i

Olodu Happy

NON-COGNITIVE CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN GEOGRAPHY IN IKA EDUCATIONAL ZONE,

Content manager’s

Olodu Happy

PG/M.ED/11/58795

COGNITIVE CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN GEOGRAPHY IN IKA EDUCATIONAL ZONE,

Education

Content manager’s Name

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

ii

COGNITIVE CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN GEOGRAPHY IN IKA EDUCATIONAL ZONE,

: Content manager’s Name

Webmaster’s name

a, Nsukka

iii

NON-COGNITIVE CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN GEOGRAPHY IN

IKA EDUCATIONAL ZONE, DELTA STATE

BY

OLODU HAPPY

PG/MED/09/51795

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

SUPERVISOR: PROF. B.G NWORGU

DATE: SEPTEMBER, 2012.

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the department of Science Education, University

of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

___________________ _____________________

Prof. Nworgu,B.G Prof. Ezeh,D.N Supervisor Head of Department,

___________________ _____________________

External Examiner Internal Examiner

Prof. Monday Joshua Prof. Njoku Z.C.

_____________________________

Prof. Ike Ifelunni

Dean, Faculty of Education

v

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty who gave me life and helped me to survive

life challenges throughout the duration of this research work.

vi

ACKNOLEDGEMENT

The success of this thesis is made possible by my supervisor Prof. Nworgu, B.G who

devoted his time to read and correct the errors, in other to make this work of

international standard. Thanks to the Head of department Science Education, Prof.

Ezeh, D.N; Prof. Njeoku, Z.C my design reader; and Dr. Nwaubanni O.O, my content

reader for their contribution to make the completion of this work a huge success.

I acknowledge the following people who supported this work financially and

otherwise, Mr Ajaero, C.K, Odiase Josephine, Mr.Ochonogor, Mr and Mrs Nwose A.

A, Egba Kester, Rev. Fr. Peter Enuanwa, Nduka Nwose, Mr Nwaosa, F.I, Mr

Dugbele Charles,Mr Onah, U.R, Mr Uguanyi Christian, Marian Keshi, Dilibe

Nneamaka, the staff of St. Felix Seminary, Ejeme Aniogor, and Ndemili central

okada park.

I am indebtedto my mother, Madam Janet Akpati for her investment in my education

to make me somebody in life. She is a mother that knows the worth of education and

wants her wards to get the best of all.

vii

ABSTRACT

This research was undertaken to evaluate the relationship between non- cognitive variables and senior school achievement in geography. The purpose was to see the extent by which non-cognitive variables predict achievement in geography. Three research questions were asked and three hypotheses formulated and tested at .05 level of significance. The design of the study was a correlational survey design. The researcher developed the non-cognitive questionnaire (NCQ) and it was face validated by three experts in Measurement and Evaluation and Science Education. Also the NCQ was validated using factor analysis (construct validation) using SPSS and internal consistency reliability of 0.826 was obtained. The researcher collected school geography assessment scores for further analysis. The researcher used 20 secondary schools with a total population of 400 SSII students who offer geography. The schools were randomly sampled from Ika South and Ika North East (12) Local Government Areas. The main highlight of the results can be summarized as follows: there was low positive relationship between the predictor variables (non-cognitive) and achievement in geography. Non-cognitive variables also showed no significance in predicting achievement in geography. The results were discussed and the implications, limitations, and suggestions were clearly stated, some of the implications are: school administrators and guidance counselors are not counseling the students on ways to improve learning, some geography teachers may not be specialists in geography, and so may not teach geography in ways that will stimulate students’ interest. It is recommended that the school authority should create favourable learning environments that will make schooling attractive and friendly between teachers and their students through award ceremonies; and they should employ the appropriate man-power to impart learning to enhance achievement.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - - - i

Approve page - - - - - - - - - - ii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - iv

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - v

Table of contents - - - - - - - - - vi

List of tables - - - - - - - - - - ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of Study - - - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 13

Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - - 13

Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 14

Scope of the Study - - - - - -- - - 15

Research Questions - - - - - - - - 16

Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 16

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Frame Work - - - - - - - 17

Concept, Nature and Scope of Senior School Geography Curriculum-17

The concept of School Achievement - - - -- - 21

The concept of Non-cognitive Learning Outcomes - -- - 22

ix

Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 36

The Behaviorist Theory of Learning - --- - - - 36

Constructivism Theory of Learning - -- - - - 38

Review Empirical Studies - - - - - - - 40

Summary of Literature Review - - - - - 46

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Design of the Study- - - - - - - - - 48

Area of the Study - - - - - - - 48

Population the of Study - - - -- - - - 49

Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 49

Instrument for Data Collection - - - - - - 50

Validation of Instrument - - -- - - - - 50

Reliability of Instrument - - -- - - - - 51

Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - 52

Method of Data analysis - - - - - - - 52

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF

RESULTS - - - - - - - - - - 53

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION,

IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion of Results - - - - - - - - 64

x

Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 67

Implications of the study - - - - - - - - 68

Recommendations - - - - - - - - 69

Limitations of study - - - - - - - - 70

Suggestions for further study - - - - - - - 71

Summary of the study - -- - - - - - - 71

REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - 74

Appendices

I (Instrument for data collection) - - - - - - 82

II (reliability test) - - -- - - - - - - 86

III (Distribution of sample Schools by L.G.A) - - -- - 94

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Pearson correlation coefficient between student engagement variables and

achievement in geography - - - - - - - 54

Table 2 Pearson correlation coefficient between learning strategies and achievement

in geography - - - - - - - - - 55

Table 3 Pearson correlation coefficient between school climate and achievement in

geography - - - - - - - - - 57

Table 4a and b Multiple linear analysis of student engagement and achievement in

geography - - - - - - - - - 58

Table 5a and b multiple linear analysis of learning strategies and achievement in

geography - - - - - - - - - 59

Table 6a and b multiple linear analysis of school climate and achievement in

Geography - - - - - - - - - - 61

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Prior to the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 system of education in

Nigeria in 1982, the non-cognitive domain wasnot so much given

attention in terms of instruction and assessment because of the use of

one-short examination. The introduction of this system created

awareness on the need to assess the cognitive, affective and

psychomotor behaviours to satisfy the comprehensiveness

characteristics of assessment devices to be used. The implementation of

this educational system required the assessment of the overall ability of

learners.

The National Policy on Education emphasized strongly on the use

of continuous assessment at all levels of the educational system in

preference to the one-shot examination (Federal Republic of Nigeria,

2004). This innovation was made to liberalize assessment and

evaluation by assessment of part or whole of the individual’s progress in

education. In the implementation of the National Policy on Education

(NPE), mandate was given to the agencies that were involved in the

implementation process to make use of the appropriate continuous

assessment format as prescribed by the Federal Ministry of Education to

make the implementation a success.

2

Continuous assessment was described in a handbook on

Continuous assessment released by the Federal Ministry of Education,

Science and Technology (1985:8) as

A mechanism whereby the final grading of a student in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of behaviour takes account, in a systematic way, of all his performance during a giving period of schooling.Such an assessment involves the use of modes of evaluation for the purpose of guiding and improving learning and performance of the student.

This handbook went on to characterize continuous assessment as

systematic, comprehensive, cumulative and guidance oriented.

According to Nworgu (2003), it is comprehensive because it encourages

the evaluation of the individual’s behaviour-cognitive, psychomotor and

affective. This encourages the use of different instruments in

determining the performance of students. He also stated that the

instrument to be used in measurement of any attribute is a function of

the ability to be assessed.

In practice, teachers and examination bodies in Delta State use

cumulative test scores in determining students’ achievement. Such

include first test, second test and cumulative first and second term

examinations for third term examination and for promotion to the next

class.

3

The assessments of the affective and psychomotor domains are

carried out with rating scale in the result sheet which is not incorporated

in the students’ final grades. Offorma (2002) stated that good

instructional objectives should take cognizance of the affective, cognitive

and psychomotor behaviours. She also noted that some teachers find it

difficult to measure and evaluate the affective and psychomotor

behaviours. This gives the researcher worries on the success of the

implementation of continuous assessment

Non-cognitive as the word implies comprises the affective and the

psychomotor domain of behaviour. Non-cognitive domains are traits or

skills often assessed through some form of rating system using surveys

or observations reported either by respondents themselves or by others

who can judge the qualities of the person being assessed (Jihyun&

Valerie, 2009). This implies that non-cognitive domains are those factors

that both influence education and are influenced by education.

The non-cognitive skills and traits relevant to academic

achievement according to Messick (1979) and Farkas (2003) are:

(i) Attitude, values, interest and curiosity

(ii) Personality or temperament variables, such include

conscientiousness and extraversion.

(iii) Social relation variables, such include leadership, social

sensitivity and the ability to work with others.

4

(iv) Self-constructs such as self-efficacy and personal identities

(v) Work habits such as effort, discipline, persistence and time

management and

(vi) Emotions towards a specific task such include enthusiasm

and anxiety.

Jeffry, Elizabeth, Bozick, Dalton and Robert (2010) identify the

following as non-cognitive variables

(i) Motivation

(ii) Effort

(iii) Self-efficacy

(iv) Self-regulated learning

(v) Anti-social and pro-social behaviours

(vi) Academicself-concept

(vii) Coping and Resilience

Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized

through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the

individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related

(Giorgio & Martin, 2011). Bajah (1984) pointed out that attitudinal

problem of student’s cause low performance in science and

recommended development of positive attitude in students. A student

with positive attitude will enter whole-heartedly into learning activities

because he is sensitive to geography as subject, whenever he finds it,

5

he derives pleasure from his contact, and will perform better in

geography achievement test and examination.

Interest is the willingness or desire for something. It can also be

seen as liking an activity. (Mkporo, 2006) Interest is a necessary

condition for achievement and student’s interest in geography will lead to

better achievement in the subject. This is because student interest in a

subject brings active involvement in the learning of the subjects in

particular. This can be followed by enthusiasm which is seen as strong

feeling of excitement and interest in something and a desire to become

involved in school activities.

Conscientiousness is the preference for following rules and

schedules for keeping engagements and the attitude of being

hardworking, organized and dependable as opposed to lazy,

disorganized and unreliable (Giorgio & Martin, 2011). This

impliesdiscipline in the school. Discipline is a key to success in school

achievement. This follows the saying that when a student hates a

teacher, the subject hates the student. Hence, discipline plays key role

in improving achievement. Extraversion is the preference for human

contacts, empathy, gregariousness, assertiveness and the wish to

inspire people.

6

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to organize and achieve

one’s goals. This is also seen as believing in one’s ability to organize

and carry out actions required to achieve one’s goals (Bandura, 1997).

Motivation in educational settings is the desire to accomplish

academic activities successfully. Motivation plays a significant role

towards attaining better performance. This can be intrinsic (from the

learner himself) or extrinsic (from the environment). A student with high

motivation from the parents and the school will perform better than a low

motivated student. This is because motivation will increase or make the

student to be interested with his/her learning activities.

Effort is viewed on the degree of effort and the degree of

specificity. The degree of effort indicates the extent to which students

take an active role in their learning. The degree of specificity refers to

whether behavior is geared toward completing a specific task (eg.

geography assignment) or to achievement more generally (trying hard in

geography class)(Jeffery, Elizabeth, Ben & Robert, 2011). Effort plays

significant role in achievement because students are faced with

psychological and environmental challenges that are capable of

discouraging learning. Such include charting with friends in 2go,

facebook and other social network. Intensify effort towards learning will

increase interest and achievement irrespective of physiological and

environmental challenges.

7

Self-regulated learning involves the student’s evaluation of a task,

their selection and application of problem solving strategies and

potentially a revision of their strategies based on their

outcome(Borghans, Dockworth, Hackman &Weel, 2008). A student

using self-regulated learning will be better improved in terms of

achievement. This is because the student will be able to revise his/her

work and correct mistakes after the first encounter. For example, a

student who re-enrolls WASSEC or NECO and uses past question

papers to revise, will achieve better results compare to his first

encounter of the same examination because similar questions are set

from the same syllabus or questions are been repeated.

Academic self-concept is defined as a student’s self-perceived

competence in school generally or in a specific academic domain.

Conceptually academic self-concept consists of global self-concept (a

student’s belief about his or her overall ability in school) and domain

specific self-concept (feelings of competence in a particular subject

matter such as mathematics and geography)(Guthris & Wigfield, 2000).

Motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the learners’ confidence in

his or her potential for learning. These serve as an intrinsic motivation to

the student towards achievement. This is because students’ previous

achievement is a predetermination of their success in the future. This is

in line with Glaserfeld’s (1989) view when he noted that feelings of

8

competence and belief in potential to solve new problems are derived

from firsthand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are

much more powerful than any external acknowledgement and

motivation.

Antisocial behavior encompasses physical and verbal aggression

as well as dismissive or exclusionary behavior ( eg. not sharing,

spreading rumor) pro-social behavior include cooperation, sharing and

encouragement (Jeffrey et al, 2010). Pro-social behaviour enables

students to learn from peers of what they do not know. This behaviour

can be exhibited in form of peer tutoring, group reading and group

discussion. Experience has shown that pro-social behaviour leads to

better achievement in the school through exchange of ideas.

Coping refers to a range of strategies that people use to respond

to various challenges (Clark & Ellen; 2006). It includes attitude, behavior

and relational skills. Coping strategies include, chosen of suitable

reading time, switching off phone and chosen a quite environment for

reading to enhance better understanding of learning contents

Resilience refers to academic success in spite of various risk

factors including demographic, psychological and academic factors. This

can be achieved through the use of coping strategies and intrinsic

motivation.Based on these identified non-cognitive variables, Jihyum

9

and Valerie (2009) classified non-cognitive into Student engagement,

learning strategies and school climate.

Student engagement simply means the involvement of students

with their learning activities. This involves the active participation of

students with school activities.

Learning strategies involve all the methods used by the students

during class activity and outside class activity (at home or during break)

to control their own behaviour and behaviour of others. These involve

maximum concentration of the learners to achieve broad goal of

education.

School climate simply refers to the students’ external factor to

school achievement. These involve the school man-power, school

facilities, parental influence, and peer association.

All through the existence of man, Geography has always been

at the centre because the environment determines the man’s action

(environmental determinism) and sometimes man modify his

environment to soothe himself (environmental possibilism). For man to

be more effective, geography helps by laying foundation in areas of map

work, agriculture and industrial land use, environmental studies, etc.

Based on this, Ezeudu (2006) identified the general objectives of

teaching geography in Nigeria as to:

(i) To develop critical thinkers

10

(ii) To help the child be effective member of the society

(iii) To promote international understanding

Map work, cartography, physical and regional geography,

population studies etc. taught in secondary schools help students to

develop career in geography. To be effective members of the society,

geography help the student to develop –

(i) Ability to observe natural occurring phenomena

(ii) Ability to prepare accurate maps and locate features with key

or legends

(iii) Ability to describe phenomena in relation to man existence

(iv) Ability to formulate hypothesis and to test them with the data

obtained.

To fully appreciate the general contribution of Geography to

individuals and the world, teaching and learning of the subject is been

assessed and its curriculum been innovated. In order to reduce student

anxiety, a new curriculum that makes geographic education relevant,

realistic and functional was developed with its mode of

assessment.Assessment of student achievement in Geography in senior

school certificate is under the control of the West African Examination

Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO).

The state of geographic education in Nigeria has shown less

improvement in the general performance of candidates in the senior

11

school certificate examinations (SSCE) conducted by National

Examination Council (NECO) and West African Senior School

Examination council (WASSEC). The researcher has observed as an

examiner in WASSEC and NECO 2009-2012 that the performance in

SSCE geography is generally poor and lower than those of the previous

years. This can be supported by the West African Chief Examiners

report (2002) when they stated that candidates performance are

generally poor and lower than those of previous year. They further state

the following reasons for poor performance as:

Inability to amplify answers as required by the questions. Inability to read and interpret given topographic maps and identify some features as required by the question. Poor comparism of phenomenon as required by the question. Inadequate preparation for the examination candidate’s inability to explain their points to earn full marks Poor map drawing and poor representation of features in the map. Most people cannot draw good sketch maps of Nigeria, West Africa, and Africa and could not use key or legend to present features. Inadequate coverage of all the aspects of the geography syllabus.

The researcher opined that the low performance in SSCE

geography has created lack of interest in some students with low

motivation which would result in low enrolment figure in

geography. This is in line with Okpala (1988) who stated that some

12

research on students’ attitudes towards geography has shown that

few students write geography in school certificate examinations.

Stated reasons which students have for disliking geography

include wide scope of the subject; poor results in school

geography; geography is unrelated to their future career; poor

teaching; geography is not regarded as a scientific subject in the

Nigerian educational system. Onyekpe (2012) stated that the low

performance in geography has contributed to low enrolment. He

further stated that peers discourage themselves in the enrolment in

geography with regards to previous achievement in SSCE

geography.

However, attention has not been given to non-cognitive variables

which can lead to high achievement in secondary school geography.

Thus, it becomes important why the researcher is interested in studying

the non-cognitive variable as a correlates to secondary school

achievement in geography because a change in attitude can foster

student’s interest in the subject geography.

13

Statement of the Problem

There is low performance in SSCE geography and this has led to low

enrolmentin geography. Research into the identification of ways to

enhance student academic achievement has suggested that some

attention should be paid on non-cognitive domains. There is need to

understanding the impacts of non-cognitive attributes on students’

success. There is current evidence to suggest that non-cognitive and

cognitive abilities have the potential to mutually reinforce each other to

maximize student learning outcomes (Rothstein, 2004). This has been

neglected by policy makers who give attention to only cognitive

variables by allocation of classroom time to cognitive domain only. The

problem of this study is that of finding answer to the poser: to what

extent do non-cognitive measures explain or predict academic

achievement, using geography as a case study?

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to determine the extent that

some non-cognitive variables predict achievements in geography.

Specifically, the study is to determine the extent to which:-

� Students’ engagement variable predicttheir achievement in

geography.

14

� Learning strategies variable predict students’ achievement in

geography.

� school climate predicts students achievement in geography

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will hopefully be of benefit to the students,

teachers, principals,guidance counselor, and other researchers.

The findings will be useful to geography students. It will reveal the

fact that achievement in geography requires active involvement with

learning activities and explain efforts towards achievement, the role of

interest and effort. Also they will understand that varying learning

strategies will help proper retention of school content.

The teachers will hopefully benefit from this study through the

acquisition of the learning strategies and use them to plan diversified

teaching methods that will arouse the learners’ interest in their classes.

Also, the teacher will understand his position as a facilitator who

creates the learning environment for learners to arrive at their

conclusion.

The principals will benefit from this study through understanding

his transformation role in the life of his students through laying strong

academic emphasis. This is because secondary school achievement

15

credit is given to the principals and their failure will be woe of the

principal’s leadership.

The guidance counselor will benefit from the study by understand

the factors that can improve achievement and learning strategies that

will brings better achievement in school. Also, the guidance counselor

will use the knowledge on learning strategies to improve his/her

counseling techniques.

Other line researchers can use the identified non-cognitive

variables to develop non-cognitive models. Also social science

researchers will use the non-cognitive variable to study performance of

workers in their work place.

Scope of the Study

This study covers non-cognitive variables of secondary school

students and senior secondary two (SS2) achievements in geography in

Ika Educational Zone in Delta State. The non-cognitive variable consists

of students’ engagement, learning strategies and school climate. The

student engagement will make the student to be active in class, learning

strategies will equip the student with ways of overcoming challenges

facing schooling, and the school climate is an indication of the school

tone.

16

Research Questions

The researcher formulated three research questions to guide this study.

These are:

(i) To what extent does student engagement predict their

achievement in geography?

(ii) To what extent does learning strategies (behavioral) predict

students’ achievement in geography?

(iii) To what extent does school climate predict students’

achievement in geography?

Hypotheses

The researcher formulated the following three hypotheses to guide this

study

(i) Students’ engagement variable does not significantly predict their

achievement in geography

(ii) Learning strategy does not significantly predict students’

achievement in geography.

(iii) School climate does not significantly predict students’ achievement

in geography.

17

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review will be done with respect to the following sub-headings

Conceptual Framework

Concept, nature and scope of senior secondary school geography

curriculum

Concept of school achievement

Concept of non-cognitive outcomes

Theoretical Framework

Behavioural learning theory

Constructivist learning theory

Review of empirical studies

Concept, Nature and Scope of Senior School Geography

Curriculum

Geography literally means description of the earth. American

Heritage Dictionary of English language (2000) defined geography as

the study of the earth and its features, distribution human life on the

18

earth and the effects of human activity. Ofomata (2006) defined

geography as a science of spatial interaction between man and his

environment. He noted that geography seeks to understand a given area

in terms of the total integration of the various phenomena which

characterized it.

The colonial era gave rise to geography curriculum that takes

cognizance of the British manpower needs. This led to the agitation for

curriculum change to take the needs of Nigeria by Nigeria geographers

(Okpala, 1990).

The secondary school geography curriculum covers the physical

geography (World), regional geography, human geography and practical

geography. This shows that the content being taught in secondary

school geography is too wide and may brought about the need to

produce a curriculum that will make geographic education relevant,

realistic and functional to the needs of Nigerian secondary school

students. The Nigeria Educational Research Council (NERC) in 1985

developed and designed geography curriculum that is more stimulating,

relevant and experience rewarding.

The secondary school Geography curriculum, apart from being

beneficial to the students was designed to be responsive to community

feelings, reflect official curriculum policy and to stop with drawer among

19

secondary school students by attracting students of varying abilities,

interest and aspirations. The theoretical framework of this curriculum

emphasized utility oriented learning and problem solving. The features of

this curriculum are:

The provision of geography programme based on the choice of

suitable and relevant themes, units content, teachingmethod, student

activities and evaluation method is a conceptually based and is

hierarchical with the theme being the first- order, concepts the second –

order, andcontents, the third –order concepts respectively.This implies

that teacher should be using field trips or direct observation techniques

in explaining important concepts. This will stimulate the interest and

motivate the learner towards the study of geography and also improve

the student engagement with their activities.

The senior secondary geography curriculum stated the innovative

elements of the syllabus including emphasis placed on practical

geography, the introduction of geographic principles, concepts and

skills that are relevant to current trends in the discipline and useful for

solving environmental problems. This implies that the geography

curriculum is developed around a carefully selected sequence of key

ideas and concepts. This makes geography possible to integrate the

knowledge and experience gained in the physical, human, regional and

20

practical aspect of geography to explore the natural environment,

utilize it and solve environmental problems associated with man’s

activities during the process of interaction with his environment. The

researcher did not agree with the curriculum developer when they

stated practical geography as innovative to the learning of geography

because map work is the aspect of geography that some students find

difficult to cope with and think that this may be the reason why some

students dislike geography. This is in line with WAEC (2002) Chief

Examiners report when they stated that student perform poorly recently

because of poor map sketch; inability to locate appropriately, features

on the map with the use of keys or legends.

To generate students’ interest and participation to enhance

effectiveness and efficiency in teaching and learning situation, the

curriculum stated the use of conceptual design approach with

supportable problem-solving procedures, appropriate instructional

resources; good sense of a resourceful geography teacher should be

able to assist students to learn geography more effectively (Ezeudu,

2006). The curriculum developers also reduced the content scope

coverage of the subject matter without losing the high quality required

at the secondary level of education. In particular, regional geography is

now limited to the study of Nigeria, Africa with reference to West Africa

21

in which attention is focused on a comparative case study of significant

issues.

Concept of School Achievement

Page and Thomas (1977) defined school achievement as

performance in school or college in a standardized series of

educational tests This implies that achievement can be explained to

mean the actions of a person or group when given a learning task.

Cooper and Burger (1980) defined school achievement as a quality of

performance in terms of task and class exercises with academic

content. This means that school achievement has levels which can be

of high, moderate and low. High level of school achievement can be

from 60% and above, moderate level between 59- 40% and low level is

below 40%. This is supported by Iroegbu (1992), who defined school

achievement as the level of performance that is exhibited by an

individual in the school.

Aiken (1979) defined school achievement as the degree of ability

already attained in the school. According to Anestasi and Uraina

(2005), School achievement is the aspect of measuring the effects of

relatively standardized set of experiences.

In this context, school achievement can be defined as the degree

or level of success attained by a student by the end of an academic

endevour. It is the extent to which one is able to accomplish a training

22

or learning. This is in line with Mikaoro’s (2006) view who defined

school achievement as “The level of proficiency and knowledge

demonstrated by an individual after learning has occurred”. Academic

or school achievement has been largely associated with many factors.

Most students in secondary schools in Ika educational zone of Delta

state are confronted with challenges of coping with their academics

under emotional strains occasioned by long walk to school, poor school

environment and being taught by unmotivated teachers. Hence, school

achievement is a function of motivation, coping, resilience, positive

attitude and interest which are student engagement variables. These

variables pave way for active involvement with students learning

activities in the school and at home.

The Concept of Non- Cognitive Learning Outcomes

From bloom’s classification of educational objectives, the term

non-cognitive behaviour can be used to mean affective and psychomotor

behaviours.The word “non-cognitive” is used in terms of measurement of

the objectives. The researcher sees cognitive behaviour as abilities or

skills usually measured by objective test. Examples include intelligent

quotient tests, ability test and subject-matter test. This is in line with

Farkas’ (2003) view who defined cognitive ability as ability measured

with traditional cognitive tests. Hackman (2004) defined non-cognitive

23

behaviours as skills with productive factors not captured by standardize

tests or observed measures of human capital. He further stated that

non-cognitive skills include interpersonal skills, persistence,

communication skills that are not objectively measured. This can be

supported by Farkas(2003) who defined non-cognitive as traits,

behaviours and skills that are not measured with traditional cognitive

tests. He further stated that they are assessed through some form of

rating system using surveys or observation reported either by

respondents themselves or by other who can judge the qualities of the

person being accessed

Borghans, Duckwork and Hackman (2008) defined non-cognitive

skills as skills including emotional maturity, empathy, interpersonal skills,

verbal and non-verbal communication. Also, they noted that non-

cognitive behaviours developed throughout childhood. To support this,

the researcher opined that parents are more capable of helping children

to develop non-cognitive skills than anyone else. Efforts by parents can

help the children to develop non-cognitive skills more in early stages in

life. This is in line with Williams (2004) who defined non-cognitive as

skills that are not cognitive. Such includes memory, attention, planning,

language and thinking skills.

24

Jeffrey, Elizabeth, Bozick, Dalton and Robert (2010) defined non-

cognitive as skills that are academically and occupationally relevant

which are not specifically intellectual or analytical in nature. They further

stated that non-cognitive behaviour includes a range of personality and

motivational habits and attitudes that facilitate functioning well in school.

This is supported by Messick (1979) view who stated that “Non-cognitive

and cognitive components coexist with some traits.” He also noted that it

is difficult to disentangle the two because cognitive does not imply only

cognitive, and non-cognitive does not imply absence of cognition. He

stated that the cognitive, affective and other sub-systems of personality

are manifolded, intricate and intertwined. Rothsterin (2004) stated that

non- cognitive and cognitive abilities have that potential to mutually

reinforce each other to maximize student learning.

In this context, non-cognitive is defined as behaviours that cannot

be measured with any form of testing. They are behaviours that are

exhibited towards achievement. This means that non-cognitive is a

drive. A drive is a motivator and can be intrinsic or extrinsic. It is intrinsic

when it originates from personality, and extrinsic when the source of

motivation is from the environment. This means that the locus of control

of non-cognitive shifts from inside influence of personality to outside

environment of the school towards school achievement.

25

There exist different non-cognitive variables as identified by

different scholars. Messick (1979) identified non-cognitive variablesto

include family background, affects, attitudes, interest, temperament,

social sensitivity, coping, cognitive styles, creativity and values. Jeffrey,

Elizabeth, Jean and Robert (2010) also identify motivation, effort, self-

regulated learning, self-efficacy, academic self-concept, anti-social and

pro-social behaviour, and coping and resilience as non-cognitive

behaviours. Giorogio and Martin (2011) identify non-cognitive

behavioursas agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability,

extraversion and autonomy.

Based on the aforementioned non-cognitive variables, three

categories of non-cognitive variables are identified by Jihyun and Valerie

(2009), and they are

(i) Student engagement

(ii) Learning strategies

(iii) School climate

Student Engagement:

Fredricks, Blumenfeld & Paris (2004) provided a conceptual

framework to define student engagement consisting of three major

types: behavioural, cognitive and emotional. Some researchers have

26

explored other types of engagement, such as academic engagement,

(Fin & Pannozzo, 2004) or social engagement (Lutz, Guthrie & Davis

2006). Student engagement viewed from behavioural cognitive and

emotional perspectives appears to be most widely accepted (Guthrie &

Wigfield, 2000; Lutz et al, 2006)

Student engagement refers to students’behavioral, emotional and

cognitive involvement in and with their learning activities (Fredricks,

Bluemenfeld, & Paris 2004; Martin and Dowson, 2009; Patric, Ryan &

Kaplan, 2007). Student engagementvariables include values, self-

related constructs, work habits, motivation and feelings.

a. Behavioural Engagement: This refers to students’ external

behaviour indicative of their interest and investment in learning

activities. These behaviours can be viewed by others in the

classroom as part of school or learning activities (Finn &

Pannazzo, 2004). Specific types of such observable behaviour

include, following school rules punctuality to school, not skipping

classes, turning in home work in time and avoiding fights. The less

easily observed behavior in this category include, working for good

grade, paying attention in the class, seeking information on one’s

own and attempting to surmount difficulties (Fredicks, Blumenfeld

& Paris 2004). The researcher is of the opinion that behaviours

27

that are believed to be indicators of the highest level of

engagement include students’ initiating discussions with teachers

and peer(students) on the materials that they learn in school and

joining the school’s extracurricular activities such as book clubs

and taking part in learning activities outside of school.

b. Cognitive motivation engagement: This involves students’

decision, beliefs, motivation, and willingness to expand their efforts

to learn and overcome challenging situation (Bandural, 1997; &

Fredicks, Blumenfeld& Paris 2004). This implies that cognitive-

motivational engagement is demonstrated for example, by a

students’ decision to put extra effort into his/her school work, and

the internal and external articulation of personal belief and

expectations with regard to school achievement. Additional

cognitive-motivational engagement may be characterized by

students showing a preference for challenging work, persisting in

the face of failure, and having a more internal focus toward

learning beyond the desire to just attain good grades (Bandura,

1997; Fredicks, Blumenfeld & Paris 2004; Patricks, Ryan & Kaplan

2007). Key cognitive-motivational engagement constructs that are

particularly relevant for students’ academic achievement include

self-concept, self-efficacy and attribution for success/ failure.

28

c. Emotional engagement: This refers to students’ affective

reactions and feeling toward learning in general, as well as toward

school, teachers and classmates (Alexander, Entwisle & Dauber,

1993). The researcher is of the opinion that feeling proud of one’s

academic accomplishment as well as a sense of belonging or

identification with the school, are also considered important

indicators of emotional engagement. This is in line with Alexander,

Entwisle & Dauber (1993) when they stated that student can

express their emotional engagement by their interest, boredom,

happiness, enthusiasm, curiosity and anxiety in response to school

and learning in general. This in line with Dockworth and Seligman

(2005) when they stated that children and young people with more

adaptive personal skills and learning resources are more likely to

succeed academically.

Learning Strategies

Different learning strategies have been emerging over the past

couple of decades. They have been subdivided into four main

categories- cognitive, meta-cognitive, motivational and behavioural

strategies. But for the sake of this research work, the researcher focuses

only on behavioural learning strategies.

29

Behavioural learning strategies refer to habitual activities that

students employ during learning to manage and control their own

behaviour, the behavior of others (eg through seeking help) and

resource (e.g places to study) (Pintrich, 2000). They include time

management, test taking strategies, effort management, help-seeking

and homework management.

a. Time management: This is the behavior directed toward effective use

of time to maximize productivity and to meet the goals for a particular

task (claessens, Van Eernde, Rutte, & Roe, 2007). The researcher

opined that time management as the effective allocation of time and

wise use to achieve a goal. Time management is a function of school

achievement test and examination as both measure of cognitive ability is

specified to duration. This implies that time management includes the

major components of assessing, planning and monitoring time with task

at hand.

b. Test-taking strategies. This consists of three major components.

Test preparation strategies, test preparation awareness and actual test-

taking strategies (Hong, Sas, & Sas, 2006). They noted that test

preparation strategies involve memorizing, reasoning, note-taking,

managing the work environment and regulating one’s own motivation,

confidence and effort level. They also noted that test-preparation

30

awareness includes knowledge of one’s own study habits, past

achievements and personal beliefs as well as the ability to recognize

one’s anxiety and motivational problems that may arise during test.

(Hong, Sas,& Sas (2006) see actual test-taking strategies relating to

remembering the materials covered in class or textbooks, checking

answers for mistakes, identifying and eliminating wrong answers using

memory aids, identifying item difficulty and assessing and allocating

testing time. This implies that effective study habits based on pervious

achievement and expectation for success can improve school

achievement through effort management.

c. Effort Management: This is the students’ ability to control their effort

and avoid and reduce distractions when studying. It is measured by

items such as “I sometimes delay starting to do my exercise, if the

exercise is difficult”. The students’ in secondary school in Nigeria are

daily confronted with challenges such as long work to school, poor

school environment, etc. This implies that effort management is essential

to school achievement.

d. Help-Seeking: Students’ help seeking behaviour used to be viewed

as signs of weakness related to lack of motivation, incompetence,

immaturity, or over-dependence on others. However, line researchers in

the 1990s began to view help-seeking as an indication of students’

31

desire and attempt to learn the best way they can (Newman & Schwage,

1995). In particular, they point out that students are more likely to seek

help when they are meta- cognitively aware regarding a given task. Thus

seeking help from teachers, parents and peers is no longer seen as a

negative behavior, but rather as part of positive learning processes.

Students in a class are being thought by a teacher with varying

intelligent quotient. This implies that the student do not learn at the same

rate. Individual differences do occur in learning situations. Slow learners

seek help to cope with fast learners because individual differences are

not considered in assessing achievement. Therefore, help seeking can

improve performance in school when proper attention is given to the

learners seeking help.

e. Note-taking Skills: These require students to concentrate during

lectures and coordinate multiple cognitive functions such as writing,

listening and reading (Kobayashi, 2006). Note-taking is not only an

effective learning strategy but is also the most common practice of

students’ engagement during class activities (Kobayashi, 2005). The

researcher is of the opinion that, note-taking is useful and necessary for

students learning. This is because students understand the content of

instruction when copying note.Some studentsread their note while

copying notes. This is in line with Faber, Morris and Lieberman (2000)

32

who stated that the benefits of note-taking have been linked to students

paying attention to lectures.

School Climate

School climate can be seen as organizational characteristics that

are persistent in and unique to a particular school. The term has been

used interchangeably with others such as school culture, school

atmosphere, school environment, learning environment and academic

climate (Hoy, &Hannum, 1997).Generally, school climates creates the

norms and values of the school, which then influence teaching and

learning programs and practices within a school. Four school climate

components can be identified, and they are principal leadership,

academic emphasis, teacher variable and social environmental

influences (Hoy & Hannum, 1997).

a. Principal’s Leadership: This can be seen as the principals’ ability to

influence the actions of the school community members, including

teachers, parents, students and state personnel (Hoy & Hannum;

1997). The researcher is of the opinion that principals play the role of

transformation in academic oriented school climate by creating school

33

tone. This is supported by Hoy and Hannum (1997) view when they

identify the characteristics of the principal to include provision of a

coherent vision for school programs, convey high yet attainable

expectations for both teachers and students, recognize student

accomplishments, and provide an orderly learning environment with a

clear set of discipline rules.

b. Academic Emphasis: This is the extent to which school communities

(ie, the relevant stakeholders) share a common goal of improving

students’ academic achievement (Hoy & Hannum, 1997; Hoy,

Sweetland,& Smith 2002). The researcher is of the opinion that teachers

should set high but reasonable goals for all students and put forth extra

time and effort with their students. This is supported by Hoy,

Sweetland,& Smith (2002) view when they stated that these schools with

a strong academic emphasis, academic emphasis becomes a priority in

students’ school life. In such environments students will tend to actively

and attentively participate in class, work hard on homework, respect

other students who have good grades and understand the

consequences of breaking school rules (Hoy, Sweetland,& Smith, 2002;

Mullis et al., 2003).

c. Teacher Variables: These include possessing high drive and self-

confidence (Heck et al., 1990), positive feelings such as trust,

34

collegiality, and intimacy are likely to be shared among teachers (Hoy et

al., 1990; Uline, Miller & Tschannen-Moran, 1998). Teachers’ non-

cognitive qualities such as persistence, commitment, and effort are

closely related to their level of motivation to make a real difference in

students live (Ware & Kitsantas, 2007). The researcher is of the opinion

that teachers with a strong sense of collective efficacy tend to expand

great effort to accommodate individual students’ need, have an

optimistic feeling when facing obstacles, and take personal responsibility

for student achievement. This is in line with Clark and Elen (2006) when

they stated that the teacher should take the role of facilitator who

provides the guidelines and creates the environment for learners to

arrive at his or her own conclusions, andshould be able to adapt the

learning experience in ‘midair’ by taking the initiative to steer the learning

experience to where the learners want to create value by designing the

classroom to support and challenge the learners thinking. Teachers’

collective efficacy refers to the extent to which teachers as a group share

their belief that they have the power and capability to help students

learn, to control instructional practices, and ultimately to make a

difference in student achievement (Bandura, 1997; Ware & Kitsantas,

2007).

35

d. Social-Environmental Variables: These include parental

involvement, the peers and other school climate variables. Some of the

parental involvement variable includes parents’ high reasonable

expectations and aspirations for their child (Fan & Chen, 2001). Parents’

involvement with their child’s school activities such as Parent Teacher

Association (PTA) participation, community involvement and volunteer

work (Keith, Raimers & Fehrmann. 1986), parent checking their child’s

homework, parental modeling and support of the child’s reading, as well

as providing a stimulating literacy and material environment (Snow,

Barnes, Chandler, Goodman, & Hemphill, 1991). The social-environment

related to peer is the perceived peer norms which can influence one’s

attitudes and beliefs in relation to school achievement, directly through

social reinforcement and observation (Ryan, 2001). Peer norms are

defined as the perceived and shared attitudes and beliefs among peers

in their groups in relation to school experiences and learning, and

specifically to academic achievement (Jihyun & Valerie, 2009). The other

school climate variables that could influence the school climate that

pertain to school functionality include having appropriate space and

sufficient desks, and books materials (Earthman 2002), extracurricular

activities, after-school programs and the availability of appropriate

tutoring programs (American Federation of teachers, 2001).

36

Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on the learning theories, the behaviorist

theory of learning and the constructivist theory of learning.

The Behaviourist Theory of Learning

The behavourist theory of learning was developed by B.F Skinner.

This holds three basic assumptions and they are:

(i) Learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.

(ii) The environment shapes behaviour.

(iii) The principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be

for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement are central to explaining

learning process.

There exists two theories of the behaviourism (classical

conditioning and operant conditioning). In this study of non-cognitive

correlates of student achievement in geography, the school climate

variables, (the principal leadership, teacher variables, school emphasis

and the social environment) are anchored on operant condition theory.

Operant refers to the way in which behaviour operates on the

environment. Learning in operant conditioning occurs were a proper

response is demonstrated following a stimuli. This means that learning

37

has taken place when there is observable positive change in the

behavour of the learner after instruction has been delivered. The

researcher opined that learning occurs as a result of the exposure of

students’ to learning experience not as a result of the influence of drugs

and alcohol. Hence, the maintenance of newly acquired behavour is an

important part of operant conditioning theory.

The school climate variables play significant roles in school

achievement through the organization and provision of conducive

learning environment (the school and home) which can foster retention.

The principal, teachers and parents provide motivation for their students

which in turn influence the student engagement with school activities.

Behaviour may result either in reinforcement, which increases the

likelihood of the behaviour recurring, or punishment, which decreases

the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. In response, our behaviour

and its consequences thus repeat acts followed by good results and

avoid acts followed by bad results.

Operant conditioning theory identifies the environment as an

important factor towards retention of instructional content. Geography is

seen as a difficult subject and students are scared of failure this lead to

low enrolment, the research opined that the principal, teachers, and

stakeholders in education should create a stimulating learning

38

environment that will be motivating for better retention of instructional

contents.

Constructivism Theory of Learning

Constructivism built on the work of Piaget and Brunner.

Constructivism emphasizes the importance of active involvement of

learners in constructing knowledge for themselves.The student

engagement is the behavourial, cognitive, and emotional involvement of

student with their learning activities. It includes attendance, following

school roles, homework participation, etc. This implies initiation of

discussion with the teacher and peers, involvement of questioning and

answers during lessonwhich will clarify many points in the contents

under discussion.This will improve retention of content being taught.

Geography as a subject needs active participation during lesson in map

work, regional geography of Nigeria, West Africa and Africa. This is

because map sketch cannot be learned by memorization, rather by

participation during lesson.

Learning strategies involve the skills and effort ensuring maximum,

understanding of school content (curriculum). This means that the more

the students understand what to do and how to do it (learning

39

strategies), the more their retention ability is improved. It is therefore

important for the teachers to make school experiences both contextual

and meaningful. This is because good learning strategies will better the

performance of students.

Constructivism explains why students do not learn deeply by

listening to a teacher, or reading from a text book. They view learning as

a process in which the learner actively constructs or build new idea or

concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. The

student engagement and the behavioural learning strategies variables of

the non-cognitive is in line with the attributes of the constructivism such

as the active learning (student engagement) discovering learning and

knowledge building (behavioural learning strategies). In the student

engagement and learning strategies variables of the non-cognitive, the

teacher serves as a facilitator who encourages students to discover

principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve

realistic problems.

Constructivism theory gives an insight to recognize the role of

interest, personality, self-concept, academic self-concept in student

performance. These variables are determinant of student engagement

with their learning activities.

40

B. REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Alexander, Entwisle and Dauber (1993) presented their view on

First-grade classroom behavior, its short and long-term consequences

for school performance. A total of 790 students from Wave I of the

National Survey of Children Project were used for the research. They

used a survey design. The population of the study comprised the first

grade students. The aspect of the student engagement dimension that

was measured involved the behavioral and emotional aspects of

engagement and including restlessness and interest. Two instruments

were used for data collection, rating scale and California Achievement

Test of reading (CAT-M) and mathematics (CAT-M). ANCOVA

(Analysis of Covariates) was used for the data analysis. The adjusted

R2=0.46 for reading and the adjusted R2= 0.56 for mathematics. The

study showed that the First- graders’ academic engagement

behaviours predicted their academic achievement 3 years later (at

grade 4). From the findings, it was suggested that there is a lasting

association between students’ behaviours and their academic

achievement. The researchers did not take cognizance of the cognitive

motivational engagement. From their findings, it is seen that interest

plays an important role in student engagement and if the interests of

41

the student are arouse in studying geography, there will be a better

performance in geography.

Another longitudinal study (Fincham,Hokada & Sanders, 1989)

was conducted on learned helplessness, test anxiety and academic

achievement. They used a survey design. The population of the study

comprises the Grade 3 students in Colorado. Simple random sampling

was used to sample108 students. Students’ academic achievement

wasmeasured by Standard Achievement Test. Student self-report and

teacher rating were employed to measure students’ academic

engagement. Multiple linear regression was used for data analysis with β

(reading = -0.41, mathematics = -0.32, ability effort = 0.30). The finding

showed that students who learnt helplessness at grade 3 showed

significant, negative path coefficient for reading and mathematics. In

addition, teacher’s rating on ability effort showed a positive path

coefficient with reading score at grade 5 while controlling for the student

grade 3 achievement score. This shows that students’ help seeking is

not a sign of weakness rather an attempt to improve learning. Hence,

help seeking is learning strategy.The indicators of student engagement

used in this study were mainly cognitive aspects of engagement

(students’ attribution for success or failure, ability versus effort, preferred

challenging work over easier tasks, asked for help when necessary,

42

showed enthusiasm and persistence, and were proud when receiving

good grades).

Voelkl (1997) examined the relationship between academic

achievement and student engagement. The population of the study was

grade 4 white and African students in Miami. A random sampling

technique was used to sample 1,335 students. The design of the study

was survey design. The instruments for data collection

arecomprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) and student participation

questionnaire. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was

used for data analysis. The results from the study showed that students

CTBS at grade 4 were significantly related to the teachers rating of

student participation at grade 8 (r = 0.40 for white student, r = 0.43 for

Africa American students; p < 0.01). This association indicates that

academic achievement continues to relate to school engagement four

years later.

Noble, Davenport, Schiel & Pommerich (1999) carried out their

research on the relationship between the non-cognitive characteristics,

high school course Work and Grades, and Test scores for ACT-tested

students The population of the study was high school junior and senior

schools who registered ACT assessment either in April 1996 (n=

44,776) or October, 1996 (n = 404, 978). Two tested dates were use

43

because April ACT-tested students are typically juniors and October

ACT-tested students are typically seniors. A sample of 6000 students

was adopted for the two test dates. Stratified sampling technique

wasused to sample schools and for non-response. Only those schools

with at least 60 students were included in the sample. This comprised

approximately 50% of all the students that registered for the

examination date.

Four weeks after the ACT Assessment was administered, students

in the sample were sent a questionnaire (Non cognitive questionnaire

(NCQ) designed to collect information about their behavior and attitude

in non-cognitive areas. Two weeks after the initial mailing, post NCQ

were sent to non-respondents after four weeks .Of the original sample

5,489 students from 106 schools completed and returned the

questionnaire, for a response rate of 60%. The instruments for data

collection were taken from two sources, the ACT Assessment

component and a non-cognitive questionnaire. The internal consistency

reliability efficient of the instrument was 0.96. Step wise multiple

regression models were developed using SAS version 6.12 (Business

analysis and Business intelligence software). The researchers used

mean and standard deviation and linear multiple regression analysis for

data analysis. The result of the study are as follows of High school

GPA in 4 core areas r of High school GPA in 4 core areas (English =

44

0.56, mathematics =0.60, reading 0.05, science reasoning = 0.54,

unweighted =0.61), r of Education- related factors- need help (English

= 0.27, Mathematics = 0.26, Reading = 0.28, Science 0.24,unweighted

=0.29), r of Core courses taken-in geometry (English =0.35,

mathematics= 0.50 reading = 0.03, science =0.24, composite =

0.29);College preparation r

(English=0.27,mathematics=0.26,Reading=0.24,science=0.24,Unweigh

t=0.29) of Time with educational activities (English = 0.12 mathematic

= -, reading = 0.14, science = -,composite = 0.13) , r of Homework

activities (English = -, mathematics= -, Reading = 0.13, science = -,

composite = -); Parents level of education of

r(English=0.11,mathematics=0.13,reading=0.11,science = 0.08,

composite =0.13) andGeneral anxiety of r (English = -0.29

Mathematics = -0.26, Read = -0.31, Science = -0.30, composite = -

0.33). results of this study shows that there is strong positive

relationship with high school GPA in the four subjected tested, there is

a weak relationship with help seeking in the subjects tested, in time

management only English, reading and composite shows weak

relationship with ACT scores. Parental level of education showed

positive relationship with ACT.Generation of anxiety in the 5 subjects

showed negative relationship with the subjects. This implies that non-

cognitive skills can predict academic performance. In the data analysis,

45

the ACT score were not normalized in other to take control of the

various ages, location and ethnicity.

Oyesoji, Adeyinka and Adedeji (2010) investigated the relationship

among emotional intelligence, parental involvement and academic

achievement of secondary school students in Ibadan. The population of

the study consisted of in-school secondary school adolescents in

Ibadan. A sample of 500 (250males and 250 female) were drawn

through a randomized process from 10 senior secondary schools. The

design for the study is a survey design. The data for the study were

collected from two source student emotional intelligence and parental

involvement rating scale (SEIPRS) and student achievement test. The

SEIPRS internal consistency Cronbach alpha of 0.90 and 0.78 test-rest

reliability of the achievement after two weeks interval show that the

instruments are valid. The researchers used Pearson’s product

moment correlation coefficient statistics for data analysis. Similarly data

of prediction variables were analyzed using multiple regression

statistics will 0.05 margin of error. The results of the study of r = 0.318

between emotional intelligence and achievement, shows positive and

significance, r of 0.326 also exist between parent positive relationship

between emotional intelligence and academic achievement.

The researchers did not create way of adjustment for the variation

of the environmental factors that associated with the achievement

46

through standardizing the achievement eg. Location, age, etc. This

study has a positive relation with non-cognitive correlate of senior

secondary achievement. The emotional intelligence is as a result of

student active involvement with school activities and the parent

involvement is school climate variables which also influence the

student academic self-concept which are determinant to school

achievement.

Summary of Literature Review

As briefly discussed in the beginning, there is low performance and

low enrolment in geography.This study is meant to provide a direction

to ways of improving low enrolment and better performance in

geography achievement. It is desired to explore those aspects of non-

cognitive behaviours relevant to school achievement to predict

achievement in geography. The concept of non-cognitive and its

categories: student engagement, learning strategies, and school

climate were discussed.

The researcher observed that from student engagement, learning

strategies to school climate, the locus of control shifts from inside

influence to outside influence. Most of the student engagement

variables reside within student’s minds; the school teaches students

about particular learning strategy.It is ultimately for the students to

decide to or not to use the instructed learning strategy. Finally, school

47

climate variables are imposed from outside classroom into learning

process.

A lot of studies have shown that strong relationships exist

between student engagement, learning strategies, school climate and

students’ achievement in all levels of educational system. Lines

ofresearchers, integrate findings from some aspect of non-cognitive

and school achievement. One of the major findings is that of

Alexander, Entwisle and Dauber (1993) who found out that student

engagement predicts academic achievement three years later.

Therefore task questionnaire are designed to measure the student non-

cognitive behavior in relation to their achievement in geography and to

see if it is possible to predict geography achievement in senior

secondary certificate examination (SSCE).

48

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapteris discussed under the following sub-headings. The

design of study, Area of the study, Population of the study, Sample and

sampling technique instrumentation for data collection, Validity and

Reliability of the instrument, Administration of the instruments and

Method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The design adopted by the researcher in this study is a

correlational survey design. This study will investigate the non-cognitive

correlates of senior secondary school achievement in geography. The

reason for using correlational design is because thestudy tries to

establish the relationship between the dependent and the independent

variables.

Area of theStudy

This study was carried out in Ika educational zone of Delta state. It

covered both private and government secondary schools. This

educational zone is made up of two local governments, Ika-North east

and Ika south. The choice of Ika educational zone for this study is borne

out of the fact that the researcher is familiar with the area.

49

Population of the Study

The population of study comprised all senior secondary two (SS2)

students in Ika educational zone. This is because the SS2 students

have covered more of the content in senior secondary

syllabus/curriculum and the SS3 students were writing SSCE whom may

not be available at the time of data collection.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

The sample size for the study was 400 senior secondary two (SS2)

geography students. This number of students was drawn from twenty

(20) schools in Ika Educational Zone. A simple random sampling

technique was used to select twelve (12) schools from Ika-north east

local government area out of thirty-nine (39) secondary schools, and

Eight (8) secondary schools out of twenty-five (25) schools in Ika-south

local government.

The researcher used purposive sampling technique to sample

twenty (20) students from each sampled schools. This is because not all

the students in SS2 offer geography; hence those that are offering

geography were sampled.

50

Instruments for Data Collection

Data for this study were taken from two sources, the School

Geography Assessment Scores (SGAS) and a Non-Cognitive

Questionnaire (NCQ). The School geography assessment score is a

comprehensive evaluative and placement result used by secondary

school and Delta State Ministry of Education for promotion of students to

next class. The researcher developed the Non-cognitive questionnaire

(NCQ). This NCQ consist of fifty-one (51) items used to collect

information on non-cognitive behaviours. The non-cognitive ability

comprised the student engagement, students learning strategies

(behavioural learning strategies) and the school climate. The NCQ is

divided into section A, B, C, and D. The section A contained the

background information on the respondent. The section B contained

information on the student engagement. It comprised 13 items. The

section C dealt on information on the learning strategies (behavioural), it

comprised 15 items. Section D contained information on the school

climate.It comprised 13-items. The NCQ is a 4 point Likert-type scale of

Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree.

Validation of Instrument

The instruments were subjected to face validation by experts in the

field of measurement and evaluation and educational research and their

51

corrections and suggestions helped in modifying the items to suit the

purpose of the study.

The researcher trial-testedthe NCQ .He administered 20 copies of

the NCQ to the population outside the study area. The researcher

usedfactor analysis to validate the instrument based on the data

collected (construct validity).A three component Matrixfactor was used to

select the items. Out of the 51 original items 41 survived while 10 items

did not survive. The researcher used Schuster and Milland (1978) factor

loading of 0.3 as the bench mark of acceptance and rejection. Items with

factor loading of 0.3 and above were chosen and items with less than

0.3 and those that are factorial complex were drop. As such the

researcher used the 41 items that survived the factor analysis (see

Appendix II)

Reliability of the Instrument

The data obtained from the trial testing of NCQ were used to

determine the internal consistency reliability coefficient of the instrument

(NCQ). Cronbach’s alpha was used and the data were analyzed using

SPSS. The 41- items that survived the construct validation were

analyzed and its coefficient of 0.826 shows that the instrument is reliable

(see Appendix 1).

52

Method ofData Collection

The researcher administered the questionnaire copies to the

students and collected them after the students had responded to the

items. The researcher also collected the students’ achievement scores

of their previous cumulative score in SSI in geography from their school

records. The raw scores were converted to standard scores for further

analysis through normalization. This enabled the researcher to compare

the students’ scores from different schools, age and location.

Method of Data Analysis

The standardized score of the geography achievement and non-

cognitive response were collected and analyzed using Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS).

However, Pearson’s product movement correlation and multiple

linear regression analysis were used. Pearson’s product movement

correlation was used to answer the research questions. Multiple linear

analysis was used to test each of the hypotheses at .05 level

significance.

53

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

This chapter deals with analysis of data collected. The data were

presented in line with the research questions and hypotheses formulated

to guide this study. The researcher used Pearson’s product moment

correlation in answering the research questions for this study. Also, the

three hypotheses were tested using multiple linear regression analysis.

The researcher use SPSS version 16.0 to carry out the data analysis

operations. The hypotheses were tested at .05 level of significance.

Research Question 1

To what extent does student engagement relate with their

achievement in geography?

Student engagement variables comprises of the behavioral

engagement, cognitive motivational engagement and continuous

engagement. The researcher used Pearson product moment correlation

to answer the research question as shown in table 1 below

54

Table 1: Pearson’s correlation coefficient between student engagement

variable and achievement in geography

Table 1 indicates that positive relationship exists between student

engagement variable and achievement in geography. It also shows a

low correlation with coefficient (r) = 0.155.

Research Question 2

To what extend does learning strategies relate with students’

achievement in geography?

Score Overall

Score Pearson

correlation

sig. (2-tailed)

N

1 0.155

.002

400

Overall Pearson

correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

0.155

0.002

400

1

400

55

The learning strategies of time management, test taking strategies, help

seeking and effort management.

The researcher used Pearson product moment correlation to answer the

research question as shown in table 2 below

Table 2: Pearson’s correlation coefficient of relationship between

learning strategies and achievement in geography

Correlation

Score Overall

Score Pearson correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1 0.012

0.809

400

Overall Pearson correlation

Sig.(2-tailed)

N

0.012

0.809

400

1

400

56

Table 2 indicates that positive relationship exists between learning

strategies and achievement in geography. It also shows a very low

correlation with coefficient (r) = 0.012.

Research question 3

To what extent does school climate predict achievement in

geography?

School climate variable comprises principal’s leadership, teacher’s

variable, academic emphasis and social environment. The researcher

used Pearson product moment correlation to answer the research

question as shown in table 3below

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Table 3: Pearson’sCorrelation coefficient of relationship between school

climate and achievement in geography

Score Overall

Score Pearson correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

400

0.043

0.389

400

Overall Pearson correlation

Sig.(2-tailed)

N

0.043

0.389

400

1

400

Table 3 indicates that positive relationship exists between school climate

and achievement in geography. It also shows a very low correlation with

a coefficient (r) = 0.043.

Hypotheses 1

Student engagement variables do not significantly predict their

achievement in geography.

The researcher tested the hypothesis with multiple linear analysis as

shown in tabe 4 below

Table 4a and b,

58

Multiple linear analysisof Student engagement and achievement in geography.

Model

R.

R. square Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

1 0.517a 0.267 0.167 6.60008

a. Predictor. (constant) Emotional Engagement, Behavioural Engagement,

Cognitive Motivational Engagement. From table 4a above, R square of 0.267

shows that about 27 percent of students achievement can be attributed to

student engagement with learning activities.

ANOVA b

Sum of

squares

df Mean

square

F Sig

1. Regression

Residual

Total

349.042

958.343

1307.385

3

22

25

116.347

43.561

2.621 0.073a

a. Predictors: (constant), Emotional, Behavoural, Cognitive

b. Dependent variable: score

From Table 4b,F ratio of 2.621, and sig. of 0.073a at 0.05 level of

significanceshows that the relationship is not significant. Hence, Ho is

accepted.Studentengagement does not significantly predict achievement

in geography.

59

Hypotheses II

Learning strategies do not significantly predict students’

achievement in geography.

The researcher tested the hypothesis with multiple linear analysis at.05

as shown in table 5 below

Table 5a and b,

Multiple linear analysis of learning strategies and achievement in

geography.

a. Model summary

Mode R R. Square Adjusted R

square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

1 0.165a 0.027 0.015 9.89866

a. Predictors: (constant), Note taking, Help seeking,Time management,

Effort management, Test taken strategies. From table 5a above, the

R square of 0.027 shows that about 3 percent of the students

achievement can be attributed to learning strategies.

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ANOVA b

Model Sum of

squares

df Mean

Square

F Sig.

1 Regression

Residual

Total

1085.944

38605.494

39691.437

5

394

399

217.189

97.983

2.621 0.052a

a. Predictors (constant), Help seeking, Time management, Effort

management, Test taking strategies.

From table 5b above F ratio of 2.621 and sig. 0.029a at 0.05 level of

significance, it shows that the relationship is not significance. Hence,

Ho is accepted “learning strategies do no significantly predict student

achievement in geography”.

Hypothesis 3

School climate variables do not significantly predict achievement in

geography.

The researcher tested the hypothesis with multiple linear analysis at

.05 level of significance as shown in table 6 below

61

Table 6a and b

Multiple linear analysis of school climate and achievement in

geography.

Model summary

Model R R

square

Adjusted

R square

Std.Error

of the

estimate

1 0.104a 0.011 .001 9.97036

a. Predictors: (constant) Social environment, Academic emphasis,

Princip