a"on) the"se!-es% an here% as has *een showin B % the causa! re!ation "anifests itse!f in three for"s7as cause% as sti"u!us% an as "oti-e+ A!! "o-e"ent in wor! takes $!ace accor in) to these three for"s of the causa! re!ation% an throu)h the" a!one oes the inte!!ectco"$rehen it+ Now% if% of these three% causes% in the narrowest sense of the wor % ha$$en to *e the o*,ectin-es)ation for the Un erstan in)% it wi!! $ro uce Astrono"#% 8echanics% Ph#sics% Che"istr#% an wi!! in-en"achines for )oo an for e-i! . *ut in a!! cases a irect% intuiti-e a$$rehension of the causa! connection wi!! in th!ast resort !ie at the *otto" of a!! its isco-eries+ For the so!e for" an function of the Un erstan in) is thisa$$rehension% an not *# an# "eans the co"$!icate "achiner# of >ant's twe!-e Cate)ories% the nu!!it# of whichha-e $ro-e +7 A!! co"$rehension is a irect% conse2uent!# intuiti-e% a$$rehension of the causa! connection .a!thou)h this has to *e re uce at once to a*stract conce$tions in or er to *e fi1e + To ca!cu!ate therefore% is noun erstan % an % in itse!f% ca!cu!ation con-e#s no co"$rehension of thin)s+ Ca!cu!ation ea!s e1c!usi-e!# wita*stract conce$tions of "a)nitu es% whose "utua! re!ations it eter"ines+ 6# it we ne-er attain the s!i)htestco"$rehension of a $h#sica! $rocess% for this re2uires intuiti-e co"$rehension of s$ace5re!ations% *# "eans ofwhich causes take effect+ Ca!cu!ations ha-e "ere!# $ractica!% not theoretica!% -a!ue+ It "a# e-en *e sai that whca!cu!ation *e)ins% co"$rehension ceases. for a *rain occu$ie with nu"*ers is% as !on) as it ca!cu!ates% entire!estran)e fro" the causa! connection in $h#sica! $rocesses% *ein) en)rosse in $ure!# a*stract% nu"erica!conce$tions+ The resu!t% howe-er% on!# shows us how "uch% ne-er what+ 0L'e1$erience et !e ca!cu!%0 thosewatchwor s of French $h#sicists% are not therefore *# an# "eans a e2uate 3for thorou)h insi)ht4+ 7 If% a)ain%

sti"u!i are the )ui es of the Un erstan in)% it wi!! $ro uce Ph#sio!o)# of P!ants an Ani"a!s% Thera$eutics% aTo1ico!o)#+ Fina!!#% if it e-otes itse!f to the stu # of "oti-es% the Un erstan in) wi!! use the"% on the one hatheoretica!!#% to )ui e it in $ro ucin) works on 8ora!it#% Guris$ru ence% Histor#% Po!itics% an e-en Dra"atE$ic Poetr#. on the other han % $ractica!!#% either "ere!# to train ani"a!s% or for the hi)her $ur$ose of "akin)hu"an *ein)s ance to its "usic% when once it has succee e in isco-erin) which $articu!ar wire has to *e $u!!ein or er to "o-e each $u$$et at its $!easure+ Now% with reference to the function which effects this% it is 2uitei""ateria! whether the inte!!ect turns )ra-itation in)enious!# to account% an "akes it ser-e its $ur$ose *# ste$$in)in ,ust at the ri)ht ti"e% or whether it *rin)s the co!!ecti-e or the in i-i ua! $ro$ensities of "en into $!a# for its owen s+ In its $ractica! a$$!ication we ca!! the Un erstan in) shrew ness or% when use to outwit others% cunniwhen its ai"s are -er# insi)nificant% it is ca!!e s!#ness an % if co"*ine with in,ur# to others% craftiness+ In its $ure!# theoretica! a$$!ication% we ca!! it si"$!# Un erstan in)% the hi)her e)rees of which are na"e acu"en%sa)acit#% iscern"ent% $enetration% whi!e its !ower e)rees are ter"e u!ness% stu$i it#% si!!iness% c+ cwi e!# ifferin) e)rees of shar$ness are innate% an cannot *e ac2uire . a!thou)h% as I ha-e a!rea # shown%

the ear!iest sta)es of the a$$!ication of the Un er stan in)% i+e+ in e"$irica! $erce$tion% $ractice an know!e )the "ateria! to which it is a$$!ie % are nee e + E-er# si"$!eton has Reason7)i-e hi" the $re"isses% an he wi!!raw the conc!usion. whereas $ri"ar#% conse2uent!# intuiti-e% know!e )e is su$$!ie *# the Un erstan in)/ he

!ies the ifference+ The $ith of e-er# )reat isco-er#% of e-er# $!an ha-in) uni-ersa! historica! i"$ortance% isaccor in)!# the $ro uct of a ha$$# "o"ent in which% *# a fa-oura*!e coinci ence of outer an inner circu"stanceso"e co"$!icate causa! series+% so"e hi en causes of $heno"ena which ha *een seen thousan s of ti"es *eforor so"e o*scure% untro en $aths% su en!# re-ea! the"se!-es to the inte!!ect+

6# the $rece in) e1$!anations of the $rocesses in seein) an fee!in)% I ha-e incontesta*!# shown that e"$irica! $erce$tion is essentia!!# the work of the Un erstan in) % for which the "ateria! on!# is su$$!ie *# the senses in


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sensation an a $oor "ateria! it is% on the who!e . so that the Un erstan in) is% in fact% the artist% whi!e the se *ut the un er5work"en who han it the "ateria!s+ 6ut the $rocess consists throu)hout in referrin) fro" )i-en effectsto their causes% which *# this $rocess are ena*!e to $resent the"se!-es as o*,ects in S$ace+ The -er# fact that w $resu$$ose Causa!it# in this $rocess% $ro-es $recise!# that this !aw "ust ha-e *een su$$!ie *# the Un erstan initse!f . for it cou! ne-er ha-e foun its wa# into the inte!!ect fro" outsi e+ It is in ee the first con ition of a!!e"$irica! $erce$tion . *ut this a)ain is the for" in which a!! e1terna! e1$erience $resents itse!f to us. how then canthis !aw of Causa!it# *e eri-e fro" e1$erience% when it is itse!f essentia!!# $resu$$ose *# e1$erience97It wa ,ust *ecause of the utter i"$ossi*i!it# of this% an *ecause Locke's $hi!oso$h# ha $ut an en to a!! a $riorit#% tHu"e enie the who!e rea!it# of the conce$tion of Causa!it#+ He ha *esi es a!rea # "entione two fa!seh#$otheses in the se-enth section of his 0In2uir# concernin) the Hu"an Un erstan in)%0 which recent!# ha-e a)a *een a -ance / the one% that the effect of the wi!! u$on the "e"*ers of our *o #. the other% that the resistanceo$$ose to our $ressure *# outwar o*,ects% is the ori)in an $rotot#$e of the conce$tion of Causa!it#+ Hu"e re *oth in his own wa# an accor in) to his own or er of i eas+ I ar)ue as fo!!ows+ There is no causa! connectionwhate-er *etween acts of the wi!! an actions of the *o # . on the contrar#% *oth are i""e iate!# one an the sa"thin)% on!# $ercei-e in a ou*!e as$ect that is% on the one han % in our se!f5consciousness% or inner sense%the wi!!. on the other% si"u!taneous!# in e1terior% s$acia! *rain5$erce$tion% as actions of the *o #+ 3 @4 Theh#$othesis is fa!se% first *ecause% as I ha-e a!rea # shown at !en)th% a "ere sensation of touch oes not #et )i-eo*,ecti-e $erce$tion whate-er% !et a!one the conce$tion of Causa!it#% which ne-er can arise fro" the fee!in) of ani"$e e "uscu!ar effort / *esi es i"$e i"ents of this kin often occur without an# e1terna! cause. secon !#% *ecause our $ressin) a)ainst an e1terna! o*,ect necessari!# has a "oti-e% an this a!rea # $resu$$oses a$$rehensiof that o*,ect% which a)ain $resu$$oses know!e )e of Causa!it#+ 76ut the on!# "eans of ra ica!!# $ro-in) theconce$tion of Causa!it# to *e in e$en ent of a!! e1$erience was *# showin)% as I ha-e one% that the who!e $ossi*i!it# of e1$erience is con itione *# the conce$tion of Causa!it#+ In B( I inten to show that >ant's $roo $ro$oun e with a si"i!ar intent% is fa!se+

This is a!so the $ro$er $!ace for rawin) attention to the fact% that >ant either i not c!ear!# reco)nise in e"$iric $erce$tion the "e iation of the causa! !aw7which !aw is known to us *efore a!! e1$erience7or that heintentiona!!# e-a e "entionin) it% *ecause it i not suit his $ur$ose+ In the 0Criti2ue of Pure Reason%0 for inthe re!ation *etween causa!it# an $erce$tion is not treate in the 0 Doc trine of E!e"ents%0 *ut in the cha$ter on0 Para!o)is"s of Pure Reason%0 where one wou! har !# e1$ect to fin it . "oreo-er it a$$ears in his 0Criti2ue ofFourth Para!o)is" of Transcen enta! Ps#cho!o)#%0 an on!# in the first e ition+ 3 4 The -er# fact that this $!ashou! ha-e *een assi)ne to it% shows that in consi erin) this re!ation% he a!wa#s ha the transition fro" the $heno"enon to the thin) in itse!f e1c!usi-e!# in -iew% *ut not the )enesis of $erce$tion itse!f+ Here accor in)!# h

sa#s that the e1istence of a rea! e1terna! o*,ect is not )i-en irect!# in $erce$tion% *ut can *e a e to it in thou)an thus inferre + In >ant's e#es% howe-er% he who oes this is a Transcen enta! Rea!ist% an conse2uent!# owron) roa + For *# his 0 outwar o*,ect0 >ant here "eans the thin) in itse!f+ The Transcen enta! I ea!ist% on thcontrar#% sto$s short at the $erce$tion of so"ethin) e"$irica!!# rea!7that is% of so"ethin) e1istin) outsi e us inS$ace7without nee in) the inference of a cause to )i-e it rea!it#+ For $erce$tion% accor in) to >ant% is 2uite

irect!# acco"$!ishe without an# assistance fro" the causa! ne1us% an conse2uent!# fro" the Un erstan in)/ hsi"$!# i entifies $erce$tion with sensation+ This we fin confir"e in the $assa)e which *e)ins% 0=ith reference the rea!it# of e1terna! o*,ects% I nee as !itt!e trust to inference%0 c+ c+ 3 M4 an a)ain in the sentence co"with 0Now we "a# we!! a "it%0 c+ C+ 3M 4 It is 2uite c!ear fro" these $assa)es that $erce$tion of e1terna! thin S$ace% accor in) to >ant% $rece es a!! a$$!ication of the causa! !aw% therefore that the causa! !aw oes notto $erce$tion as an e!e"ent an con ition of it / for hi"% "ere sensation is i entica! with $erce$tion+ On!# in as fas we ask what "a#% in a transcen enta! sense% e1ist outsi e of us / that is% when we ask for the thin) in itse!f%Causa!it# "entione as connecte with $erce$tion+ 8oreo-er >ant a "its the e1istence% na#% the "ere $ossi*i!it#

causa!it# on!# in ref!ection / that is% in a*stract% istinct know!e )e *# "eans of conce$tions . therefore he has nsus$icion that its a$$!ication is anterior to a!! ref!ection% which is ne-erthe!ess e-i ent!# the case% es$ecia!!# ine"$irica!% sensuous $erce$tion which% as I ha-e $ro-e irrefra)a*!# in the $rece in) ana!#sis% cou! ne-er takeotherwise+ >ant is therefore o*!i)e to !ea-e the )enesis of e"$irica! $erce$tion une1$!aine + =ith hi" it is a "ere"atter of the senses% )i-en as it were in a "iracu!ous wa# / that is% it coinci es with sensation+ I shou! -er# "uch!ike "# ref!ecti-e rea ers to refer to the $assa)es I ha-e in icate in >ant s work% in or er to con-ince the"se!-es the far )reater accurac# of "# -iew of the who!e $rocess an connection+ >ant's e1tre"e!# erroneous -iew has he!its )roun ti!! now in $hi!oso$hica! !iterature% si"$!# *ecause no one -enture to attack it . therefore I ha-e founnecessar# to c!ear the wa# in or er to throw !i)ht u$on the "echanis" of our know!e )e+


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>ant's fun a"enta! i ea!istic $osition !oses nothin) whate-er% na#% it e-en )ains *# this rectification of "ine% in far as% with "e% the necessit# of the causa! !aw is a*sor*e an e1tin)uishe in e"$irica! $erce$tion as its $ro uan cannot therefore *e in-oke in *eha!f of an entire!# transcen ent 2uestion as to the thin) in itse!f+ On referrito "# theor# a*o-e concernin) e"$irica! $erce$tion% we fin that its first atu"% sensation% is a*so!ute!# su*,ect *ein) a $rocess within the or)anis"% *ecause it takes $!ace *eneath the skin+ Locke has co"$!ete!# an e1hausti- $ro-e % that the fee!in)s of our senses% e-en a "ittin) the" to *e rouse *# e1terna! causes% cannot ha-e an#rese"*!ance whate-er to the 2ua!ities of those causes+ Su)ar% for instance% *ears no rese"*!ance at a!! to sweetnnor a rose to re ness+ 6ut that the# shou! nee an e1terna! cause at a!!% is *ase u$on a !aw whose ori)in !ies

e"onstra*!# within us% in our *rain . therefore this necessit# is not !ess su*,ecti-e than the sensations the"se!-es+ Na#% e-en Ti"e7that $ri"ar# con ition of e-er# $ossi*!e chan)e% therefore a!so of the chan)e which first $er"itsthe a$$!ication of the causa! !aw7an not !ess S$ace7which a!one ren ers the e1terna!isation of causes $ossi*!e%after which the# $resent the"se!-es to us as o*,ects7e-en Ti"e an S$ace% we sa#% are su*,ecti-e for"s of theinte!!ect% as >ant has conc!usi-e!# $ro-e + Accor in)!# we fin a!! the e!e"ents of e"$irica! $erce$tion !#in) witus% an nothin) containe in the" which can )i-e us re!ia*!e in ications as to an# thin) ifferin) a*so!ute!# fro"ourse!-es% an#thin) in itse!f+76ut this is not a!!+ =hat we think un er the conce$tion "atter% is the resi ue whicre"ains o-er after *o ies ha-e *een i-este of their sha$e an of a!! their s$ecific 2ua!ities / a resi ue% which $recise!# on that account "ust *e i entica! in a!! *o ies+ Now these sha$es an 2ua!ities which ha-e *een a*strac *# us% are nothin) *ut the $ecu!iar% s$ecia!!# efine wa# in which these *o ies act% which constitutes $recis

ifference+ If therefore we !ea-e these sha$es an 2ua!ities out of consi eration% there re"ains nothin) *ut "ereacti-it# in )enera!% $ure action as such% Causa!it# itse!f% o*,ecti-e!# thou)ht7 that is% the ref!ection of our ownUn erstan in)% the e1terna!ise i"a)e of its so!e function . an 8atter is throu)hout $ure Causa!it#% its essence iAction in )enera!+ 3M&4 This is wh# $ure 8atter cannot *e $ercei-e % *ut can on!# *e thou)ht / it is a so"ethin) a to e-er# rea!it#% as its *asis% in thinkin) it+ For $ure Causa!it#% "ere action% without an# efine "o e ofcannot *eco"e $erce$ti*!e% therefore it cannot co"e within an# e1$erience+7Thus 8atter is on!# the o*,ecti-ecorre!ate to $ure Un erstan in) . for it is Causa!it# in )enera!% an nothin) e!se / ,ust as the Un erstan in) itse!f

irect know!e )e of cause an effect% an nothin) e!se+ Now this a)ain is $recise!# wh# the !aw of causa!it# is a$$!ica*!e to 8atter itse!f / that is to sa#% 8atter has neither *e)innin) nor en % *ut is an re"ains $er"anent+ Foras% on the one han % Causa!it# is the in is$ensa*!e con ition of a!! a!ternation in the acci ents for"s an 2uaof 8atter% i+e+ of a!! $assa)e in an out of *ein) . *ut as% on the other han % 8atter is $ure Causa!it# itse!f% aso*,ecti-e!# -iewe / it is una*!e to e1ercise its own $ower u$on itse!f% ,ust as the e#e can see e-er#thin) *ut itse!fSu*stance 0 an 8atter *ein) "oreo-er i entica!% we "a# ca!! Su*stance% action -iewe in a*stracto / Acci ents% $articu!ar "o es of action% action in concreto+ Now these are the resu!ts to which true% i+e+ transcen enta!% I!ea s+ In "# chief work I ha-e shown that the thin) in itse!f7i+e+ whate-er% on the who!e% e1ists in e$en ent!#

our re$resentation7cannot *e )ot at *# wa# of re$resentation% *ut that% to reach it% we "ust fo!!ow 2uite a iffe $ath% !ea in) throu)h the insi e of thin)s% which !ets us into the cita e!% as it were% *# treacher#+7

6ut it wou! *e ownri)ht chicaner#% nothin) e!se% to tr# an co"$are% !et a!one i entif#% such an honest% thorou)h ana!#sis of e"$irica! $erce$tion as the one I ha-e ,ust )i-en% which $ro-es a!! the e!e"ents of $erce$tion t *e su*,ecti-e% with Fichte's a!)e*raic e2uations of the E)o an the Non5E)o . with his so$histica! $seu o5

e"onstrations% which in or er to *e a*!e to ecei-e his rea ers ha to *e c!othe in the o*scure% not to sa# a*!an)ua)e a o$te *# hi" . with his e1$!anations of the wa# in which the E)o s$ins the Non5E)o out of itse!f . inshort% with a!! the *uffooner# of scientific e"$tiness+ 3MB4 6esi es% I $rotest a!to)ether a)ainst an# co""unit# this Fichte% as >ant $u*!ic!# an e"$hatica!!# i in a notice a hoc in the 0Genaer Litteratur eitun)+0 3M(4He)e!ians an si"i!ar i)nora"uses "a# continue to ho! forth to their heart's content u$on >ant5Fichteian $hi!oso$h# / there e1ists a >antian $hi!oso$h# an a Fichteian hocus5$ocus%7this is the true state of the case% awi!! re"ain so% in s$ite of those who e!i)ht in e1to!!in) what is *a an in ecr#in) what is )oo % an of these

;er"an# $ossesses a !ar)er nu"*er than an# other countr#+

3e it4 BB+ Of the I""e iate O*,ect+Thus it is fro" the sensations of our *o # that we recei-e the ata for the -er# first a$$!ication of the causa! !aw% it is $recise!# *# that a$$!ication that the $erce$tion of this c!ass of o*,ects arises+ The# therefore ha-e their essenan e1istence so!e!# in -irtue of the inte!!ectua! function thus co"in) into $!a#% an of its e1ercise+

Now% as far as it is the startin)5$oint% i+e+ the "e iator% for our $erce$tion of a!! other o*,ects% I ha-e ca!!eor)anis"% in the first e ition of the $resent work% the I""e iate O*,ect. this% howe-er% "ust not *e taken in a st


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!itera! sense+ For a!thou)h our *o i!# sensations are a!! a$$rehen e irect!#% sti!! this i""e iate a$$rehension not #et "ake our *o # itse!f $erce$ti*!e to us as an o*,ect . on the contrar#% u$ to this $oint a!! re"ains su*,ecti-ethat is to sa#% sensation+ Fro" this sensation certain!# $rocee s the $erce$tion of a!! other o*,ects as the causes osuch sensations% an these causes then $resent the"se!-es to us as o*,ects . *ut it is not so with the *o # itse!f%which on!# su$$!ies sensations to consciousness+ It is on!# in irect!# that we know e-en this *o # o*,ecti-e!#% an o*,ect% *# its $resentin) itse!f% !ike a!! other o*,ects% as the reco)nise cause of a su*,ecti-e!# )i-en effect7a $recise!# on this account o*,ecti-e!#7in our Un erstan in)% or *rain which is the sa"e + Now this can on!# tak $!ace when its own senses are acte u$on *# its $arts / for instance% when the *o # is seen *# the e#e% or fe!t *han % c+% u$on which ata the *rain or un erstan in) forthwith constructs it as to sha$e an 2ua!it# in s$The i""e iate $resence in our consciousness of re$resentations *e!on)in) to this c!ass% e$en s therefore u$on th $osition assi)ne to the" in the causa! chain7*# which a!! thin)s are connecte 7re!ati-e!# to the *o # for theti"e *ein) of the Su*,ect7*# which the Su*,ect a!! thin)s are known+

3e it4 B(+ Ar)u"ents a)ainst >ant's Proof of the a $riorit# of the conce$tion of Causa!it#+One of the chief o*,ects of the 0Criti2ue of Pure Reason0 is to show the uni-ersa! -a!i it#% for a!! e1$erience% ocausa! !aw% its a $riorit#% an % as a necessar# conse2uence of this% its restriction to $ossi*!e e1$erience% NeI cannot assent to the $roof there )i-en of the a $riorit# of the $rinci$!e% which is su*stantia!!# this/70The s#ntheof the "anifo! *# the i"a)ination% which is necessar# for a!! e"$irica! know!e )e% )i-es succession% *ut not #e

eter"inate succession / that is% it !ea-es un eter"ine which of two states $ercei-e was the first% not on!# in "i"a)ination% *ut in the o*,ect itse!f+ 6ut efinite or er in this succession7throu)h which a!one what we $ercei-e *eco"es e1$erience% or% in other wor s% authoriant infers the successi-e $erce$tion of

ifferent $arts of the house to *e neither o*,ecti-e nor an e-ent% *ecause it e$en s u$on his own wi!!+ 6ut the"o-e"ent of his e#es in the irection fro" roof to *ase"ent is one e-ent% an in the irection fro" *ase"ent to roof


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another e-ent% ,ust as "uch as the sai!in) of the shi$+ There is no ifference whate-er here% nor is there an#ifference either% as to their *ein) or not *ein) e-ents% *etween "# $assin) a troo$ of so! iers an their $assin) "

If we fi1 our e#es on a shi$ sai!in) c!ose *# the shore on which we are stan in)% it soon see"s as if it were the shthat stoo sti!! an the shore that "o-e + Now% in this instance we are "istaken% it is true% as to the cause of thre!ati-e chan)e of $osition% since we attri*ute it to a wron) cause . the rea! succession in the re!ati-e $ositions of *o # towar s the shi$ is ne-erthe!ess 2uite ri)ht!# an o*,ecti-e!# reco)nise *# us+ E-en >ant hi"se!f wou! notha-e *e!ie-e that there was an# ifference% ha he *orne in "in that his own *o # was an o*,ect a"on) o*,ectsan that the succession in his e"$irica! $erce$tions e$en e u$on the succession of the i"$ressions recei-e fro"other o*,ects *# his *o #% an was therefore an o*,ecti-e succession / that is to sa#% one which takes $!ace a"ono*,ects irect!# if not in irect!# an in e$en ent!# of the wi!! of the Su*,ect% an which "a# therefore *e 2uwe!! reco)nise without an# causa! connection *etween the o*,ects actin) successi-e!# on his *o #+

>ant sa#s% Ti"e cannot *e $ercei-e . therefore no succession of re$resentations can *e e"$irica!!# $ercei-e aso*,ecti-e / i+e+ can *e istin)uishe as chan)es in $heno"ena fro" the chan)es of "ere su*,ecti-e re$resentations+The causa! !aw% *ein) a ru!e accor in) to which states fo!!ow one another% is the on!# "eans *# which the o*,ecof a chan)e can *e known+ Now% the resu!t of his assertion wou! *e% that no succession in Ti"e cou! *e $erc *# us as o*,ecti-e% e1ce$tin) that of cause an effect% an that e-er# other succession of $heno"ena we $ercei-ewou! on!# *e eter"ine so% an not other wise% *# our own wi!!+ In contra iction to a!! this I "ust a uce tthat it is 2uite $ossi*!e for

on the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason – arthur schopenhauer.doc

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