ological Themes in lslamlslamic Societies

i.i

Si.

f j

eem H. Ali

ELIGIONS CAN BE a powertulforce to inculcate environmentalethics in society because of the

absolute convictions which they imbibe in

their followers. The attitudes of world reli-

gions towards the environment are indeed as

varied and chromatic as the religions them-

selves. However, during the past few decades

it has been suggested in numerous writings

that the major oriental religious philosophies,

such as Taoism, Buddhism, Hinduism and

Shintoism are 'eco-friendly', whereas the

occidental religions are not.r On account ofits

theological lineage, Islam tends to be lumped

together in the latter category with

Christianity andJudaism. However. Islam has

a history of environmental consciousness

which tends to get eclipsed by such broad gen-

eralizations. The problern often lies in

considering the conduct of ostensibly'Muslim' societies as 'lslamic' behaviour,which may not always be the case. The same istrue ofany society. Contemporary writings onoriental religions, such as Benjamin Hoffs cel-ebrated works, The Tao of Pooh and The Te ofPiglet depict Chinese Taoism as being inher-ently ecological, though writers such as Yi FuTuan renind us of the abandonment of thesephilosophies by Chinese rulers and the popu-lace.2 The fault is certainly not with thephilosophy but rather with the ignorance orhypocrisy of those who are supposed to be itsadherents. It is important to make this pointclear because Islam has so often been misrep-resented in the West simply because of thecaricatured image of Islamic doctrines offeredby a small minority of extremists.

There is nevertheless an important distinc-tion befween the approach of the mono-theistic Abrahamic lsligions and those of the ori-ental pantheistic religions towards nature. Inthe pantheistic religions nature is expe-rienced from within, whereas in Islam,

Christianity and Judaism nature is experi-enced from without. Muslims, Christians and

Jews consider nature as a manifestation of theCreator's power. An appreciation of nature isthus Important as a means to an end-the endbeing the worship and admiration of the

Creator's prowess. In pantheistic religionsnature may be an end in itself This subtledistinction, if interpreted proper\, may leadall theologies towards similar codes of envi-ronmental ethics but it rnay also causddivisions based on interpretation.3

The interpretive differences uis-d-uis envi-ronmental ethics are more pronounced in

Judaism and Christianity than they are inIslam. This is partly due to the relative recencyof Islamic revelation and the numerous his-

toric examples from Islamrc societies that

show the importance ofnature. It is also due to

the epistemology and teleology of Islam whichis articulated in more unequivocal terms than

it is for the other two Abrahamrc religions.The holy scripture of Islam, The Qur'an,

does not have an analogue in Christianity or

Judaism. Often there is an erroneous compari-

son between the Bible and the Qur'in but thisis not appropriate because, unlike the Bible,

In the pantheisticreligions natureis experiencedIrom within,whereas in lslam,Christianity andfudaism natureis experiencedfrom without

TSLAMICA 3 3

The actualpurpose of

creation remainsan enigma but

it is madeabundantly clear

that creationwas not merely

random, norwas it specifically

intended forhumankind

which is a compendium ofvarious books nar-

rated by different individuals and appearing in

different versions (such as the KingJames ver-

sion), the Qur'an has only one version and was

revealed during the lifetime of the Prophet

Mubammad &. fhe Biblical analogue in

Islam (parricularly of the New Testament) is

the hadiths, or the traditions and sayings of theProphet & which are totally distinct from the

Qur'an. The hadtths are a vast compendium of

sayings attributed to the Prophet $, many ofwhich are not considered authentic (similar to

the Apocrypha).4 Nevertheless, they are an

integral source of Islamic law and are oftenused to interpret the more abstract, yetimmutable, text of the Qur'an. Traditionalinte{preters and jurists also play an importantpart in formulating Islamic law and a code of

conduct (law and ethics are inseparable in

Islam), collectively known as the Shari' a.5Islam also differs from most other religions

in being resolute about its holistic approach

towards life. Islam is a way of liuing and thus

virtually every aspect of a Muslim's life is sup-posed to relate to Islam. There is therefore no

division of 'church and state'. This holisticapproach is in many ways akin to ecologicalideals that often disparage reductionism.Islamic epistemology concerning environ-mental conservation is conceptually grounded

in the Qur'an and more practically rooted in

the traditions ofthe Prophet &.

ISLAMIC TEIEOIOGY A1{DCOl{SERYATION ETHICSThe purpose of creation and the place ofhumanity with respect to the cosmos and all itswonders is an important consideration whenattempting to formulate ecological values in areligious framework. It is important to appre-

ciate that Islamic doctrines are premised on afirm belief that there is indeed a 'purpose of

creation'which is exemplified by the follow-

ingverse from the Qur'ln):

Know that We did not create the heavensand the earth, and all that is berween them, infrivolous play. Had'W'e wished to indulge ina pastime, We would have found the meansat hand-as if'We would ever be indulgingin that kind ofamusement. (r r:r6-17)

There have, however, been dissenringpoints

ofview on the place ofhumaniry in this divinepulpose ofcreation, and different verses from

the Qur'ln are used to back up each point ofview. In contemporary times a majonty of

Muslim scholars are inclined towards an anth-ropocentric interpretation of the scripture.There is a general perception in Muslim soci-

eties that humans are Ashraf al-Makhluqat,

meaning 'the best of creation'.6 Indeed, the

Qur'an does say that Humankind has been

made 'in the best of forms' but that is simply

because of our mental abilities and does not

imply inherent superiority nor a right to sub-jugate nature. In fact there is a subsequent

reminder in the same Sura that is intended tomake humans aware of their condition: 'We

created man in the finest of forms and then

reduced him to the lowest of the low, except

for those who believe and perform hon-

ourable deeds-their earnings shall never be

withheld from them' (gS,+-6).7

The Qur'dn even goes further to state that

all creatures have been created as'nations'andthe human beings should in no way consider

the natural environment as a means for man's

sustenance. The cosmos and all it has to offer

are manifestations of God and must thereforebe revered accordingly:

Seest thou not that unto God pay adorationall things that are in the heavens and onearth-the sun, the moon, the stars, themountains, the tress, the animals and a largenumber ofhumans. However, there aremany humans who do not and they deservechastisement. (zz:r8)

This verse reveals another implicit belief inIslam that the natural environment and its

creatures are pure and only certain iniquitous

humans are culpable and deserve chastise-

ment. The actual purpose of creation remains

an enigma but it is made abundantly clear that

creation was not merely random, nor was itspecifi cally intended for humankind.

Nevertheless, human beings have an inte-gral role to play in God's grand scheme for theuniverse. From the time of Adam's creation

this role has been clear and has found its way

even into the political structure of Islam. TheArabic word used to describe this role is khallfi,

which may be literally translated as 'successor'

but its more accurate contextual connotation is

translated as 'vicegerent'. Each human individ-

ual is a vicegerent in his or her own personal

capacity, and then at the natio-nal level,Muslim societies are supposed to be governedby a khallfu.8 The erymology of the English

word 'Caliph' can be traced to the same root.

The Qur'dnic verse which talks about the cre-

ation of Adam and the role of humanity also

predicts human plundering of the Earth: 'And

when thy Lord said to the angels 'I am setting

in the earth a viceroy'. They said 'What wilt

Thou set therein one who will do comrption

there and shed blood while we proclaim thy

praise and call thee Holy?'He said, 'Assuredly I

know what ye know not. ' (z:3o)

34 TSLAMTCA

Muslims believe that this world is a test or atrial and it may be argued that verses such as

the one above show that God has placed the

responsibility of 'vicegerency' to test man's

ability to resist temptations and the propensityto plunder, which are alluded to above and in

the following verse: 'Then We appoint you

viceroys in the earth after them, that we might

see how ye behave' (ro: 14).Muslims are supposed to fervently believe

in an afterlife where there will be recompense

for virtuous deeds and castigation for sins.Islamic eschatology thus needs to be betterunderstood in order to appreciate the place of

nature in Muslim society. The ephemeralnature of this life leads some Muslims to

become apathetic to the world's non-human

resources, both animate and inanimate. This

attitude is contrary to the teachings of Islam. A

healthy balance between realism and pragma-

tism for this life and respect and anticipationfor the afterlife is essential and is exemplified

by a saying ofthe Prophet $:

Live in this world as ifyou were going to liveforev-er; prepare for the next world as ifyouwere going to die tomorrow.9

Balance and harmony, which are oftencatchwords in ecological arguments, are a

salient feature of Islamic discourse, particularly

with regard to nature, as the Qur'dn states:

'We created man and gave him the faculty

of speech. The sun and the moon rotate inordered orbits, the stars and the trees, too,are obeisant. The firmament-He raisedit high, and set the balance of everything,so that you (humaniry) may not upset thebalance. Keep the balance with equiryand fall not short in it. (Ss::-q)

Another interesting observation is the re-peated usage ofnatural imagery in the Qur'ln.Seyyed Hossein Nasr, one of the leadingscholars of Islam, aptly calls nature 'the pri-

mordial creation of God' and hence a

touchstone for divine testimony. The worddya, which is used to describe a Qur'lnicverse, has the literal meaning of 'a natural

sign'. The rewards in heaven are almost alwaysdescribed in terms of gardens and rivers and

untamed natural beauty. There are numerous

lyrical verses, specially towards the end of the

Qur'en, in which God calls upon nonhuman

creation, such as plants, animals and the stars, to

bearwitness to his covenantr Nasr goes on to saythat one ofthe Arabic attributes of Godis Muhtt,

which means 'all-encompassing' and the same

word used to describe the environment. He

concludes that, 'the present environmental

crisis may in fact be said to have been caused

by man's refusal to see God asthe real "environment" which

surrounds man and nourishes

his life. The destruction of the

environment is the result ofmodem man's attempt to viewthe natural environment as anontologically independent or-der of reality, divorced fromthe Divine Environment with-

out whose liberating grace it

becomes stifled and dies."o Nowonder even Islam's symboliccolour is green, which is to befound on the flags of mostMuslim countries.

ATTITUDES TOWARDSRESOURCEEXPTOITATIOI{ IN ISLAMThe most fascinating feature of the study ofIslam and ecology is the organized means by

which Islam and early Islamic societies man-

aged natural resources. Efficiency and waste

reduction are seminal in the Qur'an and

hadiths and are also the most fundamentaltenets of all ecologically sound managementprinciples in this day and age. Some of the

verses which generally disparage wastage are:

Eat and drink, but waste not by indulging inexcesses; surely God does not approve oftheintemperate. (7:3 r)

And be not wasters, for God loves not theprodigal. (6:I4I)

Islamic tndition also contain ir{unctions on the

management of particular kinds of resources,

which are individually described as follows:

LandIslamic societies were among the fint to have

an organized zoning procedure for land man-

agement which even includedprotected areas.Land is extremely important for Muslims

because it is the primary medium from which

food is derived. Food is considered the most

fundamental gift from God, referred to in

Arabic as Rizq, which means a form of physi-

cal and spiritual sustenance. Therefore the

Qur'en when describing an evil individual says:'His aim is to go everywhere, spreading dis-

cord through the earth, and destroying crops

and cattle. God does not love discord...Hell

awaits him, an evil restingplace.' (z;zo4-6)

According to Islamic law, land is to be

divided into three main categories: developed

land or amir; andeveloped land or mawdt; and

protected land or hafim. The etymology of

hafim is important for it is derived from the

The ephemeralnature of thislife leads someMuslims tobecome apathetlcto the world'snon-humanresources, bothanimate andinanimate.This attitude iscontrary to theteachings of lslam

|SLAmTCA 35

lslam'scommitment to

the environmenteven finds its wayinto the relativelytechnical realm of

civil engineering

Arabic word fuardrn which means'pure' and'for-

bidden'. This double-toned meaning clearly

shows the sanctity of maintaining protected

land.

Developed land is defined as any place

where there is human settlement in terms of

urban dwellings, agriculturd or industrialestablishments. (Jndeveloped land is defined

as open areas that do not have any ownership.

This may acquire ownenhip by anyone who'brings it to life'. There are different opinions

on what would be categorized as 'bringing

land to life', but the most widely usedjustifica-

rions in early Islam were: digging of a well,

tilling, planting crops and erecting a building.

Desert reclamation is an important branch of

Islamic law which has received considerable

attention owing to the physical environment

in which the fint Islamic sociery evolved.rtHowever, the government has jurisdiction to

classify this land as "protected', so long as in-justice is not done (the decision is not deemed'a taking'). Those who own land may also

decide to gift it for public use or conservation.

This charitable endowment is known as waqf.

Harim lands are those areas which are

almost always adjacent to developed land andare owned (usually as a conunune). For exam-ple, in pastures or forested areas surroundingan oasis. there may be certain regions that areset aside as wind-breaks or'green belts' to pre-

vent over-crowding.Perhaps the most important zoning division

prescribed by Islamic law is a sub-categorywithin mawAt or unprotected land, that isreferred to as ftimas or the Himd system. Thispractice was adopted and refined by ProphetMuframmad $, from a fallow rule that was'used in the Arabian peninsula even before theadvent of Islam. However, Islam institutional-tzed the process and delineated severalsituations under which it was advisable. The

flimd systern is the oldest known range con-

servation system. Prophet Muhammad &himself demarcated several areas around the

city of Madina as himd. Inter alia protection

measures within himd include restricted graz-ing, forest reserves (particularly near mosques)or setting aside land for bee-keeping. 'IJmar

ibn al-Khaftib, the second of the PiousCdiphs, is reported to have been extremelystrict about himaland. There is also supposed

to be an authority within the government,

known as hisba, to monitor protected land andother issues of agronomic importance. Theperson in charge of the hisba, the mul.ttasib,holds a pivotal position in traditional Islamic

bureaucrary. The govemment has played an

active role in designating land as ftimd and I

will have more to say on the applicability of

hima in contemporary times towards the end

ofthis paper.r2

Urban SystemsEnvironmentally conscious urban planning

was also a major achievement of Islam. Gt;J;zarHaider. one of the most renowned Muslim

architects in the United States, has oudined

three main considerations which have perme-

ated Islamic urban planning throughout

history: i) environmental sensibility; ii) mor-

phological clarity; and iii) symbolic clarity.

Within the category of environmental sensi-

biliry he has chosen several examples of

Muslim settlements which exemplify specific

ecological themes in their design:

Of plains, mountains and. ivers: Alhambra,Granada, Spain and Rumeli Hisar, Turkey

Of seasons, sun anil air:Baghdad, Iraq andSanaa, Yemen

Of gardensflowers and pools. Narangestan-e-

Qawam, Shiraz, Iran andJag Niwas Palace,Udaipur, India

Islam's comrnitment to the environmenr

even finds its way into the relatively technicalrealm of civil engineering. S. Waqar Husaim,an eminent Muslim scholar, has compiled a

book dealing with klamic Enuironmental SystemsEngineeing,l3 in which he uses the works ofgreat Muslimjurists such as Ibn Rushd and Ibn

Khaldun to formulate a comprehensive code ofconduct vi s - i-ui s environmentaf engineering.

ForestsFor the early Muslims who were predomi-

nantly desert-dwellers, greenery and forests inparticular were specially important. Oaseswere rare in the harsh environment of theArabian desert and were considered a blessingfrom God to be cherished and preserved. The

Prophet Mut'ammad $ in numerous sayings

exhorted Muslims to have paramount respect

for plants and forests. Some ofthe most famous

hadtths in this regard are:

The world is green and beautiful and Godhas appointed you as His stewards over it. Hesees how you acquit yourselves.'Whoever

plants a tree and looks after itwith care, until it matures and becomesproductive, will be rewarded in thehereafter.

If anyone plants a tree or sows a field andmen, beasts or birds eat from it, he shouldconsider it chariry on his part.r4

In the aftermath ofwar, victorious Muslims

were strictly instructed not to destroy trees and

other natural resources on enemy territory, as

FB6 rsLAMrcA

was the custom in Pre-Islamic Arabia. Thegreat Muslim historian Tabari records thatAbd Bakr (r.a.), the first Caliph, ordered hismilitary generals specificdly not to cut downtrees nor kill animals except for food. Forestscan also be given protection under the l.timdsystem ofland management described earlier.r J

WaterThe preaching of Islam began in the Arabianpeninsula, where potable water is a rare andprecious commodity. Water was thereforegiven tremendous importance in Islamicscripture and in subsequent laws. The Qur'anacknowledges with surprising scientifi c verac-ity that human beings and most other creaturesare predominandy composed of water:

It's He (God) who has given the free flowto fwo kinds of water-the one thirst-quenching and sweet, and the other salryand bitter. Yet He has set an insuperablebarrier berween their intrinsic qualitieswhich cannot be changed. It is He whocreated man out of water. (zS:Sl-+)

Natural waters are generally consideredppblic property because the Prophet & is re-ported to have said: 'Al1 comrnunities areequal partners in water, fire and pastures.'r6However, there are special stipulations forscarce water resources that are divided into threebroad categories: rivers, wells and springs.

Riparian rights are derived from a ruling bythe Prophet regarding the flood channels ofMazhur and Medhaynib in Madina. It wasdecided that those upstream had initial rightsto the water and could retain the water until itwas ankle-deep but then must release it fordownstream uses. Obviously the details of thearrangement are not applicable everywhere butthe principle is one of equitable water resourceusage. Similar injunctions are also found forwells and springs.'Waterpollution is alluded toin the Qur'an and humans are given the blamefor what is considered reprehensible by God:

Comrption has appeared over land and wateron account ofwhat man's hands havewrought. That God may give them a taste ofsome oftheir deeds: in order that they maytum back (from evil). So travel through theearth and see what was the end ofthosebefore you. (3o:4r-z)

MineralsThere are no clear injunctions on mining andits environmental repercussions in Islamic law.

This is rather ironic since the land where Islam

has its roots is now the largest oil extractionarea in the world. Generally, mineral deposits

that are concealed or bafin may be regarded byminers as a usufruct, where they have rights tomine but not complete ownenhip. There issome disagreement in this regard but indepen-dent reasoning, or ijilhAd, is encouraged todetermine the resource level under specificconditions and hence determine govemmentcontrol on mining.

ANIMAT RIGHTS A1{D BIODIYERSITYMost Muslims today are oblivious of theimportance that their religion has given to ani-mal rights and to the preservation of organ-ismal diversity on the planet. A cursory glanceat Muslim countries shows horrendous animalrights records. This may be blamed partly onthe erroneous belief that animals have beencreated for man's service and subjugation,based on a misinteqpretation ofthe verses men-tioned earlier (see ft.7). Indeed the Qur'dn hasgiven remarkable importance to the animal

kingdom: 'There is not an animal on earth nora flying creature flying on two wings, but theyare nations like you. We have neglected noth-

ing in the Book (of our decrees). Then unto

their Lord will they be gathered.' (6:38)

There are often arguments in Muslim soci-eties on whether animals have souls or not,which I consider to be irrelevant because Godhas clearly declared in the Qur'ln that weneed to respect them as communities regard-less of any other spiritud qualities. In fact

certain Islamic philosophers such as Sadr al-

Din Shirdzi even speak of the resurrection ofanimals and plants, which may be inferred

from Qur'anic verses and fu adi ths.r7 fvI-Jd\i z, a

Muslim scientist. studied animal behaviour

and how it changes with environmental influ-

ences as early as the eighth century, when his

classic treatise, The Book of Animals, was pub-

In the aftermathoiwa?, victoriousMuslims werestrictly instructednot to destroytrees and othernatural nesounceson enemyterritory, as wilsthe custom inPre-lslamic Arabia

rsLAMrcA 37

There is also aYerse in the

Qur'iln whichdirectly refers to

plants and mayeven be heralded

as a call formaintainingbiodiversity

lished (there are remarkable similaritiesberween his work and Charles Darwin'sresearch several centuries later). A notableMuslim legal scholar in the thirteenth century,'lzz al-Dinibn 'Abd As-Sallm, even formulat-ed a 'Bill ofAnimal Rights'.

It is true that Islam does allow animal hunt-ing for food purposes but this too is to be donewith care so as not to disrupt the balance ofnature nor to inflict wanton cruelty on anyanimal. There are numerous anecdotes fromthe Prophet's S life where he showedimrnense caring for animals and admonishedthose who treated them badly. Listed beloware some important hadtths pertaining to ani-mal rights:

'All creatures are like a family (ayat) of God:and He loves the most those who are themost beneficent to His family.''An ant bit the Prophet and he angnlydestroyed an entire nest: for this he isreproached by God with a rhetoricalquestion: 'Have you destroyed an entirecommuniry that glorifies me simply becauseone ant bit you?''A good deed done to a beast is as good asdoing a good deed to a human being: whilean act of cruelry to a beast is as bad as an actof cruelry to a human being."8

From the second hadtth we can inGr thatkilling even those animals that may causemomentary harm is not allowed, but is onlypermissible when one's own life is in danger.The last hadith is specidly important because itputs animals and humans on an equal levelwith regard to victimization. Needless to say,there is the glaring dispariry of allowing ani-mals for food, whereas cannibalism isprohibited. However, eating animals for foodis a part ofthe natural order, arguably for car-nivorous mammals, but that too must not bedone in a brutal way. Slaughtering of animalsin traditional Islamic times was to be donewith a sharp knife to avoid pain and sufferingofthe animal.I9

Animal rights activists are often at odds withMuslims who refuse to use modern methodsofanimal killing such as electrocution, that areless painful. Islamic dietary laws, which aresimilar to Jewish dietary laws, say that theblood of an animal that is to be eaten must bedrained completely. This is not possible whenthe animal is electrocuted to death and theblood begins to clot in the tissue. However,there are now methods by which animals maybe drained ofblood even with less painful exe-cution methods. It is, nevertheless, dificult toconvince most Islamic jurists (and rabbis forthat matter) of adopting any way other than

the traditional slaughtering regime. Theimportant fact to remember is that the reduc-tion of pain and suffering for the animals isgiven imrnense importance in Islam.

Though plants may not have the same par-pable sense as animals, they too are giveimportance in Islam. Muslim'ethnobotanists'such as Abu'l-'Abbas al-Nabati spent theirlives collecting plants, studying their structureand trying to derive medicinal value fromthem.2o There is also a verse in the Qur'anwhich direcdy refers to plants and may even beheralded as a call for maintaining biodiversiry.It is important to note that anthropocentricinterpreters would once again be tempted touse the clause identifying plants 'for you' tojusti$r exploitation. However, ifinterpreted in

the broader context and spirit of Qur'anic rev-elation (quoted in many earlier verses), thisclause may refer to the prudent usage ofplantsfor food and medicinal value:

My Lord is He who spread out for you theearth like a ca{pet; and made plants thereinforyou, and sent down water from theclouds. Then thereby, We have produceddiverse pairs ofplants, each distinct from theother. (zo:53)

TEARI{ING FROM THE PAST ANDPROSPECTS FOR THE FUTUREIn this paper I have endeavoured to provide atheological basis for environmental conserva-tion in Islam, basing my arguments primarilyon the Qur'an and hadith as they were used inearly Islamic societies. Flowever, the spectrumof environmental concems has broadenedgreatly since the time of the Prophet $ (sev-

enth century). By using the spirited message of

the Qur'In and the hadtths we now need tocontextualize some ofthe teachings oflslam tocater for the needs of contemporary Islamicsocieties. Indeed, one ofthe greatest strengthsof Islam is that it allows for evolution ofthought, as long as the primary injunctions ofGod in the Qur'ln are not directly contradic-ted. Unfortunately, this allowance of flexiblereligious interpretation has not been used inIslamic societies for centuries. The concept ofijdhad, or independent reasoning, which wasmentioned earlier, needs to be resurrected todeal with some ofthe environmental problems

ofthis age.Population control is probably the most

contentious issue that causes much acrimonybewveen environmentalists and theologians.This was exempli{ied by the U.N. PopulationConference in September, rgg4, which wasironically held in Egypt, a highly populated

Muslim country. There was a marriage of

38 rsLAMrcA

convenience between the Catholic clergy andMuslim scholars against the agenda ofthe con-ference. lJnfortunately, family planningbecame tantamount to the proliferation ofabortions and promiscuity in the eyes of theCatholic Church and a majority of Muslimparticipants.2r This was certainly not theintention of the United Nations PopulationFund (UNFPA).

The executive director of UNFPA is aMuslim woman herself and therefore the sen-sitivities of Muslims towards the issue ofpopulation control were given much atten-tion. It is important. There is immenseignorance in the Muslim world about theactual position of family*planning in Islamicscriptures. Indigenous cultural factors, alien toIslam itseil tend to subsume the discourse inthis regard. It is important for Muslims to real-ize that methods of family-planning wereknown and practiced even during the time ofthe Prophet &, who never forbade their use.22

Another major issue which needs attentionis the contextual interpretation of theallowance given by some l,tadiths for'commonusage' of natural resources. The saying of theProphet $ mentioned earlier in which he saidthat 'all people have equal rights over pasture,fire and water', has been misused by somepeople to mean that there should be a free-for-all 'commons'situation. Indeed, in the l ight ofall the other hadtths and Qur'inic injunctions asystem reminiscent more of the 'public trustdoctrine'23 has been advised and access tocorunons must be regulated. A failure tounderstand this vitai injunction and an inad-vertent denial of the hima system led to majorland degradation in Saudi Arabia during thefifties and sixties. Since r98o, however, SaudiArabia has reevaluated its environmental poli-cy. There are now national parks andpreserves, most notably Asir National Parknear Abha. Even at the village 7eve1, the himdsystem is being resurrected, for example, in thenorthern village of al-Foqa.

Needless to say, economics must play a vitalrole in environmental conservation initiativesand Islam has its own econornic system as well,which is generally quite conducive to thedevelopment of 'ecological economics'. Islambelieves in interest-free banking and in generalthe concept of a 'discount rate' is not used inIslamic economics. This gives environmentalconservation undiminished'value' throughtime. The complexities of Islamic economicsare beyond the scope of this paper but thereare numerous centres that are currentlyinvolved in this work which may be contactedfor further information. 24

Finally, the most important factor to con-sider is the lack of education and awarenessabout Islamic environmental injunctions thatexist in the sacred texts and traditions. There isan information void in Muslim countries andcomrnunities in this regard which needs to befilled. Fortunately, organizations such as theLondon-based 'Muslim Association forAnimals and Nature' are beginning to appearwhich are a beacon of hope for the future.Once Muslims are made aware of the impor-tance which their religion has given to theenvironment, there could be a major revolu-tion towards more ecologically salubriouspractices. Ecumenical dialogue to promoteenvironmental awareness is also gatheringmomentum. In August r993, 'The Parliamentof

'World Religions' met in Chicago and

included the environment on its agenda.Representatives from many Muslim conunu-nities were also present at this gathering.

The dauntless zeal and comrnitment whichMuslims derive from their Faith, if used tocombat environmental decay, could indeedprove to be immensely beneficial to the worldat large, while providing spiritual sustenancewithin the Muslim communiry.*

R E F E R E N C E S

t This point is articulated among others by thegreat historian Arnold Toynbee (rSlz), who saysthat if the earth's resources are to be givenimportance, then the monotheistic religionsshould be entirely abandoned and a move madetowards pantheism. Sufism, the mysticaldimension of Islam, has occasionally beenregarded as pantheistic. Yet despite imagery fromnature such to be found in Fariduddin 'Aqgar's

thirteenth-century classic, The Conference of theBirds, there is no central theme of nature'ssupremacy in Sufi doctrines. For a more detaileddiscussion see Annemarie Schimmel, Decipheingthe Signs of Cod: A Phenomenological Approach toIslam, State Univenity of New York Press,Albany, r9g4; and Sachiko Murata, The Tao ofIslam, State Universiry of New York Press,Albany, 1993.

z Quoted in Iqtidar Zaid1'On the Ethics ofMan's Inteqpretation with the Environment', inEugene C. Hargrove (ed), Religion andEnuironmental Crisls, Univenity of Georgia Press,Athens, Georgia, 1986.

3 For an excellent eclectic discussion ofreligionsand environmental values, see Parvez Manzoor.'Environment

and Values: The Islamic

Once Musl imsare made awareof the importancewhich theirreligion hasgiven to theenvironment,there could bea maiorrevolution towardsmore ecologicallysalubrious

Practices

rsLAMrcA 39

Penpecrive', in Ziauddin Sardar (ed), The Touchof Midas: science, values and environment in klamanil the West, Manchester (Jniversiw Press,Manchester, r984.

4 There are six traditional texts of hadiths(singular form is hadith) wLnch are consideredmost authentic: Bukhdi, Muslim, Abil DAU^1{,Ibn MAja, Nasa'i and Tirmidht.

J There are mainly two sects of Islam: theSunnis and the Shi'ites (consrirudng about 8o%and r5%o respeccively, of the total global Muslimpopulation of about r billion). The Sftan'a variesfor each sect and within each there are also sub-sects that have different inte{pretations of IslamicLaw. There are four major school ofjurisprudence within Sunni Islam: the Malkis,Shef is, flanbalis and the flanafis. For a detaileddiscussion see, John Esposito, Islam the StraightPath, O{od Univenity Press, New York, r99z;and Akbar S. Ahmed, Discoueing Islam,Routledge, London, r988.6 Recently this anthropocentric view has beenpresented by Martin Forward and MohammadAlam in Holm and Bowker (eds), Attitudes toNature, Pinter Publishers, London, r994.

7 Some other verses that are used to propagatethe anthropocencric argu.ment are 4j:r2-r3;3r:zo; r4i32-33. Nasr comments on themisinterpretation with great eloquence. SeeSeyyed Hossein Nasr, Tfte Need for a SacredScience, State (Jniversity of New York, Albany,r 993.8 Up until the Fint World'War, Islam wastechnically govemed by a Caliph, who at thatcime resided in Istanbul, Turkey. However, thetrue Islamic cdiphate, which was supposed to bedemocratic and not dynastic, lost its lustre afterthe fint four caliphs. The fint four, Abi Bakr,'(Jmar, Uthman and 'Ali are known as the al-Khulafi' al-Rtuhidfrn (the Righdy-Guided caliphs).

9 Bukhai, quoted in Fazlun Khalid andJoanneO'Brien (eds), Islam and Ecology, CassellPublishen, London, rggz, 20.ro Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Sacred Science and theEnvironmental Crisis: An Islamic Perspectiue, quotedin Seyyed Hossein Nasr, fie NeedJor a SacreilScience, State IJniversiry of New York, Albany,r993, r3o-r .r I See Othman Llewelyn, 'Desert Reclamationand Islamic Laur', Muslim Scientist, vol.Ir, I982,g-zg; and also his article in Khalid and O'Brien,Islam anil Ecology.12 An excellent discussion of the hema system isprovided by Omar Draz inJeftey McNeely andDavid Pitt (eds), Culture and Conseruation: TheHuman Dimension in Enuironmental Planning,Croom Helm, London, r98j.13 S. Waqar Husaini, Islamic Enuironmental SystemEngineering, Macmillan, London, r 98o.14 Quoted in Khalid and O'Brien, Islam andEcology. The texts from which they are derivedare Sahih Muslim, Bukhan and the Musnad ofImam Ahmad ibn $anbal, respectively.ri In the small Muslim state of Brunei there hasbeen a concerted effort to save tropicalrainforests. See Tor Eigeland, 'The Academy of

the Rainforest' , Aramco World, Nov/Dec, rgg2.t6 Hadrth rransmitted by al-Mawardi, quoted inYassin Dutton's 'Natural Resources in Islam'. inKhalid and O'Brien, Islam and Ecology.Regarding water law in Islam, see J.C.'Wilkinson, 'Islamic water law with specialreference to oasis settlemenr', Jo umat oJ AidEnvironments, volt, ry78, 87 -96.

17 Shirlzi was an Iranian Shi'i scholar of thesixteenth century. His most important works areal-,*fir al-Arba'a and RisAlafi'I-ftashr, quoted inNasr, Need..for a Sacred Science.18 Quoted in Khalid and O'Brien, klarn andEcology. Narrated from Shu'ab al-hndn, gahlhMusli m, and Mi shkdt al- Mas abth, resp ectively.19 A saying of the Prophet.$ narrated in gahthMuslim, states: 'slaughter animals withconsideration. Make sure your knife is sharpand let your animal die comfortably.'20 See Toby Hufl The Rise oJ Early MuslimScience: Islam, China and the West, CambidgeUniversiry Press, Cambridge, 1993.2r I attended a mosque gathering in Boston,where a booklet condemning the conference wasbeing distributed. Radical economists such as L.Larouche were quoted and a shocking anay ofcornucopian arguments presented in a way tocatch the eye of the Muslim. It contained evenpreposterous tales of a conspiracy by the'West toreduce the increase in population of Muslims.22 Munawwar Ahmed Anees has given adetailed account of various contraceptivemethods and the opinion of Islam concerningeach. See Munawwar Ahmed Anees, 'Islamic

Values and Western Science: A Case Study fromReproductive Biology', in Sardar (ed), The Touchof Midas.In 1992, UNFPA has published acomprehensive compendium of Islamic views onFamily Planning.z3 The Public Trust Doctrine can be traced backto the Institutes oJJustinian, a Roman text writtenseveral centuries before the advent of Islam.24 One of the most prominent research centresfor Islamic economics is at the King Abdul AzizUniveniry inJeddah, Saudi Arabia, and theIslamic Foundation in Markfield, tIK. Anothercentre with similar interests is at the Qaid-e-Azam lJniversiry in Islamabad, Pakistan.

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