Old Testament Exegesis

SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE Resources for Biblical Study

Edited by

Marvin A. Sweeney

N u m b e r 39

O L D T E S T A M E N T E X E G E S I S A Guide to the Methodology

by Odil Hannes Steck

t r ans la ted b y

James D. Nogalski

OLD TESTAMENT EXEGESIS

A Guide to the Methodology

by

Odil Hannes Steck

translated by

James D. Nogalski

S C H O L A R S P R E S S Adanta, Georgia

OLD TESTAMENT EXEGESIS A Guide to the Methodology

Second Edition

Copyright © 1998 by the Society of Biblical Literature

All rights reserved. No part of this work may bo reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by means of any Information storage or retrieval System, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or i n wr i t ing from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed i n wr i t ing to the Rights and Permissions Office, Scholars Press, P.O. Box 15399, Atlanta, GA 30333-0399, USA.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Steck, Odil Hannes. [Exegesis des Alten Testaments. English] Old Testament exegesis : a guide to the methodology / by Odil

Hannes Steck ; translated by James D. Nogalski. — 2nd ed. p. cm. — (Resources for biblical study ; ao. 39)

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-7885-0465-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Bible. O.T.—Oiticism, Interpretation, etc.—Methodology.

I . Title. I I . Series. BS1174.2.B3713 1998 221.6Ό1—dc21 98-2095S

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

1 he growing precision of cur understanding should enhance, and not diminish our sense of wonder.

Alfred Brendel, pianist

Contents

ί

Prefaie ta the English Edition xiii Preface xv Eoravord to the 12th Edition xix Translators Preface xxiii

PART O N E : I N T R O D U C T T O N 1

§1 Foundation and Overview 3 A. The Task of Old Testament Exegesis 3 13. Imagination and Methodological Direcfion during Exegetical Work 5

I . The Value and Limits of Methodological Direction 5 I I . The Employment of Fantasy and Imagination 6 ΠΙ. Results 14

C. Overview of die Methods of Old Testament Exegesis 14 .1. The Stock of Methods 14 TL Grouping the Methods 15 I I I . lnterdcpendenee of the Methods 17 TVT Characterizing the Individua! Methods 18 V Coneerning the Question of the Expansion of the Stock

of Methods 20

§2 General Bibliograph)7 for Exegetical Work 24

PART TVYO: T H E M E T H O D S 37

§3 Text Criticism 39 A. The Task 39

víii Contents

Β. Commentary on the Approach and the Method 40 I . Relationship to Literary Criticism 40 Π. The Procedural Steps 41 ĪIĪ. Prineiples for the Text Critieal Decision 42 ĪVT Summary of the Text Crnica) Procedure 44

C. Results 44 Ü. Literature 45

§4 Literary Criticism 47 A. The Task 47

I . The Overarching Question of the Development of an Oki 'lèstamcnt 'lest 47

I L Determining the Task of Literary Criticism 51 I I I . Terminolog)- — 53

B. Commentary on the Approach and Method 53 I . The Question of a Text's Literary Tnregrity 53 I I . Methodological Prineiples for the Question of a Text's

Literary lntcgrity 54 I I I . The Question of Larger Literary Contexts 57 I V Summary of the Literary Critical Procedure 58

C. Results 59 D. Literature 60

§5 The Transmission 1 lístorical Approach 63 A. The Task 63

I . Determination 63 I I . Terminolog) 64

B. Commentary on the Approach and the Method 65 I . Rclationsliip to Literary Criticism 65 I I . Transmission TIistoric.il Processes 66 ΙΠ. Methodological Questions for the Analytieal Process 68 I V The Synthetic Process 69 V Applications for the Transmission Historical Approach 69 V I . Summary of the Procedure of Transmission History 70

C. Results 71 I . Jnsigln into the Origin and Changes of a Transmission Uni t

within Oral Tradition 71 I I . Transmission I listory as AcruaJizing Procedure 71 I I I . Transmission History as the History of the Religion and Faith

of fsrael 71 TV Access to Historical and Religio-Historical Data 72

D. Literature 72

Contents ix

§6 Redaction Historical Approach 75 A. The Task 79 B. Commentary on the Approach and .Method 80

I . Relationship to Literary Criticism 80 I I . Redaction Historical Processen 81 I I I . Summary of the Redaction Historical Procedure 89

C. Results 92 I . Insight into the Changes of a Text in Written Tradition 92 I I . Redaction History as Actualizing Procedure 92 I I I . Redaction History as the History of Israel's Faith 92

D. Literature 92

§7 Form Critical Approach 95 A. The Task 95

I . The Overarching Question of the Presuppositions of a Text or Its Stages 95

I I . Starting Point 96 I I I . Determination 100 TV. Terminolog}' 101

Β. Commentary on the Approach and Method 102 I . Constituent Questions 102 I I . Concerning the Question of the Linguistic Shape 103

Summary of the Procedural Steps 105 I I I . Determining the Gerne 106 I V The Question of the Genre l l i s tory 109

Summary of the Steps 109 V Regarding the Question of the Life Setting 110

Summary of the Steps 114 V I . Area of Usage 11 5

C. Results 115 I . Result of the Question of ihe Linguistic Shaping and

the Determination of Genre 115 I I . Results of the Question of the Genre History 116 I I I . Results of the Question of the Life Setting 116

D. Literature 117

§8 Tradition Historical Approach 121 A. The Task 121

I . Starting Point 121 I I . Determination 123 I I I . Terminolog)' 124

χ

Β. Commentary on the Approach and Method 125 I . Differentiation from the Transmission Historical Approach 125 I I . Areas of Tradition Historical Inquiry 125 I I I . Recognizing Ftxed Contents 128

IV. The Concept History Approach 129 V. The Tradition Historical Approach as Historical Process 133 V I . The Tradition Historical Approach and the History of Motifs 134 V I I . Steps of the Tradition Historical lnvestigation of a Text 135

C. Results 140 I . Comprehending the Text's Profile 140 Π. Tnsight into Connections 140

D. Literature 141

§9 Determining the Historical Setting 143 A. The Task " 143 B. Commentary on the Approach and Method 143

I . Daring a Text 143 I I . The Contemporary History and Social Environment

of a 'lèxt 144 I I I . Identifying the Externa! Reaüties Mentioned in the Text 145 TV Determining Author and Addressee 146 V Concerning Materialistic Historical Interpretation

of Old Testament Texts 147 V I . Overview of the Approach to the I listorical Setting 148

C. Results 149 D. Literature 149

PART T I TREF: PURPOSE 151

§10 Interpretation as Determination of the Text's Historical Meaning 153 A. The Task 153 B. Relationship to the Methodological Approaches 156 C. Commentary on the Exemtion 158

I . Interpreting die Text in Its Own Formative Arena 158 I I . Interpreting the Text in Its Old Testament Development 163

D. Considering the Text's Historical Meaning in Light of the Present 166

E. Suggestion for Proceeding with the Acquisitum and Presentetion 167

Ε Translation of the Text 168 G. Literature 169

Contents xí

PART FOUR: I L L U S T R A T I O N 171

§11 The Exegetical Process Using Gen 28; 10-22 as Example 173 A. First Provisional Translation of the llebrew Text 173 B. Observations 174

I . Concept of the Text as Component of Today's World 174 I I . Concept of the Text as a Component of Its Historical World 175

C. Methodologically Directed Procedurcs 182 I . Text Criticism 183 I I . The Question of die Text's Development 183 I I I . The Question of the Presuppositions of the Stages

of Gen 28:10-22 193 D. Interpreting the Historically Deteraiined Meaning of Gen 28:10-22

in Its Various Stages of Growth 199 I . The Individua! Transmission Stages 199 I I . The Old Testament Development 201 TIT. Considering the Text's Movement of Meaning in Light

of Our Presem Time 201

Appendix: Literat/m Ulustrating the Exegetical Treatment of a Text 202

Preface to the English Edition

T h i s guide to the methodology o f O l d Testament exegesis has been used i n the German speaking w o r l d for 25 years. I n 1989 (for the 12th edi t ion) , i t was thoroughly revised and expanded. T h e 13th edi t ion f rom 1993 is now pre-sented i n Engl ish translation. T h i s book is not an in t rodue t ion to self-study, bn t presumes an academic setting (advanced seminar, etc.) i n wh ich the pr ine i ­ples o f this methodology can be i lhistrated to the student. Examples i l lus -t ra t ing the various points o f the methodology ean he found in the footnotes o f this workbook.

Changes have been undertaken for the benefit o f English readers regard-ing the bibliographic references in the German edi t ion. W h e r e translations o f G e r m a n works exist i n Engl ish , these are ment ioned (even i f they are not translations o f the most recent edi t ion o f that work) . I n addition, more recent publieations t reat ing eertain subjeets have been added to the Engl ish version o f this guide.

VVith the aid o f scientific exegesis, this manual shows one how to ap­proach the historical meaning o f O l d Testament texts dur ing the period o f their produetive format ion . T h i s meaning is the original meaning o f an O l d Testa­ment text w i t h i n the transmission realm o f the O l d Testament. T h i s mean­i n g must be proeessed because i t is the foundational meaning. T h i s mean­i n g is consti tutive i o r the to rmula t ion and the context o f an O l d Testament text. For this reason, this w o r k b o o k places particular emphasis upon two as-peets: (1) His tor ica l exegesis must proceed from the existing text and the final context rather than from diachronic hypotheses. (2) T h e complex i ly o f the O l d Testament, i n its existing fo rm, however, forces one to diachronic exegesis. I t does so because the o r ig in o f the fo rmula t ion (!) can on ly be understood as arising i n a particular t ime i n Aneient Israel. T h e procedures o f §6 and §10

xiv Preface to the Engl ish E d i t i o n

demonstrate that exegetically historical w o r k must u l t imate ly arrive at the shape o f the text and the context as i t exists in the O l d Testament.

T h e subject o f this guide is no t the applieation o f O l d Testament texts or alternative, methods for understanding the O l d Testament. These alternative methods include reader response cr i t ic ism, deconstruction, feininist, mater ial-ist, and psychological approaches (seeJ.Ch. E x u m and D.J.A. Clines, eds. T h e N e w L i t e r a ry Cr i t i c i sm and the Hebrew Bible , JSOT.S 143, Sheffield, 1993; and below, p. - ) . T h i s guide concentrates on historical exegetical methods.

I wish to thank die translator, Prof. Dr . James Nogalski , and ali those who have helped h i m for their concerted efforts in maMng this guide accessible to the Engl ish speaking w o r l d . Special men t ion should be made for the help o f Prof. Drs . Pamela J. Scalise and M a r k Ε . Seifrid, as wel l as R u t h Funk, Peter Schwagmeier, and Konrad Schmid, who compared drafts o f this manuscript w i t h the German. Finally, the O l d Testament C o l l o q u i u m o f T h e Southern Baptist Theological Seminary and Prof. D r . Steven Tuel l read the Engl i sh translation and offered helpfu] correetions and insights at kcy juncturcs.

I n addit ion, I wish to thank the .Society o f Bibl ical L i te ra ture , Scholars Press, and Neukirchener Verlag for helping to make this translation possible. Finally, 1 wish to ment ion Prof. Dr . M a r v i n Sweeney for his careful reading as editor o f the series Reources for Bibl ical Study.

Z ü r i c h , M a y 1995 Odil Hannes Steck

Preface

Dcar Reader, You should work w i t h this book. Perhaps you have already thumbcd

througl) i t , and glanced th rough port ions. The first I m p r e s s i o n was probably: it's all so complicated, so diff icul t . D o n ' t worry . T l i i s book w i l l not confuse \ r ou, but w i l l help to clarify your thoughts.

I can picture the S i tuat ion. A short text lies before y o u f ron i the O l d Testament—in Hebrew. You must exegete i t . You desire to comprehend this text, but how should you proceed? I n the grasp o f this text, do we say what we want to hear, or does it teil us what we should hear? One must ask the ques­t ion self-criticaUy, because an a n d e r n text cannot defend itself. Tt has l ong outl ived its author who could protect i t . I t needs your help. T h i s book can ac-company you as you become an attorney, mediator, and defender o f the text, i n order that i t can speak it? message, and come to life for us. W h a t is necessary for t l i is task?

Understanding the words presumes knowledge. T h i s is certainly the case among l i v i n g people, but even more so for an a n d e r n text. T h i s book wou ld like to showyou how one acquires such knowledge. T h e historical too l , devel-oped over generations, w i l l be delivered to you as precisely and exactly as we use i t today. Its service to you , and to die text, is to find the knowledge neces­sary for understanding, by means o f the clarification o f very simple questions.

Your text has been variously transmitted in the ancient manuscripts. H o w did i t read originallv? §3 o f this book w i l l help you w i t h this question.

Copyr ights did not yet exist in antiquity. Even in a short text, Statements from various times can stand next to one another. T h a t is no deficiency. I t is the richness of an ancient text. To take die text seriously means to distinguish the Statements in the text, to separate that wh ich was once separated, and also to l isten separately to each o f the voices in the text f rom various times as port ions o f various l i te rary works o f the O l d Testament to w h i c h they once belonged. But one may not forget die re tu rn t r ip , tfie t r i p f rom the Separation

xvi Preface

back again to the uni ty, to the harmony o f the voices in the text as i t Stands before us. T h a t is the path by wh ich G o d has been manifested in the course o f the text's development. § § 4 - 6 w i l l teach you how to distinguish various b i b l i ­cal witnesses in your text; to hear them separately; and then to hear them again together.

Bu t now on to the goal o f understanding, what is i t that these voices want to sav?

W h o c v e r speaks prudently, formulates precisely. Therefore, understand­i n g p r imar i ly means to listen to the language; to pereeive how something is said—and how i t is not said. I f your text is fo rmcd according to a c o m m o n pattern, then i t provides insight in to what i t wants to say, l ike b i r t h announce-ments and menus i n our t ime. §7 seeks to prepare the way tor the question o f the l inguist ic shape o f your text.

A text intends much more than just what is there. W h e n contempo-raries wilh the same level o f knowledge interchange l inguist ically, they can also understand one anodicr th rough allusions, associations, and connotations. W e are not contemporaries w i t h ancient Israel. W e must inqui re in to those things connected w i t h a text which are left unspoken. §8 formulates the ques­t i on o f the text's intel lectual connotations. §9 treats the question o f the ex­pressed, his tor icalh r concrete associations from the t ime o f fo rmula t ion , i n -c luding the date, author, and the addressee o f your text.

These are simple, necessary questions. T h e y help partially clarify how one can experience what the text has to sav, and how i t l ived du r ing the t ime when i t was formulated and transmitted i n Anc ien t Israel. T h e goal and culminat ion o f ali exegesis is to determine and to t rače the contents o f the text's Statements in order to become its attorney, as far as diose o f us from a later t ime are able to do. §10 w i l l make i t easier for you to reach this goal.

T h e questions are simple, even though the path to elucidation in this book is not quite as simple hecausc o f the great ant iqui ty o f the texts, the manncr o f thc i r transmission, and the foreign, unfamil iar w o r l d wh ich one encounters dierein. T h i s diff iculty is also related to die current status o f die tool wh ich we must lay before you in all its refinement and precision. Anyone standing at the beginning o f one's study does not master i t in the in i t i a l encounter. However, when using this book, one can concentrate on that wh ich is most impor tan t in every section. Teaching sessions, par t icular ly i n t r o d u c t o r y exegesis courses, w i l l help you concentrate on that w h i c h is most impor tant . T h e y w i l l also help you to g row w i t h this book. I t is so w r i t t e n that even at the end o f one's study (in exams, master's work, or even doctoral work ) , i t can sti l l servc as an o r i en -ta t ion and as Stimulation in the methodological questions o f O l d Testament exegesis. Last but not least, please remember that this book has all types o f O l d Testament texts in view, but no t every text asks all o f the questions expl i -cated i n this book.

Even the p r i n t type o f this workbook w i l l mee tyou half-way, i n order that you can find your way through the whole th ing . As von w i l l see, one must dif-

Preface xvii

ferentiate between the larger (serif) and the smaller (sans ser i f ) p r in t . As y o u know, even the "small p r i n t " is important , bu t i n our case secondary, namely to be used for closer scrutiny, for exphcation and different iat ion. T h e shaded sidebars are a second help. They einphasige i n p r i n t the concrete procedural directions for the individual methods.

I n exegetical w o r k w i t h t l i is book I wish y o u joy, courage, concentrat ion, and th rough i t all , the discovery o f how rieh a bibl ical text is, and how rieh i t can st i l l make us.

Foreword to the i2th Edition

Λ decade lies between the 8di edi t ion o f this book, which Hermann Barth and I undertook, and the current ly revised 12th edi t ion . A revision has thus become necessary in l i gh t o f the l i terature references alone. A t the same t ime one must consider numerous changes in the specific development o f the dis-cussion, at least br ief ly and selectively. Greater engagement and expansions have been undertaken in § 1 , i n order to facilitate cn t ry and or ienta t ion, and in §6 , i n order to proper ly convey the blossoming o f the redaction-historical questions in recent years. Kurther, there is an in t roduct ion to the inter-related methodological steps o f § § 4 - 6 and § § 7 - 9 respeetively. Finally, the f o r m u -lat ion o f conerete procedural direetions for the individual methods should faciJitate the practical u t i l iza t ion o f the workbook . A number o f places have been shortened in order to keep the siže and cost o f a student book man-ageable. Above al i , extensive dialogue w i d i other methodological positions has been reduced. I t is sufficient i f our posit ion f rom the 8th ed i t ion is docu-mented.

T h e overall strueture and, to a large extent, even the t o rmu la t i on ot the workbook , have not been ehanged for the 12th edi t ion. Feedback f rom assis-tants and students indicates these elements have proven effective in practical terms to those who use the book. Reesons o f con t inu i ty i n the essential out-look enable this, and reasons o f cost require i t .

Dr . Hermann Barth asked me to undertake and to be responsible for the revision by myself. For some t ime, he has not been involved in academic edu-cation, bu t i n the pastorate. H e is now employed by the Evangelical Church o f Germany i n Hanover. W i t h a heavy heart ΐ now fol low his request to take his name o f f o f the t i t le page o f the workbook. I n con t inu ing thankfulness and afíì l iat ion 1 emphasize the extensive con t r ibu t ion which he provided in

XX Foreword to the 12th E d i t i o n

the preparation and f o r m a ü o n o f this book du r ing an extraordinari ly f ru i t fu l and pleasant collaboration. H i s cont r ibu t ion remains preserved directJy or i n -direct ly even in this new edi t ion.

T h e purpose of this workbook remains unehanged. I n this regard, what we said in the foreword o f the 8th edi t ion can only be repeated. The workbook, "now as before, proceeds f rom the supposition that the goal o f the discipline o f O l d Testament studies no t on ly ineludes the acquisition o f certain factual knowledge, but also ineludes the adopt ion o f exegetical methods for deter­m i n i n g the original meaning o f O l d Testament transmissions. O n l y thus can one achieve discemment w i t h the results o f research and Ins truc t ion in proce­dure which transcends nierc reception.

Therefore , as b e t ö r e , the workbook is conceived p r imar i lv for use by teacher and student as a Synopsis o f the individual methods: their denn i t ion , their procedural steps, and their significanec for the total his torical under­standing o f an O l d Testament text. T h i s is done wi thou t de t r iment to die books claim ot cont r ibu t ing to the preselit discussion o f method in O l d Testa­ment research. W i t h this decision about the purpose, the book docs not wish to be, indeed cannot be, an int roduet ion to sclf-study. Rather, i t is designed for use i n academic I n s t r u c t i o n . I t is related to , indeed dependent upon, the processes o f the demonstrat ion and u t i l i za t ion o f the methods wh ich take place there. I t w o u l d like to provide a w r i t t e n basis for this posi t ion.

For the moment , i f we disregard the workbook's approach and the adop­t i o n o f its perspectives concerning the purpose o f O l d Testament research, the f o l l o w i n g reasons present themselves for using the book d u r i n g one's coursc o f study and oceupational practice:

1. As a workbook, its p r imary funet ion lies in classroom sessions and the processes o f exegetical education. Specifically, i t is used to aecompany die Student in several areas: beginning exegesis courses and papers; demon-stra t ing and pract icing a transparent process i n exegetical lectures and Seminars; advanced seminar papers and exegesis papers in the discipline o f O l d Testament.

2. As for the purpose, we envision that using this book d u r i n g one's edu­cation w i l l aid the user in acquir ing basic exegetical capabilities. A m o n g diese capabilities, we inelude die m ä s t e n " o f die approaches and the padis toward Solutions wh ich are essential for exegetically de t e rmin ing mean­ing . Relatedly, the capabilities inelude the competency to detennine which results the specific methodological approach to the p rob lem produces when de te rmin ing exegetical meaning. Lea rn ing and pract ic ing these capabilities aids discemment when preparing O l d Testament texts exe­getically and when sif t ing th rough commentaries, etc.

3. I n the exegetical practice o f pastors and teachers o f re l ig ion , i t is i m p o r ­tant that onc master the basic capabilities acquired in one's study. T h i s

Foreword to the 12th E d i t i o n xxi

mastery protects one from undiscerning surrender to available secondary l i terature, and aids one in the critical use o f this l i terature. I t also enables one to pursue exegetical questions reasonably as they ariše in p r a c ü c e . Be­cause o f the preparation t ime available, the workbook i tself no longer serves, in its entiretv, as a guide in many theological vocations. Therefore, the basic capabilities acquired w i t h its help du r ing one's study become even more impor tan t . Natural ly , one can freely consult the workbook for Informat ion and as a reminder, even i n one's practice."

M y heartfelt thanks go to the Z ü r i c h assistants, D r . R . G . Kra tz and E. Bosshard, who bave allowed mc to learn f rom their teaching experiences w i t h the workbook, and who have aided me w i t h advice and deed in the re­vision. Heartfelt thanks also go to Dr . H . Barth, who provided me w i t h critical insights for the revision, and to Br ig i t ta Rotach, who helped me w i t h the edi-tor ia l work , and who , together w i t h students N i c o l e C h a r m i l l o t and M a r t i n Riwar, very conscientiously helped ine correet the galleys. I am no less grateful to M r s . R. Ftuik for all her care in t y p i n g the manuscript, and to Ne/t-kirehener Vertagter their detennined effort to produec a elcar and econotnical teaching book for students.

1 hope this book, even in its revised f o r m , aids the understanding and the awe o f the O l d testament. 1

Z ü r i c h , November 1988 Odil Hannes Steck

i The mono of the book is taken from A. Brendel. Musical Tbtmgbts miti Afttrtbmghts (Princeton Univcrsity Press. 1976), 37.

Translator s Preface to the English Version, second printing

Comments from students and colleagues who have ut i l ized this work in Engl ish underscore its usefulness and usability w i t h i n classroom settings. These comments have been overwhelmingly positive, attesting to the val idi ty o f a historical exegetical in t roduc t ion wh ich bo th defines the methodological components and teaches students how to ut i l ize them for themselves. M o r e -over, Steck's presentation illustrates how these components relate to one another, and many have expressed appreciation for this Integrat ion.

T h e feedback has also indicated that the scope o f this w o r k must be given due consideration w i t h i n the didactic process, as Professor Steck states. A d ­vanced students who have used this w o r k have commented that i t has helped them to put the pieces together. Rather than seeing die exegetical components as an eclectic assortment which only "specialists" o f the various components can "do," Steck's i n t roduc t ion illustrates for them how the perspective p ro -vided by each methodological lens adds dept i i to the whole.

T h e workbook, whi le concise in its format, contains more I n f o r m a t i o n than a beginning student can possibly absorb w i t h i n the confincs o f a typical course in t roduc ing the exegetical process. L e l t to ü i emse lve s , beginning stu­dents w i l l struggle to comprehend this work . Cer ta in measures can, however, help insure that beginning students benefit from the book at a level appro-priate to their present ski l l . Beg inn ing students should concentrate upon die larger (ser i f ) type and especially the summaries beside the shaded sidebars. Those teaching beginning students can help by in tegrat ing the book's presen­tat ion in to the class itself. Two approaches have worked wel l in t l i i s regard.

XXIV Translators Preface

T h e class can process Gen 28.10-22 since chapter 11 uses this text to i l lus -trate the method. Or, one can lead the class th rough the various methodo­logical observations in class as they relate to another text. Both approaches help beginning students comprehend the methods by i l lus t ra t ing them on a famil iär text.

T h i s second p r i n t i n g has corrected several typographical errors, and i n response to feedback, the entire book has been reformatted w i t h larger type to make i t more reader ffiendly.

Lombard , I L , 1998 James D. Nogalski

Part One

Introduction

Anyone s tudying theology because o f the desire to address the people and the questions o f our t ime may be puzzled when look ing at the syllabus o f an in t iOduc tory course on O l d Testament exegesis at the beginning o f die course and when considering the table o f Contents o f t l i is guide to die methodology. T h e direct ion o f the work on biblical texts runs backwards. T h e biblical texts are not brought ever nearcr to our present t ime i n their authoritative s ignif i -cance for a Christian's fai th, doctrine, and life. Instead, they are distanced fur­ther and further f rom today, and placed i n the Situation o f their o r ig in , wh ich lies well i n die past. D o diese two movements not cancel themselves out? N o — a necessary cormection exists between the two.

T h e goal o f all theological work is to b r ing the biblical w o r d o f G o d to life, and to give i t dynamic and relevant expression for humani ty today. T h e task o f all theological w o r k is to make sure, i n this process o f conveying tbe material, that the w o r d o f the bibl ical G o d remains that wh ich confronts and which speaks what humans by themselves do not always know or desire. W i t h i n the framework o f Chris t ian theology, Old Testament exegesis also has a conceni for de te rmin ing the goal and task in t roduced i n diis workbook.

Exegesis has a subservient, but at tbe same t ime an undeniable role. W r hy? T h e bibl ical w o r d o f G o d in d i e O l d Testament reeeived its fo rmula t ion i n a certain t ime and th rough human witnesses w i t h l inguis t ic and experiential horizons w h i c h are more than two thousand years older than ours. I i the for-mulations o f these ancient texts are to become understandable, then one must ask about their meanings when these formulations arose and when they ci rcu-lated inside the O l d Testament. Therefore, O l d Testament exegesis necessarily inquires in to the past for the original meaning o f the text. T h e inqu i ry o f O l d Testament exegesis in to the or iginal historical meaning has fundamental sig-nificance i f these ancient texts are to be protected f rom the caprice to w h i c h we o f today honorably, dishonorably, or unknowing ly subject them i n order to hear what we want to hear f rom them. I t also has fundamental signiheance i f

I N T R O D U C T I O N

the texts are to be allowed to speak their o w n message, i n contrast to ali later recipients. These Statements are true even though, for us today, the i nqu i ry is on ly a first step on the path o f conveying the w o r d o f G o d toward wh ich ali theological disciplines must work togedier responsibly. O u r workbook Stands w i t h i n this framework. I t sccks to introduce one consti tuent task o f die b i b l i ­cal speaking about G o d i n the present, but i t is a fundamental and indispensable approach. T h i s approach asks about the or ig inal meaning which maintains the oudook, character. and richness o f an O l d Testament text against any pat ron-iz ing treatment o f the biblical message d i rough a later message. A l i use o f the O l d Testament today, lo r theolog) and the ehureh, must be measured against diis approach. N o less so, die frequendymisused and painful reception his tory o f die O l d Testament dur ing two mi l lennia must be measured against i t .

One could object, especially i n the case o f the Bible, d ia t i t is p r i m a r i l y the reader who actively contributes to the meaning o f the text. T h e objeetion contains something valid, but at the satne t ime something dangerous. I t is undisputable that a reader produetively cooperates in the perception o f the text's dimensions o f meaning w h i c h cxceed the original author's i n t en t i on . Nevertheless, the meaning or ig inal ly given, par t icular ly w i t h bibl ical texts, must be proteeted over against reader associations about the text. i n order that a hermeneutically responsible reception remains on the text's path o f meaning, and does not allow the recipient to cont ro l the text. Should the his­torical association disappear, then so w o u l d the ou t look o f the biblical text for today, and i t would be fatally replaced by the subjeetive, a rbi t rary refleetions o f "the text i n me." Therefore, the principal task o f exegesis is to protect the text's oudook.

Foundation and Overview

A . T H E T A S K O F O L D T E S T A M E N T E X E G E S I S

O l d Testament exegesis is the endeavor to determine the historieal, sci­entific, and documentable meaning o f texts w h i c h have been t ransmit ted in the O l d Testament. Exegesis, therefore, confronts the task o f de te rmin ing the meaning and the in t en t ion o f Statements i n the encountered text. I t does so w i t h i n the text's historical sphere o f o r ig in , and in the differcnt phases o f its O l d Testament development, so that today the text manifests its historical eharacter.

Exegesis is a scientific procedure to the degree that its understanding o f a text is grounded exclusively upon knowledge and arguments whose appropri-ateness to die subject can be evaluated (approvingly or disapprovingly) by others, and whose rationale can be substantiated. Exegesis certainly does not maintain its scientific eharacter by o r ien t ing i tself to die experimental and em-pir ica l sciences, and by b inding itself to their ideal o f an ever more precise oh-jeetive knowledge. Exegesis wou ld then have to l i m i t i tself to the analysis and descript ion o f die l inguis t ic surface o f the texts. However, texts are a f ormal o u t g r o w t h o f life events yet they supersede that life l inguisrically. Therefore , by means o f a dynamic process, exegesis must understand texts as an event i n w h i c h die fo l lowing Clements lead to the cxisting l inguist ic expression, i n c l u d -i n g their "unspoken hor izon o f meaning," ( J I . - G . Gadamer 1 ) . T h i s process ineludes the historieal and social condit ions, intel lectual conccptions, experi-enees, irnpulses, the author's coneeptual purpose, and the eharacter of the

1 Qnoted literature will ojily be cited with an abbreviated title i f the complete bibliographi-cal reference can be taken trom the Literature section (D) of the current ehapter. or relatedly, in the case of literature on methodology, the introduction to the Old Testament, und thcology of the Old Testament (scetions H,G, and Ν in ehapter iwo).

§1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

addressee. Exegesis can be evaluated against its subject matter on ly i f i t can provide an intersubjectivcly groundcd account o f the historical life which terminates l inguist ically i n the text. Scientific exegesis does not , therefore, consider the text as a defenseless object wh ich submits itself to the superior grasp o f the scholar. Rather, i t considers die text as a l i v i n g ent i ty w l i i c h ap-pears in relationship to life. T h e fundamental attitudes o f scientific exegesis are therefore at tent ion, the rcadiness to learn, the capacity to encounter, and the recogni t ion o f l imi t s in relationship to the text as something other, or something foreign. 2

To the extent that scientific exegesis relates to the historical determinat ion o f the text's meaning, in the p e r i o d o f its produetive forma t i on , i t is l i m i t e d to de te rmin ing the or ig inal meaning inside the transmission realm o f the O l d Testament. As noted above, its direet ion of understanding is thereby dif-ferentiated f rom the event o f a modern bible reader's personally encountered understanding. T h e individual i ty and depth o f a bible readers understanding has been determined esscntially by expericnces o f the present. Scientific exe­gesis brings the text i tself i n to dircet relationship w i t h those expericnces. Scientific historical exegesis does not depreciate this direct ly applied under­standing, but is able to clarify and to enr ich i t th rough the manifestation o f the or iginal meaning o f the text: (1) by correct ing arbitrary, subjeetive ex-plo i ta t ion o f tbe text; (2) by indicat ing the central subject matter o f the text; and (3) by exposing the text's particular impulses wh ich the present needs. Scientific historical exegesis is thereby an attorney for the or iginal meaning o f the text, p rov id ing the fundamental con t r ibu t ion io r the clarification and enr ichment o l applied understanding. Natura l ly , applied understanding re-quires st i l l more extensive theological help. Clarifications o f meaning beyond O l d Testament exegesis are necessary to the extent that an O l d Testament text receives aspeets o f meaning which are expanded or modif ied th rough the witness o f the N e w Testament and th rough f 'ar-reachitig ehanges i n the ex-perience o f reality, These clarifications takc place in the theological realrns o f the New Testament, Church His tory , the history o f dogma, and the history o f theology. Also , they take place through dogmatic dieology, ethics, and practical theology, in relationship to the fo rm , validity, and Obl igat ion o f the expanded or modif ied meaning o f die text in the face o f the present experi-

• In addition. Kaiser, Exegtthvl MelhvtL 40f. says eorreelly: "Scholarsliip requires diat we give reasons lor our judgments and avoid uniounded assertions; diat we inake clear our depen-dence on the work oi olhers; that we specitv tiie degrce ol probability of our results; that we pre­sent unsettleil or presently iusoluble or ncwly arísun problems tor what thuv are and, it circuin-stances perniit, gire the reasons why we have not gone into thein or given answers/' In. light of exegesis performed both orally and in wrirten tomi, one should einphasige that in addition to the supporting argiimcnts ot an opinion, one should undeniably inelude a reasoned deliberarion that exehides possiblc alternatives, in ones srienrifie inter-siibjeetively interpreted rationale (the prin-eiple of the exclusion of the oppositc).

Imaginat ion and Mediodologica l D i r e c t u m D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k 5

ence o f reality. O n l y after these clarifications, i n wh ich theolog)' has its unde-niable task, can and should one t u r n back again to a higher plane. Specifically, one should be led by the content, d i rough theological responsibility. to an ap­plied understanding o f the text for today as the goal ot the total i ly. T h e n , no l imi ts are placed before the vision of b r ing ing the message o f the biblical text productively in to play for humani ty in the present rime, whether in the f o r m o f the tradit ional sermon, role plays, or bible dramas.

Also , scientific historical exegesis is always critical exegesis. Its execution necessarily ineludes crit ically recognizing one's owt i , or alien, presuppositions concerning the understanding o l the text (above all as they eome to l i gh t in Β 11 1). I t also ineludes the necessity o f recognizing any preconeeptions i m -posed by exegetical t radi t ion or by constellations f rom the history o f research, by wh ich everyone admit tedly remains influenced. Once recognized, cri t ical exegesis must cont ro l the preconeeptions by re ly ing upon the original mean­i n g o f die text. A t the same t ime, the crit ique is directed at the text itself. T h i s Statement does not mean arrogant cri t icism o f the text, rather i t means an a t t i -tude o f methodological doubt, which leads to a distinetive historical format ion of judgment on various pereeptions, approaches, and conclusions in the face o f a text 's eharacter. I t also interrogates the text's c la im o f t r u t h in its h i s to r i ­cal S i tuat ion.

B. I M A G I N A T I O N A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L D I R E C T I O N D U R I N G E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

I . T h e Value and L i m i t s o f Methodologica l D i r ec t i on

Scientifically established exegetical work is methodological ly transparent work . Nevcrtbeless, it is not exhausted by the correct application and evalu-ation o f the methodological Steps for a given text. T h e process o f de termining the historical meaning of the text in its life Situation is much more complex. Therefore , the value and l imi t s o f the methodological Steps must be more closely determined.

Anyone u t i l i z i n g methodological introduet ions must be conscious o f the factt lrat the individual methods derive f rom an arsenal ot elementary questions about the historical understanding o f a text. These questions were already mentioned i n the preface and inelude the fo l lowing : T h e transmission o f the text in the ancient manuscripts is not consistent; what is the original w o r d i n g (see §3)?; T h e O l d Testament wr i t ings have frequently g rown by means o f a protracted transniission process; how far do the oldest parameters reach, and what are later expansions and contexts (see § § 4 - 6 ) ? ; Every l inguis t ic ut ter-ance partieipates in the imellectual wor ld o f its audior; what patterns o f speech and coneepts does the text presuppose (see § § 7 - 8 ) ? ; In the same manner,

6 §1 F O U N D A T I O N . A N D O V E R V I E W

every text participates in the historical and socio-historical realities o f its rime; how can one determine the texts historical realm, inc lud ing that o f its author and addressees (see §9)? T h e methods wh ich are correspondingly elaborated (text c r i t ic i sm. l i terary cr i t ic i sm, the transmission-historical and redaction-historical approaches; the fo rm crit ical and t radi t ion historical approaches; and the determinat ion o f the historical setting) then constitute the development o f an intellectual path where these questions w i l l find answers. By its questions and by weigh ing observations and arguments, tbe description o f mediods pays at tent ion to insights and possibilities w h i c h have proven effective on many individual texts. I n its prehminary sketch, the description o f methods presup-poses images o f expectation and the anticipation o f results as suggested by the current State o f exegetical science. Bu t thcrein lies the problem o f methodo­logical exegetical work . U t i l i z i n g methods which depend upon the State o f re­search and which antieipate results must neither patronize the texts, nor allow the texts to provide answers only aecording to the manner o f the questions. The text does not have to subjugate i tself to the current State o f the descrip­

t ion o f methods. Rather, the ut i l iza t ion of the methods must remain steadfast to die data o f die text.

But what access does historical exegesis have to the data o f the text except die access o f questions, observations, and argumentat ion guided by the m e t h ­ods? Here , the exegete's imaginat ion plays a decisive role i n look ing at the se-lected text, by emplo\dng fantasy i n the desire to understand a text historically. T h i s fantasy is not obstrueted and not vet r i g id ly control led by methodolog i ­cal Instructions. O n the basis o f the original hermeneutical u n i t y berween the text and today's reader, one's fantasy and imagination must thereby move in two directions dur ing constant reading and reflection.

(One should first read and reflect upon the text in Engl ish . One should also read the Hebrew text, wh ich should be pre l iminar i ly processed and translated at die beginning of the exegetical work , w i d i the help o f a grainmar, dictionary, and i f need be, a concordance.)

O n (he one hand, the exegete envisions how die text offers itself as a compo­nent of today<V world, and on the other hand, the exegete envisions how the meaning and the setting o f the text i n its OĪVV historical context are manifested.

TL T h e F.mployment o f Fantasy and Imaginat ion

1. T h e Concept ion of the Text as a Component o f Today's W o r l d Before entering in to an understanding o f the text as a historical entity, the

exegete should employ fantasy and imaginat ion in order to imagine the text as a component o f today s w o r l d , and to grasp those impressions and effects wh ich the text m i g h t exert today on the exegete and on others (possiblc con-

Imaginat ion and Methodologica l D i r ec t i on D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k

versation partners, even for a sermon or lecture). These impressions and ef-fects influence any historical understanding today, p r imar i ly subconsciously, and they represent a hermeneutical un i ty bctween text and reader, which must certainly be regained in an applied understanding after the exegetical h i s to r i ­cal interpretat ion. E m p l o y i n g fantasv and imagination hclps to make one cog-nizant o f these impressions and effects. I t also helps to keep their influence active, but at the same t ime under cont ro l ,

A series o f simple questions can stimulate the power o f conceptualiza-t ion . T h e exegete poscs these questions to himsclf/herself and to others when specifically considering the text. These inelude:

• W h a t fcelings, reactions, and associations does the text call for th in me? (For example: innate/foreign; my t ex t /no t my text; i n v i t i n g / repulsive; happy/sad; i lhumnating/vague)

• W T hat does the text say to me that is new, and in w h i c h life Situation does i t address me?

• W h a t is impor tan t to me thematically, and i n view o f the Statements o f the text, to what do I not relate?

• W h a t do I recognize as familiär? • W h a t Stands out to me? • W T hat do I miss? • W h a t do I not understand? • W h a t disturbs me, or stimulates disagrecment? (For example, as a

"learned" Chris t ian , as a woman, as a man, as a democratic person to w h o m absolute royal power is a t h i n g o f the past, as a person who wants to find himself/herself, as an engaged ci t izen who intercedes o n behalf o f universal human rights, and who takes offence at tbe "eruelty" o f die O l d Testament.)

• W h a t dawns on me regarding specific Statements? • W h a t do 1 t h i n k about when reading? Given the desire to under­

stand, what do J draw upon tor comparison? • T o which people, i n wh ich life Situation, could I show the text as an

enr iching, i l l umina t ing w o r d o f God?

The answers to these questions will turn out very differenty for various exegetes be­cause, when fantasizing. these questions largely employ active and knowledgeable aware-ness of the present, life experience, knowledge of people. self-awareness, and ecucalion. Yet the goal of this line o i questioning is by no means uniformrty. Rather the goal is to make one conscious of a realistic üfe-like situating of the text in one's own time which shall again take effect after one's exegetical-theological investigation has been clarifted.

The deveiopment of text dimensions that present themselves alongside the histori-cal-exegetical investigat<on (but, as we claim, not independent of it), is today the subject

S §1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

of multiple endeavoi's, which are themselves also systematized. An overview is given m the periodical mstallment entitled. "Zugänge zur Bibel," EvTn 45 (1985): 469-56C; English readers consutt j .C. Exum and D.J.A. Clines (eds.), The New Literary Ctitkism cnd the Hebrew Bible, JSOTS 143, Sheffield, 1993. An example in conne.ction with historical exe­gesis isthe essay by H. Utzschneider. 'Das hermeneutische Problem der Uneindeutigkert biblischer Texte—dargestellt an Text und Rezeption de r Erzählung von jakob am jabbok (Gen 32,23-33), EvTh 48 (1988): 182-198 Compare the recent work U.H.J. Körtnet; Der inspirierte Leser. Zentrale Aspekte biblischer Hermeneutik, Göttingen, 1994.

2. Conceiving the Text as a Component o f Its O w n His tor ical W o r l d For this linc o f questioning, which cannot be overestimated, die goal is to

achieve a comprehensive historical conception o f the historical arena, o r i g i n , In tent ion , meaning and effect ot die text i n its t ime, through the employment o f fantasy and imaginat ion p r io r to and alongside the methodological work . T h e preceding endeavor o f por t raying the text as a component o f the present w o r l d now sharpens the vision for the portrayal o f the text in its historical eharacter. Moreover , at this po in t i n die w o r k i n g procedure, one is certainly not concerned w i t h exaet, unchangeable insights. Rather, one is concerned w i t h observations and impressions that present themselves when one looks at length in to the Hebrew text (which has been pre l iminar i ly translated and w i t h w h i c h one has become familiär) w i t h t ranqui l i ty and w i t h the greatest possible precision.

Even the power o f historical conceptualization can be aroused by a series o f elementary questions. T h e y march in eontinuous oscil lat ion between ob­servations upon the text concerning the effort o f acliieving an understand­i n g of the factors o f o r ig in , and the imaginat ion o f a total pic ture o f historical understanding. T h i s larger picture encompasses an image o f the i n t en t ion , meaning, and effect o f the text, and i t sees die text as a life-event o f its time.

/. Imagination from Text Obset~catimis Text observations are the alpha and omega o f this stage o f the work ,

when they are directed toward the formal as well as the material flow o f die text. T h e observations serve to aequaint one well wiü i die text to be treated in its o r ig ina l language, and to draw a t tent ion to its distinetiveness. They T also provide the first possibil i ty for creative exegetical discoveries p r io r to the w o r k wh ich w i l l be guided by the methods and the secondary l i terature , where these discoveries can then be substantiated, examined, and explained.

1. Freely Roamirig Observations on the Text T h e fo l lowing w o r k i n g procedure is recommended as the start ing point :

Firs t , one should translate one's text over and over again u n t i l one is u t t e r ly famil iär w i t h i t . T h e n , using freely roamir ig observations, one should note everything in the text which strikes one as a historical phe-nonienon.

Imaginat ion and Methodological D i r ec t i on D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k 9

2. Observations on tbe Linguistic Sbape of tbe Text O n l y then does a phase o f directed Observation fol low. F.ssentially, these

observations constitute pure text observations regarding tbe linguistic sbape, which even the beginner should be able to list w i t h the knowledge o f Hebrew already acquired.

a. Obseroations from Sentence to Sentence First , one proceeds th rough the text, not verse by verse, but sentence by

sentence (compare also Η . Schweizer, Biblische Texte verstehen, see § 2 H , p. 3 7ff; B . Wi l lmes , Bibelauskgung, see §2).

T h e l inguis t ic observations are especially directed toward die type o f sentence f rom which the text is composed, toward the manner o f p romien t connectors between die sentences, and toward die eharacter o f die succession of sentences i n the text (aspects w h i c h are the result o f the cont inu i ty or the change in the types o f sentences and the tense).

I n detail, die approach is elucidated thus:

• H o w far does die first sentence extend (in terms o f content and grammar)? • H o w is the sentence construeted (sentence parts and their posi t ion; die

type o f sentence such as: nominal sentence, verbal sentence, inverted ver­bal sentence, main clause, or dependent clause; and the tense)? W h a t does this type o f sentence construet ion express for the content? (subject/object, accent, act ion/condit ion, temporal condi t ion) W l i i c h o f the exegete's expectations o f content does this l inguist ic shape correct?

• D o the same for sentences two, three, etc., un t i l the end o f the text. • A l o n g w i d i t l i is procedure, one should pay at tent ion to the manner i n

w h i c h the new sentence is related to the previous sentence or sentences. Is the sentence attached to the previous sentence(s) or not? (Are all l i n ­guistic and material referenecs inissing?) A n d what type o f possible eon-nection exists? Does a dependeney exist upon the previous sentence or not, i n the sense o f a parallel or subsidiary order ing (the relat ionship o f the main clause and dependent clauses, relative sentences, inf ini t ive construetions), and i f so what funetion does the dependeney express? Is diere a cont inuat ion or change o f subject, object, type o f sentence, tense, or temporal condition? H o w far do the series o f connected sentences extend, and when does an In te r rup t ion take place? ( I n certain situations this is an impor tan t clue to die strueture!) D o the individua] sentences offer any relationships w h i c h po in t beyond the text under investigation and show that i t belongs i n a larger l i terary context?

IO §1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

I n the succession o f sentences, do repeated principal words, catchwords, or word pairs manifest themselves in explainable positions? W h a t do these observations inside the succession o f sentences signify for the content?

b. Observations on the Text as a Whole

T h e observations acquired regarding die succession o f sentences leads to the next step o f the work , namely observations on the entirety of the treatcd Text. F low is the text struetured, according to agreement between formal and content observations? One must observe the l inguis t ical ly reeorded macro-organizat ion in the main paragraphs and the m i c r o -organization in the subsidiary paragraphs, as well as their inner syn-tactical Organization i n the construct ion o f the individua! sentences and in the relationships/correspondences between the sentences and the sentence parts,

I n detail, the fo l lowing quest ions can provide directum:

• A r e diere Hebrew organizational markers ( lo r example, lāken, hinnēh, we'attāh, independent personal pronouns, interrogative pronouns)? A r e there additional t u r n i n g points in the flow (changes o f scene, action, Jocation, persons, speech formulas)? Is diere one loundational stylistic pattern w h i c h conveys tbe entire Orga­nization (for example, seven imperat ives i n Ps 100, some w i t h ki; the "we" and the "non-we" in Ps 46)? D o re la t ionsh ips between the beginning and end determine the total Or­ganization o f the text (framing inclusio)? Are there symmetries in the sequence o f the organizational components (for example, according to the pattern A B A ß or ABBA)? W h a t do the succession o f the sentence type or tense i n the text provide for its Organization? W h i c h essential perspectives are thereby recorded (principal Statements, subordinate Statements, conditions, die progression o f movement/act ion, and the relative and absolute aspects o f time)?

• To what extent are the individua! sections under Observat ion essential parts o r non-essential parts o f the whole? I n its present l inguist ic shape, is there a perspective in wh ich the text ap-pears as a harmonized succession o f Statements? Can one find a dominant Substantive Statement that fashions the flow o f the text and determines die Organization? D o in t roduc t ion , climax, change, or Statement o f purpose play a role in the Organization o f the text?

• H o w are the individual sections under Observation i n the text s truetured by themselves? Even w i t h i n this smaller framework, do correspondences, w o r d re la t ion­ships, or subject relationships manifest diemselves (such as inclusios, or

Imaginat ion and MediodologicaJ D i r e c t i o n D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k 11

parallel formulat iot is i n sentences, in words, or in cont radic tory State­ments)?

• W h i c h elements o f the Statement i n an individual section stand i n rela­t ionship, formally and materially, to that which precedes and follows?

I t is recommended that one virite the Hebrew text one time according to the observations gained concerning the macrostructure and the micros t ruc-ture in order that its construction also becomes graphically visible.

By way o f example, in Ps 100, the seven imperative Statements, wh ich i n ­elude verses lb—5, then stand under one another i n seven rows. I n Ps 46, one can wr i t e the five ehains o f Statements (46:2-4,5-7,8,9-11,12) so diat their nominal Statements, as wel l as the developmental Statements and further dc-velopmental Statements dependent upon them, likewise stand under one another. Observable agreements i n syntax and use o f tense then play an i m ­por tant role. Also , one should graphically accentuate the symmetrica! con­s t ruc t ion o f Isa 1:21-26 in its two segments (1 :21-23,24-26) by drawing in the brackets o f inelusion: 1:21a (A); 1:21b (B); 1:22 (C) ; 1:23 ( D ) ; 1:24 ( D ' ) ; l : 2 5 a ß b (C ' ) ; 1:26a (B') ; 1:26b (A'). A t the same t ime, d ie special posi t ion o f 1:25aa Stands out.

3. Further Text Observations

Finally, i t is impor tan t d ia t every exegetical worker gives careful con-sideration to two points:

First: I n its own t ime, did the text appear as an understandable, i n -herently completed Statement, or must the context be taken w i t h i t (relationship o f the text to the immediate/wider context)?

Second; W h a t remains unelear concerning ali these text obser­vations, or relatedly, w i t h the translation, w h i c h must be clarified via additional Information?

A t this point , i t is profitable for the experienced exegete—but not for the beginner who wou ld here be overburdened—to elucidate the text further w i t h various specific observations.

• To what extent does the immediate context help to delineate the lexical breadth of meaning for die words?

• W r h a t tvpes o f words fashion the text (for example, action verbs or verbs ol circunistance, abstraet or conerete substantives)?

• W h a t stylistic devices appear in the text? W h a t could be their ma-terial Intention?

• W h a t means does the text employ in order to offer its material Statements (for example, conerete or abstraet substantives, images, comparisons, metaphors)?

• W h a t conceptions are awakened by real, conerete sequences or by l inguist ic images (metaphors) in the text? W h a t should the listeiier/

§1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

reader see before one 's o w n inner eye because i t is expressed or i n -

tended? A n d what should one not sce because the formula t ion points

i n another d i r e c t i on and excludes certain associat ions? M o s t o f the

severely neg lected observat ions w h i c h chal lenge the exegete's his­

torical (!) fantasy, are to be made here r egard ing die des ired c lar i ty o f

the text.

• W i t h i n the thematic f r a m e w o r k o f the text. what w o u l d also be c o n -

ceivable or expected, but is no t spoken? A r e Statements m i s s i n g be­

cause they were c o n s i d e r e d se l l - ev ident at diat t ime , or were they

del iberately omit ted?

II. Imagination of the Realities of the Origin of the Text

'•SS · I n w h i c h Situation d id the text or ig inate (time, locality, ins t i tut ional framework, and ins trumenta l events; tbe person w h o speaks the text; the persons w h o hear it)?

• W h i c h exper icnces c o u l d s tand in the b a c k g r o u n d of the Speaker and hearer/reader? W h i c h exper ient ia l ly gu ided des ignat ions w e r e prov ided? W h i c h experiences were addressed in the text d irect ly or ind irec t ly?

III. Imagination of the Intention, Meaning, and Effect ofthe Text

• W h a t precisely compe l l ed the Speaker to formulate this text in l ight

o f the realities o f or ig in?

• W h a t does the Speaker w a n r to effect in that historical locali ty w h e n

the text is heard (for example , ins ight , act ion)?

• H o w do the mater ia l Statements, i n the ir par t i cu lar f o r m and r e l a -

t ion in the text, h a n g together w i t h the realit ies o f or ig in?

• W nat do the mater ia l Statements o f the text, and the ir f o r m and re-

spect, have i n c o m m o n w i t h o ther Statements i n the O l d Testament?

W h a t attracts attent ion as a s u r p r i s i n g new aecent?

• W h i c h experience o f real i ty o f its t ime does die text desire to c l a i -

ify and influence? W h i c h unmistakable experiences , in trus ions , and

perspect ives o f real i ty are b o u n d wi th the Statements o f G o d i n the

text?

• W n i c h view o f humani ty or Israel in its t ime and w o r l d does the

text open?

• h i l ight o f the mater ia l Statements, w h a t c o n t r a s t i n g Statements or

Supplements does the O l d Testament ö f t e r e l sewhere?

• W h a t effect d id die text actual ly have in the r e a l m o f anc ient Israel

for die s h o r t - t e r m (with the brst hear ing) or for the l o n g - t e r m (with

its w i d e r t ransmiss ion)? Does the actual effect dev ia le f r om the i n -

tent ion o f the Speaker, and what c o u l d be the exper ient ia l reasons

for such?

Imagina t ion and .Methodological D i rec t ion D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k 13

Even w i t h questions like these, the answers o f different exegetes w i l l deviate from one another bo th p r io r to and after the methodologically guided, scien­tific investigation o f the text. T h i s deviation is connected w i t h the fact that, at anv given time, two essential factors come into plav in varying degrees: the ex-egete's p r io r knowledge and the abil i ty for historical I n t u i t i o n .

(1) Prior knowledge heips to decrease a text's historical strangeness and resistance on tne levei of material cognizance. Sirriuttaneously, it essentialiy determines the number of possibilities available for comparison and association.

This Statement is certainly true for the extremely important area of general knowledge, hence ot education in the broadest sense. On a large scale, it mamtains the perspectives of understanding, analogies, comparisons. and contrasts for ascertaining the text's historical eharacter For example: A. von Menzels presentation of the court of Frederick the Great enables one to see the scene in i Sam 20:24f as Saul's "round table" (G. von Rad), and to recognize the modest royal household; knowledge of the constitu-tional entity and the democratic formation of intention within the constiiutionai organs of our time sharpens the view of the king's funetion in the royal psalms; one may com pare the night visions ofZechariah with the night poems of N. Lenau, or psalms of lam-entation with the protest songs of B. Dylan. and the lament poems of N. Sachs, etc.

It is naturaily self-evident that speciaiized prior knowledge in the area of the Old Testament prepares historical and textual materials for substantiation, deepening, and shaping through historical observations and imagination. In the process of imagination, this speciaiized prior knowledge can be expanded, where necessary, by examination of reference works.

(2) The ability to conceive hisloncaiiy is an indispensable presupposition if the text is to sîep forth from the medium of letters and paper, and oecome visible as a life-event •n its time. To present the realities of ihe Lext's origin ciearly by means of the controlled employment of historical fantasy is just as important as the attemptto situate the mate­rial Statements, animately and tangibly, in their original historical field of relationship, and to reproduce the realities and events named in the text itself by means of the power of conceptualization.

One must note einphatically that this imaginative progression through the text, relat ing to the realities o f o r ig in , in tent ion , meaning, and the effect on its historical w o r l d , is not completed just once prior to the methodological ly d i ­rected exegetical work . Radier, this progression condnuously and productively accompanies and l imi t s these elements as a part o f the exegetical work.

I t is recommended that exegetically advanced students w i t h corre-sponding p r io r knowledge o f the discipline and the methodology ( b u t not necessarily the beginner) deepen the phase of intensive observations. T h e y can do so by fundamentally clarifying and prof i l ing the text State­ments by means o f Hebrew concordances [and electronic search p r o -grams for the O l d Testament], w i d i o u t secondary l i terature or current hyporhescs about the text.

14 §1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

Several things will bring the exegete further clarification and, above ali. will bring directed questions for the further exeget:cal processing of the text in every methodo­logical field. These inelude: parallel and deviating examples regarding the use of words and the. syntactical form; ferrcting oui contrasting concepts. lecurring semantic fields, and corresponding formulations, whether these appear in the immediate context. in the same book, or in speciaiized languages such as wisdom, cult. law, and prophecy. Instead of these elements, the beginner can pursue the important words in the corresponding articles of theological dictionaries. The beginner should not however, be distracted by the abundance of material offered in the dictionaries, nor by the opinions presented there. From the outset, the beginner should not avoid the a cl of clarifying and diseover-ing the text to be treaied,

Ι Π . Results

Very diverse impressions and elements w i l l come to l ight i n the imagina­tive, holist ic act o f understanding a text w h e n one employs fantasy, i n t u i t i o n , Observation, and the capacity o f association. Some o f these m u s t even be aban-doned as incorrect based upon methodological ly guided examination. S t i l l , this imaginative act provides three opportunities wh ich are indispensable for an adequate historical meaning. First , i t l imi t s the methodological constric-tion w h i c h results f rom a dependeney upon the current State o f research by the text's imaginative and discernible characteristics. Second, the imaginative act provides a holistic view o f the text as a historical life-event, a perspec­tive w h i c h is all too easily lost under the partial aspeets ot the individua! m e t h ­ods. I t is, however, precisely that perspective w h i c h must dien be taken up and administered in the interpreta ti on as a substantiated his tor ical ly de ter -mined meaning, by u t i l i z i n g the results o f the methodical Operat ion . T h i r d , the imaginative act provides the articulated relat ionship between text and I n ­terpreter that attains its goal i n a theologically substantiated applied under­standing o f the text.

Thus , exegetical w o r k is completed by reciprocally l i m i t i n g and enr iching historical imaginat ion and methodically directed questions. T h i s rec iproci ty m u s t bc kept in v iew, even though the task o f more closcly eharacterizing the methodological Steps dominates in that w h i c h foUows.

C. O V E R V T E W O F T H E M E T H O D S O F O E D T E S T A M E N T E X E G E S I S

I . T h e Stock o f Methods

T h e stock and description o f the exegetical methods, as already mentioned, are dependent upon the current state o f exegetical science and its insights in to the fo rma t ion o f O l d Testament texts. I t is thus necessary that the existing

Overview o f the Methods o f O l d Testament Exegesis 15

methods constantly be further developed. Also , new methodological quesdons ariše f rom new attendon to tbe text. A t present, new approaches have appeared in several areas: in the field o f l inguistic structural analysis; i n die investigation o f effective l i is tory as the harvesting o f a text's power o f meaning which is no longer familiär; or i n the part icularly debated psycho-analytical text in t txp re -ta t ion. I n addit ion, approaches arise today in wh ich the bewilderment o f the exegete is brought emphatically in to play. One may ment ion so-called " femi -nist" and "socio-historical" exegesis. W e w i l l come back to these at the end o f diis section.

T h e manual h i n g before you concentrates on the fundamental, proven, and methodological ly elaborated approaches: text-cr i t ic ism, l i terary cr i t ic ism, the transmission-historical and redaction-historical approaches, the f o r m -cri t ical and t radi t ion-his tor ical approaches, and, o f course, de tern i in ing the historical setting. These various methodological Steps are consti tuent ques­tions o f historical understanding, and they each aim at particular aspects o f the text. T h e y are thus n o t h i n g more than preparatory w o r k for die central ex­egetical task: interpreting the text's historically determined meaning. T h i s act o f in terpre ta t ion, wh ich is freqiiently called detailed or contextual exegesis, does not exist as a sequence o f procedures which are guided by the constituent methodological questions. W^ith its historical focus, wh ich the text i tself con-veys, the in terpreta t ion aims more toward a coneeption o f the entire text as a l inguist ic utterance o f life i n its t ime. I t uses all individual insights syndiesized f rom die methodological ly fragmentary procedures. Ehe results o f this his­torical ly determined meaning o f the text are finalh/ brought in to Operation by a t tempt inga precise English translation o f the text.

I I . G r o u p i n g the Methods

Each o f die methodological approaches takes its reference f rom certain O l d Testament text markers. A historical perspective on these realities o f the text should also be at tempted w i d n n the framework o f the descriptions o f the individual mediods. A n in i t ia l or ienta t ion can already be provided . to the extent that the mediodological questions allow themselves to be divided in to two groups relative to the di rect ion o f questioning and die reference po in t i n the texts.

1. One group o f methods is governed by the question o f die evolution o f the text: text -cr i t ic ism, l i t e ra ry-cr i t i c i sm, transmission-historical approach and the redaction-historical approach relate to the fact that, as a ru le , the text at hand has no t arisen i n a single stroke. Rather, in its text history, the text has undergone a multi-stage development f r o m its or iginal oral fo rm up to and inc lud ing its manuscript transmission, an evolut ion which the methodological approaches ascertain and clarify.

16 §1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

2. T h e second group o f methods is governed by the question o f the presup-positions o f a text, or relatedly, its ascertained textual stages. T h e f o r m -cri t ical and t radi t ion-his tor ical approaches, as well as the question o f the historical setting, relate to the faet that. the fo rm o f the text, at every stage o f its devclopment, has been determined by stipulations and components wh ich are presupposed by the author: the peculiar i ty o f the language spoken by the author, the preset genres o f human speech in the author's cul tural w o r l d , the conceptions and thought struetures o f the author's i n -tellectual w o r l d , the contemporary historical realities, social realities, and the historical setting o f the addressee o f author's utterance.

Bo th groups of methods likewise allow themselves to be depicted in a graphic display as follows.

1. T h e Question o f the Evo lu t ion o f a Text

Original O T Text

BUS

Oldest Writ ten Stage

Oldest Oral Stage

TC; TC;

R H

LC;

i

111

Syntheric Process

Analytical Proeess

B U S = Bibìiti Hebraica Stuttgartensia; T C = 'lèxt Crítíeisin; L C = Literary Critieism; T H = Transmission History; U H = Redaetiun Historv

T h e evolution o f an O l d Testament text allows itself to be portrayed as a g r o w t h process wh ich falls in to three larger phases: (1) delivery and evolution in oral transmission up to its first wr i t t en record; (2) delivery and evolution in Witten transmission up to the comple t ion o f the produetive format ion o f O l d Testament t radi t ion , at least i m t i l the attainment o f the canonical va l id i ty o f the text; and related to this approach, (3) the delivery and development o f the text h is tory i n the manuscripts, up to its presentation in Biblia Hebraica. Exe­gesis attempts, first o f ali , to peel away the various layers in an analytical process, by w o r k i n g backwards, i n order to t r ače the development o f the text in its historical course syntbetically, and thereby to t rače the influencing powers and the governing markers.

Overview o f the Methods o f O l d Testament Exegesis 17

2. T h e Quest ion o f the Presuppositions o f a Text and Its Stages

T.inguistie Arena

Tntelleetual World

Contemporary I Iisrory, Social Realities, and

Addressee

Form Criticism

Historical Setting

y Text

Ehe diagram illustrates s imply how language, cul tural ly preexisting gen-res, the intel lectual wor ld , as wel l as contemporary historical and social real i­ties, are embodied i n one part icular text (or relatedly, i n each stage o f its de­velopment) . I n the. t l iree areas, inqu i ry (containing and encompassing many individual texts) can and must also be made in to the h i s to ry o f l inguis t ic-s tructural characteristics the h is tory o f a concept or an entire conceptual arena, and in to the his tory o f the poli t ical and social realities i n the larger his­torical context.

ΠΤ. Interdependence o f the Methods

T h e g roup ing o f tbe methods undertaken i n the previous section repre-sents a reflection o f die relationship o f dieir content to one another, and in this regard, i t has led to a division in to two areas o f questioning. T h a t does not mean, however, that the executioi? o f exegetical w o r k should be determined by a corresponding par t i t ion . Radier, the i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f the methodological steps, oscil lat ing between expansion and correct ion, is indispensable. S imul -taneously, this i n t e r m i n g l i n g means that the question about the text's presup­positions should be asked for each stage o f its development. T h e changes o f a text, or text complex d u r i n g their oral or w r i t t e n transmission, do not make themselves k n o w n wi thou t de termining each different historical setting or the l inguist ic patterns and theological strearns affecting the text. T h e interdepen­dence o f the methods rcaches even iur ther , and connects all of the methodo­logical Steps to an over-arching System o f correlat ion, as w i l l be explained at length in the detailed presentation o f the methods."

> One hears repeatcdly of the experience that time is not sufficient in a two-hour introduc-tory exegesis course to offer initial text observations, prese.ntaüous, and praetice which are equally

18 §1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

I V Characterizing the Individual Me thods 4

1. Text Cr i t i c i sm

T h e task of text cri t icism is to conf i rm the "or iginal text o f the O l d Testa­

ment" ("Orig ina l Text", "or ig ina l word ing" ) by cri t ical ly sor t ing the Hebrew

text transmission as well as die ancient translations. "Or ig ina l text" means that

text form wh ich exists in the O l d Testament at the conelusion o f the process o f

produetive, wr i t t en format ion.

2. L i t e ra ry Cr i t i c i sm

L i t e r a ry cr i t ic ism investigates individual texts and larger text complexes

at the stage o f the wr i t t en , fixed fo rmula t ion o f the word ing . I t therefore asks

about:

a. the l i terary integr i ty o f a text;

b. its larger l i terary context (in cases where the text is l i t e ra r i ly integrated)

or its larger l i terary contexts ( in cases where the text exists f r o m t w o or

more l i te rary layers or where i t has been ineorporated as an integrated

text in to a larger context, a context which also conrinued to develop).

weighted for every step of Old Testament exegesis. If die ume frame of the course camiot be ex­panded, die following Suggestion could be considcred.

The progressiva of the introduetory course, and then related]}- the wriung of die exegesis paper are coiicentrated upon die following sieps, subsequent to an initial translation of die text (§1151):

1. an Observation phase aecording to §1 Β II; 2. deeiphering die lext-critical apparatus of BUS (§3 Β1Γ 1 a): ?. an analytical (§4) and a synthetic literary-critical st3ge limited to a given text and its immediate con­

text (from §6 Redaction History, p. 78); 4. form criticism (FormgcsMcbtc) related to the linguistic shape, strueturc, and, if necessary. the form

{Gattung) of a rext {§7 li 1UIT); 5. traJiu'on hisiory relative tu the intellectual baeliground ol eoneepts, word cnsemblcs, and images in

the text formulauons (§8); 6. an interpretation (§10) with the incorporation of the clarification of the historical settins; of the text

(§9): 7. definitive translation of the text (§10 F).

In the introduetory phase, the more difficult and overtaxing questions and decisions regarding text criticism (§}), transmission history (§5), and redaction history (§6), can bc brieflv presented and explamed in die progression of the introduetory course. A more precise presentarion and praetiee, demanded by text complexes, must follow- in other places of study, namely within the frame of ex­egetical Icctorcs and scminars (for which this workbook is also coneeived).

4 This workbook will follow tbe "Journal of Biblical Literature Instructions for Contribmors" in: AAR/SBl 199? Membmhip Directory and HanJbitok, Atlanta, 1993, p.385 400, for die abbrevi-arions for biblical books, Hebrew transcriprion. and significant resources. Abbreviations used for some German works may not be present in this resource. In that case, abbreviations will follow the abbreviations in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. K. Galling, ed. 6 vols., plus index. Tübingen, 31957-1965.

Overview o f the Methods o f O l d ' l è s t a m e n t Exegesis 19

3. T h e Transmission-historical Approach Transmission history concerns die oral transmission o f an individual pas-

sage, or relatedly a larger complex. Concentra t ing upon die oral transmission distinguishes transmission h is tory f rom l i te rary cr i t ic i sm. Proceeding ana-lytically, transmission his tory inquircs behind the oldest w r i t t e n sett ing o f a text, back to its oral o r ig in .

A synthetic process then reverses the direet ion o f questioning, and at-tempts to depict the historical process and the context o f the text's develop­ment f rom its first recognizable oral f orm t o the oldest wr i t t en setting. Trans­mission his tory accentuatcs the operative historical factors and intent ions o f the Statements.

4. T h e Redaction-historical Approach Redaction his tory continues the synthetic aspect o f transmission history,

except in the arena o f w r i t t e n transmission. I t thereby traces the h is tory o f a text f rom its first w r i t t e n form through its expansion (or commentary) by ad-di t ions, and through its ineorporat ion in to larger complexes, up to its final setting in the present l i terary context. I t determines the historical factors and intentions of the Statements operative in this history.

5. T h e Form-historical Approach F o r m cr i t ic ism works out the l inguist ic genre o f a particular text (no

maner what siže) for each o f its ascertained stages o f g r o w t h . I n its course, fo rm cr i t ic ism investigates the l inguist ic format ion o f the text. I t also deter­mines the genres wh ich the text ineorporates and utilizes, as wel l as their bfe setting. Fo rm cr i t ic ism aims at a methodologically appropriatc understanding o f the construetion and the in ten t ion o f die Statement i n the encountered text. I t performs this task to the degree that one can recognize the distinetive ehar­acter o f the l inguist ic shape, inc lud ing the ehoice of genre. T h i s shape p r o ­vides die perspective f rom w h i c h the content is vicwed and the in ten t ion for wh ich i t is formulated.

b i this context, f o r m cr i t ic ism necessarily inquires beyond the individua! texts to the construet ion eleinents and the formative models o f the language used by the O l d Testament authors. Further, i t ascertains the his tory o f the genres and pursues their formulations in various texts.

6. T h e Tradi t ion-his tor ical Approach For each developmental step, t rad i t ion his tory seeks a text's particular

characteristic based upon intel lectual , theological, or re l igio-his tor ical con-texts. I n addit ion, t rad i t ion h is tory determines die thought struetures, ma­terial, concepts, or conceptual complexes, as well as their deviations, which are presupposed by the text, taken up i n t o the text, or assimilated by its author. Parallel to the inqu i ry in to individual texts, yet superseding i t , t radi t ion history

20 §1 F O U N D A T I O N A N D O V E R V I E W

also considers the intellectual , theological, and rel igio-his tor ical contexts themselves. I n particular i t considers the h is tory o f the various conccpts and their coexistence w i t h i n the framework o f a larger profi led conception.

7. D e t e r m i n i n g the His tor ica l Situation T h e goal ot this approach is to iden t i fy the rime o f compos i t ion and, i f

possible, the author and addressees o f the text (or its individual layers). T h e n this approach seeks to h igh l igh t more precisely the contemporary historical and social realities in the environment o t the text's o r ig in .

I n the fo l lowing , all o f these consti tuent mediodological questions w i l l necessarily be presented ideally, one after another. I n the practice o f exegeti­cal work , however, they achieve application through continuous in terre la t ion and mutual expansion.

V Concern ing the Q u e s ü o n o f die Expansion o f the Stock o f Methods

The pr imary stock o f methodological approaches described above, wh ich this w o r k b o o k wants to introduce, has been designed for tbe principal exe­getical question concerning the or ig inal meaning o f the texts at the t ime of their o r i g i n . These approaches were no t decreed by exegetes, but were ocea-sioned by the bibl ical subject matter itself, and they are directed very s imply toward that wh ich one must clarify if one wisbes to see a text i n its or ig inal setting: toward the formative relationships o f a text, and toward the intended substance o f its Statements when i t was formulated. Even for the current re ­vision o f the workbook, there is essentially n o t h i n g to change regarding the stock o f methods.

Despite all the differences in execution, unarumi ty exists between this methodological book and those by G . Fohrer and H . Schweizer (cf. §211) , i n that the O l d Testament text should speak in its o w n words and ou t look , w i t h the help o f rcasoned and in t e r sub jecüve ly control lable explanations. Lideed, O l d Testament exegesis is a consti tuent task o f understanding. By keeping one's own presuppositions in check, one should come as close as possible to the original historical meaning i n which die text should be understood w i t h i n the sphere o f the O l d Testament itself. N o w as before, this workbook is more cau-tious when i t comes to the question o l the reception o f linguistic investigations for the sequence, resources, and execution of a methodology concerned w i t h O h l Testament exegesis. M o r e thorough discussion is required to uf i l ize ap-parently chronological ly neutral l i n g u i s ü c start ing points for describing the distinetive charecter o f very remote l i is torical texts, such as O l d Testament texts. Thus , the present manual does not begin its mediodological ly guided Steps w i t h a l i ngu i süc analysis or a descriprion o f the text's strueture. Rather, i t

Overview of the Methods o f O l d Testament Exegesis 21

allocates this indispensable (!) task to an in i t ia l Observation phase (see §1) and to a mediodological analysis o f the l i ngu i süc shape of the particular g r o w t h el-ements o f a text i n die framework o f fo rm his tory (see §7) . S t i l l , even in this Situation, the signilicance o f l inguis t ic analysis and a structural descript ion is asserted for each (!) o f the mediodological steps, by means o f the constantly required intr insic examination o f the interact ion o f the individual exegetical procedures.

A i n o n g the approaches cur rendy brought in to play, "feminist" and "socio-historičar questions (see §9) in particular are not to be viewed over against die classical stock o f mediods as competing, alternative methods. T h e i r legitimate concerns, which are not always properly considered in exegetical practice, con­cerning inqu i ry in to a text's options regarding the posi t ion o f woman and socially vulnerable persons, can find their place entirely w i t h i n the frame o f the existing methodological perspectives. Addit ionallv, they can also find their place in the procedural steps p r io r to the explicit execution o f the exegetical work (see above §1 I I 1), and in the fo l lowing: the reception his tory in die time fo l lowing the O l d Testament text, as i t is encountered in die diseiplines o f N e w Testament and Church H i s t o r y ; and a dicological ly responsible de-te rmina t ion o f the O l d Testament text's meaning for the present (see below, §10 D ) , as i t w o u l d be acquired i n die diseiplines o f Systematic and Practical Theology.

T h e fact that one has agreed upon the goal o f O l d Testament exegesis is o f essential significance for the incorporat ion o f such approaches in the process o f exegesis itself. For the exegete, the goal is to act as an attorney for the w i l l of the text. T h e exegete should reasonably advance that which die text i tself or iginal ly wanted to witness f rom G o d , over against the w o r l d and hu -manity. T h e goal o f exegesis cannot be to subdue the text under a domina t ing measure of current socio-poli t ical wishful d i i n k i n g or an individual model o f experience. Relatedly, the goal is not pr imar i ly to determine how the text func-t ioned or how i t funetions for ine. Accordingly, the goal is also not to determine how the text should or should not contmue to funet ion. T h e most deeisive t h i n g paving the way for exegesis is not the " I " i n the face o f the text, but in aecordance w i t h the self-understanding o f the bibl ical w o r d , the text in its l iberat ing, critical and reorient ing out look towards humani ty and the Irving w o r l d .

Also the concerns o f "structuralexegesis'" do not have their place alongside but inside the stock of methods. Structural signals i n die formula t ion provide impor t an t insights in to the or ig inal desire o f the Statements w h i c h f o r m the text, bu t must be correlated w i d i die Contents and formative relationships o f the text (see §7) .

By contrast, caution and principal objection are offered over against a so-called "psycho-analytical exegesis" o f O l d Testament texts. Especially the w r i t -

§ 1 F O U N D A H O N A N D O V E R V I E W

ings by E . Drewermann current ly come to m i n d i n this arena. 5 Exegetical methodology, in the sense o f this workbook , is the methodology for a his-tor ica l ly related subject matter in v iew o f its or iginal meaning. I t consid­ers the t ime restr ict ion of the development and formulat ion o f the texts. Cor -respondingly, i t should be said that a so-called "serriiotic exegesis" should be disregarded, i f i t abandons the fundamental quesdon o f the or iginal mean­i n g o f biblical texts i n their fo rmula t ion and inner-bibl ical transmission; or i f i t abandons the task o f understanding the historical things o f the past as such."

Finally, one should object to de te rmin ing meaning for bibl ical texts de-rived f rom l i te rary studies or New L i t e r a ry Cr i t i c i sm i f one believes one is able to arrive at sound conclusions w i thou t the qualification that these texts are historical entities w i t h historical, l inguis t ic , and structural characteristics.' T h e historical o r ig in o f biblical texts cannot, under any circumstances, be dis­regarded in the process o f understanding. Recently, R. K n i e r i m has correct ly reaccented this when d e l i m i t i n g various false paths o f an ahistorical under­standing.Ä

T h e comments i n diis s e c ü o n hopetul ly serve students as an ini t ia l o r ien-ta t ion in to current movements i n the methodology. Hopeful ly , they fix the ou t look upon the essentials o f O l d Testament exegesis. Nat t i ra l ly , w i t h o u t already having acquired solid g rounding , the brevi ty in wh ich they are of-fered here, cannot do justice to the current divergence o f exegetical me thod­ology toward new entryways and start ing points, wh ich are current ly being at-tempted, probed. and discussed. T h e workbook c3nnot, therefore, take up this divergence, I t must be satisfied w i t h b r ie f remarks. Above all , these fields o f discussion concern the question o f the genesis o f O l d Testament texts as such, as they are treated i n the O-aditional frame o f chapters 7-9 o f this workbook . Recent methods approach from new star t ing points: l inguis t ic-s t ructural dieory, communica t ion and Informat ion theory, and the in te rpre ta t ion o f m y t h and symbol , fo lk lore , anthropology, and sociolog) 7. Recent articles by

? For discussion, cornpare G, Lohfink and R. Pesch, Tiefenpsychologie und keine Exegese, SBS 12°, 1987; A Corres and W. Kasper, Tiefenpsycbologiscbe Deutung des Glaubens. Anfragen an Eugen DreivetTnajw, Q D I i i , 19S8; as well as in Condensed form, W. Groß, "Sollen wir ägyptischer werden, um wirklich christlich zu sein?" ThQ 166 (1986): 224-226: G. Lohfink, T h Q 167 (1987): 225-227; cornpare also 11. Schweizer, Biblische Texte verstehen. 1986, p. 101Ϊ.

6 Comparc, for example, YV. Vogels, Readingond l'rcachirtg the Bible: A New Sc-mioticApp/vach, VVihnington, 1986. Cuiley (See note 9), 175ff, presents signítícant atteiiipts of semiotie exegesis.

7 Cornpare for example, D. Λ. Robertson, The Old Testament und tbe Literary Gritic, Philadel­phia, 1977.

8 R. Knierim, "Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction," in D.A. Knight and G . M . Tucker, The liehen: Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelpliia-Chico. 1985, 123-165, especiallyp. 123-128.

Overview o f tJhe .Methods o f O l d Testament Exegesis 23

R. K n i e r i m (see note 8), H . D . P r e u ß , and R.C. Cul ley provide an in i t ia l over­view o í the diverse and divergent endeavors. 9

I n closing, the approaches and the stock o f methods o f O l d Testament exegesis reflect the double aspcct o f dieir subject matter. L o o k i n g at the o r ig in o f the texts, exegesis is a historical discipline. L o o k i n g at the i n t en t ion o f the Statements o f the texts, i t is a theological discipline. As such, one single, but decisive fundamental presupposit ion is impar ted in all historical-exegetical work : the admission that the O l d Testament means what i t says when i t speaks o f G o d . G o d is differentiated f r o m w o r l d and humanity, and should not be reinterpreted as an extrapolation o f an aspect which stems only from the inner space o f the w o r l d and humanity.

9 H.D. Preuß, "Linguistik—Literaturwissenschaft—Altes Testament," VF 17 (1982): 2-28 (literature): R . C . Culiey, "Exploring New Directions," in Tbe Hebrew Bible (sce note 8), 167-200 (bibliography); cornpare also more recent works, e.g„ P.R. House, Beyond Fonn Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism, Winoiia Lake, 1992; J . C . Exum and O.J.A. Clines, The New Lit­erary Criticism and the Hebreu- Bible, JSOT.S 143, Sheffield, 1993. For the "canonical approach,'' see B.S. Childs §2N and the references in §61511.

General Bibliography for Exegetical Work

T h e bibl iographic refcrences in this section, as wel l as the l i tera ture sec­tions o f § § 3 - 1 0 must cul l a thoughtful selection for the user. I m p o r t a n t stud-ies wh ich could no t be listed may be easily gathered f rom the recent p u b l i -cations cited.

A charactcristic abbreviation o f the t i t le is provided i n parentheses for the l i terature wh ich is more frequendy cited in the fo l lowing .

A. BIBLIOGRAPHIC AIDS

RGG, BI I H , T R T , ABD, ĪDB, eonimentaries (see section Ο below), Old Testament Tntroiluctions (see section G below)

Bibliea. Rome: since 1920, see: Supplement Elenehus bibliographicus Biblicus. Internationale Zeitschriftenschau für Bibelwissenschaft und Grenzgebiete. Stuttgart,

Düsseldorf, since 1951/52. S. Schwertner. Theologische Realenzyklopädie. Abkürzungsverzeichnis. Berlin—New

York, Τ 992.

For English Rendels: Religion Index One: Periodicals. Berkeley, since 1949. Religion Index Two: Multi-Author Works. Berkeley, since 1950. Old Testament Abstracts. Washington, since 1978. W.G. Hupper. Index to Engbsh Periodical Literature on the Old Testament and A n ­

cient Near Tastern Studies, since 1987. Addidonal helps in: O. Kaiser and W.G. Kümmel. Exegetical Method (look under section Η ) , ρ. 90-92,

tootnotc 82. D. Stuart, Old "Testament Exegesis. Philadelphia, 1980. p. 93-136. B. W. Anderson. Understanding the Old Testament. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 41986,

p. 652-676. P.C. Craigie. The Old Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content. Nashville,

1986, p. 333-340. SBL Instructions for Contributors. JBL 107 (1988): 579-596. (standard abbreviations)

Bibl iograph} ' 25

Β. SOURCES. T E X T S , A N D T R A N SLATI ONS

Biblia Hebraica. R. Kittel, ed. After the 7th edition. Stuttgart, 1951 (BHK). Biblia Hebraica Stutigartensia. K. Eiliger and W. Rudolph, eds. Stuttgart, 1968 to

1977 (BUS); sealed down edition, Í984. The Hebrcw University Bible. V I . I I . Goshcn-Gotīs tc in , C. Rabin, S. Talrnon, eds.

Jerusalem, 1975 (begun). Septuaginta. Vetus Testainentum Graecum auctoritate Academiae Scienüarum Got-

tingensis editum. Gött ingen. 1931 (begun). Septuaginta. A. Rahlfs. ed. Stuttgart, 1982; sealed down edition, 1979. The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English. Grand Rapids, 1993. Die Apokryphen und Pscudepigraphen des Alten ' lèstaments. E. Kautzsch, ed. 2 vols.

Tübingen, 1900 (1921, Darmstadt, 1975). Altjüdisches Schrifttum außerhalb der Bibel. P. Rießier. trans, and ed., Augsburg, 1928

(Freiburg, T984). Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit. W.G. Kümmel , ed. Gütersloh,

1973 (begun). The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. J.H.C. Charlesworth, ed. 2 vols. London, 1983,

1985. E. Lohse. Die Texte aus Qumran. Dannstadt ''1986. F. G. Martinez. Tbe Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English.

Leiden, 1994.

C. LEX1CA

VV. Gesenius. Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to tbe Old "Testament Scrip-ttires. Grand Rapids, 1949.

VV. Gesenius. Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte 'lesta-ment. Revised by R. Meyer and H . Donner. 18th edition, faseiele I : Berlin— Göttingen - Heidelberg, 1962; fascicle IL 1995.

Ε Brown, S.R. Driver, and C.A. Briggs. Α Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford: 1907 (reprinted with correetions 1953, 1957, 1972).

L . Koehlcr and VV. Baumgartner. Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Tibros. Leiden, 1953 (1958 with Supplement), (deiinilions in English and German)

W.L . Holladay. A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, »'1988.

VV Baumgarmer. B. Hartmann, E.Y. Kutscher, and others. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon ot die Old Testament. 3 vols. Vol. 1: Leiden, 1994.

D.J.A. Clines. The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Vol. I : Sheffield, 1993.

D. G R A M MARS

H . Bauer and P. Leander. Historische Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache des Alten 'Testamentes, vol. 1: Einleitung, Schriftlehre, Laut- und Formenlehre. Halle 1922 (Hildesheim. 1962, 1965).

E. Jenni. Lehrbuch der hebräischen Sprache des Alten Testaments. Basel. Ί 9 8 1 . R. Meyer. Hebräische Grammatik. Berlin, vol. I 31%6 (1982); vol. I I 31969; vol. I I I ,

'1972; vol. 1V; 1972; single vol. edition, 1992.

26 §2 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P T I Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

W. Richter. Grundlagen einer althebräischen Grammatik. 3 vols. St. Ottilien, 1978-1980.

VV. Schneider. Grammatik des Biblischen Hebräisch. Munich, "1985. H . Schweizer. Metaphorische Grammatik. St. Ottilien, 1981. R. Barthelmus. Einführung in das Biblische Hebräisch. M i t einem Anhang: Biblisches

Aramäisch. Zürich, 1994.

For English Readers: E. Ben Zvi , M . Hancock, and R. Beinert. Readings in Biblical Hebrew: A n Interniedi-

ate Textbook. New Häven, 1993. J. Blau. A Granimar of Biblical Hebrew. Wiesbaden, 1976. W. Gesenius and E. Kautzsch. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. Oxford, '"1983. M . Greenberg. Introduction to Hebrew. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965. Ε Joüon. Α Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, trans, and rev. by T. Muraoka. 2 vols.

Rome, 1991. R Kelley. Biblical Hebrew: A n Introduetory Grammar. Grand Rapids, 1992. B. Ki t te l , V. Hoffer, and R. Wr ig lu . Biblical Hebrew: A Text and Workbook. New

Häven, 1989. T.O. Lambdin. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew. New York, 1971. C. L . Seow. A Grammar for Biblical Hebrew. Nashville, 1987. J. Weingreen. A Practical Grammar for Classical Hebrew. 2nd ed. Oxford. 1959.

SPECIFICALLY FOR SYNTAX

K. Bartebtius. 11Y11. Bedeutung und Punktion eines hebräischen »Allerweltswortes«. St. Ottilien, 1982.

C. Brockelmann. Hebräische Syntax. Neukireheu, 1956. W. Groß . Otto Rössler und die Diskussion um das althebräische Verbalsystem. B N 18

(1982): 28-78. P. Kustár. Aspekt im Hebräischen. Theologische Dissertationen vol. LX. Basel, 1972. D. Michel. Grundlegung einer hebräischen Syntax, 1. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1977.

For English Readers: E l . Andersen. The Sentence in Biblical Hebrew. The Hague—Paris, 1974 (1980). B. Wdtke and M . O'Connor. A n Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona

Lake, Indiana, 1990. W.G.E. Watson. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOT.S 26. Sheffield, 1984. R.J. Williams. Hebrew Syntax. Toronto, T976 (1982).

E. C O N C O R D A N C E S

S. Mandelkern. Veteris lestamenti Concordantiae llebraicae atque Chaldaicae. Berlin 1937 (Graz 1955: Jerusalem—Tel Aviv, 1971).

G. Lisowsky and L . Rost. Konkordanz zum Hebräischen Alten Testament. Stuttgart, -T966 (1981).

A. Even-Shoshan. A New Concordance of the Bible. Jerusalem, 1982. E. Match and U.A. Redp.itb. Λ Concordance to the Septuagint. 2 vols. Grand Rapids,

1987.

ß i b l i o g r a p h y 27

Strong's Exhaustive Concordance. Nashville. 1890 (1986). Several excellent computerized concordance programs are now available, e.g. Bible

Windows.

Ε BIBER K N O W L E D G E

AI . Augustin andj. Kegler. Bibelkunde des Alten Testaments. Gütersloh 1987. G. Fohrer. Das Alte Testament. Einführung in Bibelkunde und Literatur des Alten

Testaments und in Geschichte und Religion Israels. Gütersloh, pari 1 , ; 1980; parts 2 & 3, Ί 9 8 0 .

H . D . Preuß and K. Berger. Bibelkunde des Alten und Neuen Testaments, vol. 1: Altes Testament. Heidelberg, 51993.

O.H. Steck. Arbeitsblätter Altes lestament für Einführungskurse. Zurieh, -'1993. C. Westermann. Abriß der Bibelkunde. Stuttgart, l i 1991. (English translation of 4th

edition; Handbook to the Old Testament. Alinneapolis, 1967.)

Cornpare also: W . I I . Schmidt, VV. Thiel , and R. Hanhart. Altes lestament. Grundkurs Theologie,

vol. 1. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, 1989.

For English Readers: The German discipline of Bibelkunde has no precise parallel in English. Westermann's

Handbook is one of the few which have been translated. Many of the newer Old Testament introduetions do, however, provide some overviews of die biblical con­tent (cf. section G. below). See also:

R.E. Clements, ed. Tbe World of Ancient Israel. Cambridge, 1989. A S . van der Woude. The World of the Old Testament. Bible Handbook, vol. 11.

Grand Rapids, 1989.

G. I N T R O D U C T O R Y Q U E S T I O N S

J. Hempel. Die althebräischc Literatur aund ihr hellenistisch-jüdisches Nachleben. Wildpark-Potsdam, 1930 (Berlin 1968).

O. Kaiser. Grundr iß der Einleitung in die kanonischen und deutcrokanonischen Schriften des Alten Testaments. Vols 1-3. Gütersloh, 1992-1994.

R. Smend. Die Entstehung des Alten Testaments. Theologische Wissenschaft 1. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, Ί 9 8 9 .

For English readers: B.W. Andereon. Understanding the Old Testament. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, *1986. B. Bandstra. Reading tbe Old Testament: An Introduction to the Old Testament. Bel-

mont, C A 1995. B.S. Childs. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia, 1979

(1980). P.C. Craigie. The Old Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content. Nashville,

1986. R. Coggins. Introducing the Old Testament. Nashville, 1990. O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament: An Introduction. Oxford, 1974.

28 §2 G E N E R A L B 1 B L I O G R A P H Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

G. Fohrer. Introduction to the Old lestament. Nashville, 1968. N . K . Gottwald. The Hebrew Bible. A Socio-Literary Introduction. Philadelphia, 1985. Ο. Kaiser. Introduction to the Old lestament. Oxford, 1975. R. Rendtorff. The Old Testament: An Introduction. Philadelphia, 1985. W . U . Schmidt. Old Testament Introduction. New York, 1990. J.A. Soggin. Introduction to die Old 'lestament. Philadelphia, 1976 (Ί989) .

Η . E X E G E T I C A L M E T H O D O L O G Y

Tl. Barth and T. Sehramm. Selbsterfahrung mit der Bibel. Ein Schlüssel zum Lesen und Verstehen. Municb—Gött ingen, 1977 ( Ί 9 8 3 , abridged).

G. Fohrer, H . W Hotfhiann, F. Huber, L . Marken, and G. Wanke. Exegese des Alten Testaments; Einführung in die Methodik. Uni-Taschenbücher ( L T B ) 267. Heidelberg, "1993 (Fohrer, Exegese).

H . Gunkel. Ziele und Methoden der Erklärung des Alten Testaments, in: Gunkel, Reden und Aufsätze, 11-29. Gött ingen, 1913.

W Richter. Exegese als Literaturwissenschaft: Entwurf einer alttestamentlichen L i t ­eraturtheorie und Methodologie. (Exegese). Gött ingen, 1971.

I . Schreiner, cd. Einführung in die Methoden der biblischen Exegese. Würzburg , 1971 (Schreiner, Einführung).

H . Schweizer. Biblische Texte verstehen. Arbeitsbuch zu Hermeneutik und Methodik der Bibelinterpretarion. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, 1986.

W. Stenger. Bibhsche Methodenlehre. Düsseldorf, 1987. B. Willrnes. Bibelauslegung—genau genommen. BNB 5. Munich, 1990.

For English Re/idt-rs: |. Barton. Reading the Old 'lestament; Method in Biblical Study. Philadelphia, 1984

(T996). J .H. Hayes, and C R . Holladay. Biblical Exegesis: A Beginners Handbook. rev. ed.

Adanta, 1987. O. Kaiser. Old Testament Exegesis. In: O. Kaiser and W G . Kümmel, Exegetical

Method, 1-41. New York, 1981. K. Koch. The Growth of the Biblical Tradition: The Eorm-Critical Method. New

York, 1969. E. Kreutz. The Historical-Critical Method. Philadelphia, 1975. (See also the entire

series by Fortrcss Press: Guides to Biblical Scholarship). S.L. McKenzie and S.R. Havnes. To Each Its Own Meaninsr An Introduction to Bib-

lical Criticisins and Their Meaning. Louisville, 1993 ( :1999). R. Morgan and J. Barton. Biblical Imerpretafions. Oxford, 1988. D. Stuart. Old Testament Exegesis; A Printer for Students and Pastors. Philadelphia,

Ί 9 8 0 .

I . I N F O R M A T I O N O N SPECIFIC TOPICS

Bibel-Lexikon. H . Haag, ed. Einsiedeln—Zürich—Köln, -'1968. Neues Bibel-Lexikon. M . Görg and B. Lang, eds. Zürich (in fascicles. fascicle 1, 1988).

Bibi iography 29

Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement. Begun by L . Pirot et Λ. Robert. Continued under the direetiun ol I I . Ca/.elles and A. Feuillel. Paris, 1928 (begun).

Evangelisches Kirchcnlexikon. E. Fahlbusch., ed. 4 vols. Gottingen, '1986-1993. K. Galling, ed. Biblisches Reallexikon. H A T 1 1. Tübingen, -1977. Biblisch-Historisches Handwörterbuch. B. Reickc and L . Rost, eds. 4 vols. Gottingen.

1962-1979. ( B H H ) Theologische Realenzyklopädie. G. Krause und G. .Müller, eds. Berlm-New York,

1976 (begun) (TRE) . Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum. Stuttgart, 1950 (begun). Reclams Bibellexikon. K. Koch, ed. Stuttgart. 41987. Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. K. Galling, ed. 6 vols., plus index. Tüb in ­

gen, 4957-1965. (RGG)

For English Readers: Tbe Ancbor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. New York, 1992 (ABD). Encyclopaedia Judaica, 16 vols. Jerusalem, 1971 (Index vol., 1972). The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible. 4 vols. New York—Nashville, 1962 (Supple­

ment 1976). Mercers Dictionary of the Bible. Macon, 1991. M . Notb. The Old'lestament World. London, 1966 ( O T W ) .

J. B I B L I C A L A R C H A E O L O G Y A N D GEOGRAPHY r

H . Donner. Einführung in die biblische Landes- und Altertumskunde. Dannstadt, Τ 988.

V. Fritz. Art . Bibehvissenschaft 1/1. Archäologie (Alter Orient und Palästina). T R E V I (1980), p. 316-345.

M . Nodi . Der Beitrag der Archäologie zur Geschichte Israels. VT.S 7 (1960): 262-282 (also in: Noth. Aufsätze zur biblischen Landes- und Altertumskunde. H.W. Wolff, ed. 2 vols. vol. 1, 34-51. Neukirchen-Vluyn 1971.

. Das Buch Josua. H A I " I 7. o. 142-1 51: Verzeichnis der Ortsnamen. Tübingen, Ί 9 7 1 .

Orte und Landschaltcn der Bibel, vol. 1; O. Keel, M . Küchler, and Chr. L'ehlinger. Geographisch-geschichtliche Landeskunde. Zür ich—Göit ingen, 1984; vol. 2: O. Keel and M . Küehler. Der Süden. Zurich—Gottingen, 1982.

H . Weippert. Palästina in vorhellenistischer Zeit. Handbuch der Archäologie 11.1. Munich, 1988.

For English Reuden: Y. Aharoni. The Land of the Bible. Α Historical Geography. Philadelphia, 1967. D. Baly. Geographical Companion to the Bible. London, 1963. Encyclopaedia of Archaeologiea! Excavations in the Holy Land. Λ1. Avi-Yonah,

ed. London, vol. I , 1975; w l . Π, 1976; vol. ΙΠ, 1977; vol. IV, 1978. New edition: E. Stern, ed. Jerusalem, 1994.

V Fritz. A n Introduction to Biblical Archaeology. JSOT.S 172. Sheffield. 1994. Z. Kallai. Historical Geography of the Bible. Leiden, 1986.

30 §2 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P I Ī Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

K. Kenyon. Archaeology in the Holy Land. Revised edition. New York/London, *1985. A. Mazar. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000-586 BCK . New York, 1990. M . Not l i . Old Testament World. London, 1966, p. 2-179.

Also cornpare die literature in I and L .

BIBLE ATLASES

A. Aharoni, M . Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Adas. New York, 1968. Atlas of Israel. Published by Survey of Israel. Ministry o f Labour Israel. Amsterdam,

•'1970. TI. Gtithe. Bibelatlas. Leipzig, 1926. The Times Adas of the Bible. J.B. Pritchard, ed. London, 1987. Oxford Bible Atlas. H .G. May, ed. London—New York, 1974. J.B. Pritchard, ed. The Harper Concise Atlas of the Bible, 1991. Palästina. Historisch-archäologische Karte mit Einführung und Register. Ε. H ö h n e ,

ed. Gött ingen, 1981 (special printing from B H H , vol. I V ) .

K. T H E HISTORY A N D SOCIAL L I F E OF ISRAEL

A. A l t . Grundfragen der Geschichte des Volkes Israel. Eine Auswahl aus den Kleinen Schriften. Munich, 1970.

G. Dalman. Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina, vol. I - V I I . Gütersloh, 1928-1942 (Hi lde­sheim 1964).

11. Donner. Geschichte des Volkes Israel und seiner Nachbarn in Grundzügen. 2 vols. Gött ingen, 1983, 1986; single volume edition, 1987.

A . H J . Gunneweg. Geschichte Israels bis Bar Kochba. Theologische Wissenschaft, vol. 2. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, Ί 9 8 4 .

E. Kutsch. Ar t . Israel I I . Chronologie der Könige von Israel und Juda. R G G 3 I I I , col. 942-944; cf. also the time charts in tbe appendix to the volumes by A. Jepsen, »Kommentar zum Alten Testament (KAT)« and H . Donner, cited above, 229ff.

K. Matthiae and W. 'Thiel. Biblische Zeittafeln. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1985. M . Metzger. Grundr iß der Geschichte Israels. Neukirchen-Vlun, 71988. H . P. Müller. Art . Gesellschaft I I . Altes 'Testament. 'TRE XU (1984), p. 756-764 (bib­

iiography!). W. Schottroff. Soziologie und Altes Testament. V F 19 (1974): 46-66. J.A. Soggin. A History of Israel. London, 1984. W Thiel . Die soziale Entwicklung Israels in vorstaadicher Zeit. Neukirchen-Vluyn,

'1985.

For English Readers: G.W. Ahlström. The History of Ancient Palestine. Minneapolis, 1993. R. Albertz. A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period. 2 vols.

Louisville, 1994. A. Al t . Essays on Old lestament History and Religion. Oxford, 1966. H J . Boeeker. Law and the Administration of Justice in the Old Testament and Ancient

East. Minneapolis, 1980.

Bibl iography 31

J. Bright A History of Israel. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, 1981. J .H. Hayes andJ.M. Miller, eds. Israelitc andJudean History. London, 1977. S. Herrmann. A History of Israel in Old Testament Times. London, -1981. J .M. Mil ler and J .H. Hayes. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. London, 1986. M . Noth. The History of Israel. London, i 9 6 0 . J. Pedersen. Israel. Its Life and Culture. London - Copenhagen, vols. I—II, 1926 (last

imprint, 1964); vols. ΙΉ-Γν 1940 (1959 with additions. last imprint, 1963). R. de Vaux. Ancient Israel: Its Life and hisututions. New York, 1961.

. The Early History of Israel. London, 1978. The World History of the Jewish People. B. Maz-ar, ed. Vols. T-VITI. Jerusalem—

London, 1964-1984.

SOURCE M A T E R I A L

Textbuch zur (beschichte Israels. Κ. Galling, ed. Tübingen, Ί 9 7 9 . G. l . Davies. Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions. Cambridge, 1991. Tl . Donner and W. Röllig. Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, mit einem

Beitrag von O. Rössler. Wiesbaden, vol. I , 1971; vol. 2 .1973; vol. 3, 1969. K.Jaroš . Hundert Inschriften aus Kanaan und Israel. Fribourg, 1982. J. Renz and W. Röllig. Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik. Vols. I ; 11/1; I I I .

Dannstadt, 1995-K.A. Smelik. Writings from Ancient Israel: A Handbook of Historical and Religious

Documents. Louisville, 1991.

Cornpare also die source collections in L .

L . ISRAELS E N V I R O N M E N T

HISTORY

Fischer Weltgeschichte, vols. 2-4: Die Altorientalischen Reiche Ι-ΙΠ. E. Cassin, J. Bottćro and J. Vercoutter. Frankfurt/M., 1965-1967.

Fischer Weltgeschichte, vol. 5: Griechen und Perser. Die Mittehneerwelt im Altertum Τ H . Bengtson, ed. Frankfurt/M.. 1965.

Fischer Weltgeschichte, vol. 6: Der Hellenismus und der Aufstieg Roms. Die M i t -telmeerwelt im Altertum I I . P. Grimal, ed. Frankturt /M., 1965.

Orientalische Geschichte von Kyros bis Mohammed. H O I , 2, 4. Leiden—Köln, fasci-cle 1A, 1971;fascicle2, 1966.

W Helck. Geschichte des Alten Ägypten. H O 1,1,3. Leiden, 1968 (1981). E.A. Knauf. Die L'mwelt des Alten Testaments. Stuttgart, 1994. A. Scharff and A. Moortgat. Ägypten und Vorderasien im Alter tum. Munich, 1950

(1962).

H . Schmökel. Geschichte des Alten Vorderasien. H O I , 2, 3. Leiden, 1957 (1979).

For English Readers:

The Cambridge Ancient Historv. Cambridge, Vols. 1/1-11/2 1970-1975; Vol. I I I , 1925 (1965); Vol. IV, 1926 (1969); V o l V I I / 1 , 1 9 8 4 .

32

The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge, Vol. I I , 1985. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge, vol. I , 1984; vol. I I , 1989. iVI.A. Dandamaev. A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Leiden, 1989. Ν . Grimal. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, 1992. L . L . Grabbe. Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian. Vol. I . Aliniieapolis, 1992. W.W. Hallo and W K , Simpson. The Ancient Near East. A History. New York—

Chicago—San Francisco—Atlanta, 1971. Η. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, ed. Achaemenid History. Leiden, 1987 (begun). E. M . Yamauchi. Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids, 1990.

G U T T U R A L HISTORY A N D T H E HISTORY O F R E L I G I O N

J. Assrnann. Ägypten. Theologie und Frömmigkeit einer frühen Hochkultur. Urban-Taschenbücher 366. Stuttgart, 1984.

IT. Bonnet. Reallexikon der ägyptischen Religionsgeschichte. Berlin, 1952 (21971). H . Brunner. Grundzuge der altägyptischen Religion. Dannstadt, 1983. H . and H.A. Frankfurt, J. A. Wilson, and T. Jacobsen. FrühJicht des Geistes. Wand­

lungen des Weltbildes im Alten Orient. Urban-Bücher 9. Stuttgart, 1954 (En­glish, 1946); revised version, 1981 under the title: Alter Orient—Mythos und Wirklichkeit.

H . Gese, M . Flöther, and K. Rudolph. Die Religionen Altsyriens, Altarabiens und der Mandäer. Die Religionen der Menschheit, Vol. 10/2. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln— Mainz, 1970.

A. Goetze, Klcinasien, TĪAW U L I ,3,3.1, Munich -1957. Handbuch der Religionsgeschichte. J.P. Asmussen und I . Laesoe, eds. Güt t ingen,

vol. 2, 1972; vof. 3, 1975. F. Hornung. Einführung in die Ägyptologie. Darmstadt, Τ 984.

. Grundzüge der ägyptischen Geschichte. Darmstadt, Τ 988. Kulturgeschichte des Alten Orient. H . Schmökel, ed. Stuttgart, 1961 (1981). Lexikon der Ägyptologie. W Helck and E. Otto eds. Wiesbaden, vols. I - V f f l ,

1975-1988.' B. Meissner. Babylonien und Assyrien. Heidelberg, vol. 1, 1920; vol. 2, 1925. Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Currently 6 vols. Berlin—(Leipzig)—New York,

1932-1983. Rebgionsgeschichte des Alten Orient. FIO I , 8,1,1. Leiden—Köln, 1964. G. Widengren. Die Religionen Irans. Die Religionen der Menschheit, vol. 14.

Stuttgart, 1965. Wör te rbuch der Mythologie. Part 1: Die alten Kulturvölker, vol. I : Göt te r und

Mythen im Vorderen Orient. I l . W . Ilaussig, ed. Stuttgart, 1965.

For English Readers: British Museum Trustees. An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. New York, 1979. L.R. Fisher. Ras Shamra Parallels. 2 vols. Rome, 1972, 1975. J.C.L. Gibson. Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh, Τ 9 7 8 . J. Gray. The Legacy of Canaan. The Ras Shamra Texts and their Relevance to the Old

Testament. VT.S 5. Leiden, r 1965-Hisroria Religionum. Handbook for die History of Rcligions. C.J. Blecker and

G. Widengren, eds. vol. I : Religions of the Past. Leiden, 1969.

Bibl iograph y 33

J.C. de Moor. An Anthology of Religious Texts from Ugarit. Leiden, 1987. S. iMorenz. Egyptian Religion. London, 1973. M . Noth. Old Testament World, p. 278-297. A . L . Oppenheim. Ancient Mesopotatnia. Chicago, 1964. H . Ringgren. Religious of the Ancient Near Last. London, 1973. W von Soden. Introduction to die Ancient World. The Background of the Ancient

Orient. Grand Rapids, 1993. J.H. Walton. Ancient lsraelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels

between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Grand Rapids, 1989.

SOURCE M A T E R I A L

Altorientalische Texte zum Alten Testament. 11. Greßmann, ed. Berlin—Leipzig, -1926(1970).

Altorientalische Bilder zum Alten Testament. H . Greßmann . ed. Berlin—Leipzig, M927 (1970).

Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments. O. Kaiser. Gütersloh, fascicles since 1981.

For English Rendas: Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. M . Lichtheim, ed. Berkeley, 1975-1980. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relaring to the Old Testament. J.B. Pritchard, ed. Prince-

ton, Τ 969. The Ancient Near East in Picnires Relating to the Old Testament. J.B. Pritchard, ed.

Priuceton, -1969. Before the Muses: A n Anthology of Akkadian Literature. 2 vols. B.R. Foster, ed.

Bethesda, M D , 1993. Near Eastern Religious Texts Relating to the Old Testament. W Beyerlin. ed.

London, 1978.

Cornpare the source material mentioned in K.

M . T O P I C A L EXEGESIS

ABD, I D B , RGG, B H H , TRE, concordanccs (sec Ε above), eommentaries (see under O), Old Testament theologies (see under N ) .

J. Barr. The Semantics of Biblical Language. Oxford, 1961. E, Jenni and C. Westennann, eds. Mark E. Biddle, trans. Theological Lexicon of the

Old Testament. 3 vols. Peabody, M A , 1997. G.J. Botterweck and H . Ringgren, eds. Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament.

Grand Rapids, 1971 (begun). G. Kittel and G. Friedrich, ed. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Grand

Rapids, 1964 (begun).

N . O L D T E S T A M E N T T H E O L O G Y

R. Albert/.. A History of lsraelite Religion in die Old Testament Period. 2 vols. Louisville, 1994.'

34 §2 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P H Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

B. S. Childs. Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context. Minneapolis, 1989. . Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments. .Minneapolis, 1993.

W. Eichrodt. Theology of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1961 & 1967. G. Fobrer. History of Eraelite Religion. Nashville, 1972.

. Theologische Grundstrukturen des Alten Testaments. Berlin—New York, 1972.

G. Hasel. Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate. Grand Rapids, 41991.

J .H. Hayes and F. Prussner. Old Testament Theology: Its History and Development. Adanta, 1985.

O. Kaiser. Der Gott des Alten Testaments. Theologie des Alten Testaments. ÜBT. Gött ingen, 1993.

O. Keel and Chr. Uehlinger. Gött innen, Götter , und Gottessymbole. Q D 134. Freiburg, i .B.,T993.

AI . Oeming. Gesamtbiblische Theologien der Gegenwart. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln— Mainz, 21987.

L G . Perilue. Tbe Collapse of History: Reconstrucring Old Testament Theology. Overtures to Biblical Theology. Minneapolis, 1994.

H . D. Preuß. Old Testament Theology. 2 vols. Louisville, 1995 and 1996. G. v. Rad. Old Testament Theology. 2 vols. San Francisco, 1962 & 1965. H . Graf Reventlow. Problems of Biblical Theology in the Twenrieth Century.

Philadelphia, 1986. W H . Schmidt. The Faith of the Old Testament: A History. Philadelphia, 1983. C. Westermann. Elements of Old Testament Theology. Atlanta, 1982. W. Zimmerli . Old Testament Theology in Outline. Edinburgh, 1978.

O. I M P O R T A N T O L D T E S T A M E N T COMMENTAR1ES

Das Alte Testament Deutsch (ATD). ( Y Herntrich and) A. Weiser, eds. Göt t ingen, 1949 (begun); O. Kaiser und L . Perlitt, recent editors. (Several volumes in En­glish)

Biblischer Kommentar (BK) Altes Testament. Begun by M . Norh. S. l lermiann, W.U. Schmidt and H.W. Wolff, eds. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1955 (begun).

Die Botschaft des Alten Testaments. Erläuterungen alttestatnentlicher Schriften. Stuttgart.

Commentaire de l'Ancien Testament (CAT) . R. Martin-Achard and others, eds. Neuchâtcl—Paris, 1963 (begun).

Echter Bibel. Altes Testament. F. Nötschcr, ed. 4 vols. and index volume. Würzburg , -1955-1960.

Die Neue Echter Bibel (NEB) . Kommentar zum Alten Testament mit der Eiuheit-sübersetzung. J.G. Plöger and J. Schreiner, eds. Würzburg .

Handbuch zum Alten Testament ( H A T ) . O. Eißfeldt, ed. Tubingen, 1934 (begun). Handkommentar zum Alten Testament ( H K ) . W Nowaek, ed. Götongen , 1892-1938. Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments. Begun by F. Feldinann and H . Herkenne.

F. Notscher, ed. Bonn, 1924-1960. Kommentar zum Alten Testament (ΚΑΤ) . Ε. Sellin, ed. Leipzig 1913-1939; W. Ru­

dolph, K. Elliger, F. Hesse and O. Kaiser, recent eds. Gütersloh, 1962 (begun).

BibJiography 35

Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament (KHC) . K. Mar t i , ed. Tübingen 1897-1922.

De Prediking van het Oude Testament. Nijkerk. La Samte Bible. Begun by L . Pirot, continued bv A. Clamer. Paris. Die Schriften des Alten Testaments (SAT). Gött ingen, 1911-1915, '1920-1925. Zürcher Bibelkommentare. G. Fohrer, H . H . Schmid and S. Schulz, eds. Zürich

( - Stuttgart).

For English Readers: The Anchor Bible. W. F. Albright and D. N . Freedman, eds. New York, 1964 (begun). The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. P.R. Ackroyd, A.R.C.

Leaney, and J.W. Packer, eds. Cambridge, 1971 (begun). The Century Bible. New Edition (also: New Serics). H . H . Rowley, ed. London. The Eonns of the Old Testament Literature. R. Knierim and G.M. Tucker, eds. Grand

Rapids. Henneneia. A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible. Philadelphia. The International Critical Commentary ( ICC) . S. Driver, Λ. Plummer and C A .

Briggs, eds. Edinburgh, 1895 (begun). International Theological Commentary ( I T C ) . F.C Holmgren and (i .A.F. Knight,

eds. Grand Rapids. The Interpreters Bible (IB). Old Testament, 6 vols. New York—Nashville, 1952-1956

(1979). The Jerome Biblical Commentary. R.E. Brown, J.A. Fitzmyer and R.E. Murphy,

eds. London Dublin—Melbourne, 1970. New Century Bible. London. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R. Hubbard, ed. Grand

Rapids. Old Testament Library ( O T L ) . London—Louisville. Peake's Commentary: on the Bible. H . H . Rowley, Old Testament Editor. London

(etc.), 1962.

Word Biblical Commmentary. J .D.W Watts, Old Testament Editor. Waco, Texas.

P. TECHNTQUF.S OF S C I E N T I F I C PROCEDURE

G. Adam. Zur wissenschaftlichen Arbeitsweise. Adam, Kaiser, Kümmel. Einführung (see under H ) , p. 96-128 (p. 1271": bibliography).

A Raffelt. Proseminar Theologie. Einführung in das wissenschaftliche Arbeiten und in die theologische Buchkunde. Freiburg—Basel—Wien, 1985.

Part Two

The Methods

1

Text Criticism

Α. I H K T A S K

F r o m their first recording to the invent ion o f the p r i n t i n g press, O l d l es tament texts were transmitted and circulated only by t ranscr ipt ion, whedier in die original language or in translation. Numerous manuscripts and manuscripts fragments i n die libraries and museums o f the w o r l d witness di is process w h i c h lasted a total o f two and one hal f mi l lenn ia . T h e oldest texts found to this date, p r imar i ly the manuscripts f rom the caves o f Q u m r a n , date back to the second Century B . c . Manuscr ipt transmission is, as a rule, not w i d i -out error. Deviat ions between manuscripts 1 1 ' and incomprehensible versions ( "co r rupr ions" ) u also document this tendency for O l d l e s t amen t text c r i t i ­cism. T w o processes come under p r imar ) ' consideration as the sourccs ofmis-takes: un in tent ional oversight d u r i n g t ranscr ipt ion (e.g. confusion o f similar letters, haplography, di t tography, Omiss ion t h rough homoiote leuton) , and intcnt ional changes (e.g. i m p r o v i n g a supposed mistake i n die Vorlage, replac-i n g or expanding unusual cxpressions, and removing objectionable f o r m u -lat ions). 1 7

10 Α η esample: In Isa 11:1 b, the Masoreric text transmission rcads, " . . . and a shoot from its roots will hear fruit (yipreb)"; the Scptuagint, the Vulgare and other ancient translations by con-trast oflfer Λ verh with the meaning "come forth'' (LXX: άναβήσεται; Vulg.: ascriulet).

11 An example: In the Masorctic text transmission, Isa 11:3 begins widi die formuUuon, väbärihi beyir'at ybvh ("and his--diat is the Lord s—smelling is on the fear of YHYVH"), a for-mulation which makes absolutely no sense in this form.

I- An extensive representation, with commentary, of die mistakes which arc typical for the manuscript transmission of the Old Testament is offered with numerous cxamples in: Delitzsch, Lese- und Schreibfehler, VVürthwein, The Text, ofthe Old Testament, p. 107-112 (there also additional literature); Τον, Textaal Criticism, p. 6-13, 232-285; McCartcr, Text/ωί Criticism, p. 26-61.

40 §3 T E X T C R I T I C I S M

Correspondingly, text c r i t ic i sm has the task o f loca t ing mistakes w h i c h have crept i n dur ing the text his tory and, i f possible, o f cstablishing the " o r i g i ­nal text o f the O l d Testament" ("or iginal text ," "or ig ina l word ing" ) , by c r i t i -cally scru t in iz ing the Hebrew text transmission (or x \rainaic i n por t ions o f Ezra and Danie l ) as wel l as the ancient translations. T h e "or ig ina l tex t" means, in essence, that w o r d i n g wh ich existed i n the O l d l e s t amen t at the end o f die process o f product ive, w r i t t e n format ion . As a rufe, this po in t is reached at least w i t h the attainment o f a text's canonical val idi ty. I t does not , however, uneqinvocally allow itself t o be fixed chronologically. M o r e -over, the endpoint o f productive formation difFers among tbe various groups o f O l d Testament wr i t ings and even i n the individual wr i t ings . A n approximate arrangement leads in to the t ime per iod between die 4 tb Century B . C . and the Is t C e n t u r y A . D .

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N E H E A P P R O A C H A N D T H E M E T H O D

I . Relationship to L i te ra ry Cr i t i c i sm

Prior to the endpoint o f product ive text fo rmat ion , intmtional changes w i t h i n d ie arena o f the w r i t t e n transmission o f a text block mentioned in sec­t ion A (such as additinns, and corrections of" t 'ormulation), fall w i t h i n the arena o f l i terary cr i t ic ism. All changes i n d ie text occur r ing afier the above men­t ioned break constitnte text crit ical problems (such as t ranscr ipt ion mistakes, transcriber glosses, dogmatic changes).

Obviously, transcription oversights can intrude into the text transmission. even be­fore this break, Their explanation devoives principally to text criticism, Nevertheless. it is difficult to determme in a gíven instance when the transcription oversight has entered, In certain situations, a text critical diagnosis can also refer to the processes prior to the end of productive Oid Testament formuiation of transmission. Correspondingly this di­agnosis must then be treated within the framework of literary criticism or transmission history; Hence, deviations of the Septuagint from the Masoretic text in a number of Old Testament books raises the question vvhether or not we are dealing with two separate ancient transmission lines, i.e. two (or more mìxed) "original texts" at the end of the for­mation process. : j

1Cornpare Old lestament introduetions for the arrangement and siz.e of Jeremiah, or the diesis of H .J. Stoebe for 1 Sam 17:1-18:5 ( F T 6 [1956]: 397-413, espeeially 41 If).

Commentary on the Approael i and die M e t h o d 41

I I . T h e Procedural Steps w

1. Establishing and Cr i t i ca l ly Scrut iniz ing the Transmit ted Text

a. Generally, R H K and its apparatus suffices tor the Establishment o f the t ransmit ted t ex t . i s A detailed exegetical treatment o f a text, how­ever, demands specific examination o f the various text witnesses using special text edirions.

I n the first place, the text transmission o f tbe or ig inal Hebrew (or Aramaic) should be taken in to account, followed i n die second place by the text transmission o f ancient translations. These text transniissions allow de-duetions concerning their Hebrew (or Aramaic) Vorlage. For or ientat ion con­cerning the paths o f transmission for O l d Testament texts, cornpare the graphics i n Fohrer {Introduction, 515 and Exegese, 40).

Under the limitaiion of thosc languages normally learned, the following should be consulted:

1. Text, witnesses from the recent Palestinian manuscript discoveries (particularly Qumran)'*

2. Samaritanus'7

3. LXX 1 B

— Brooke—McLean—Thackeray—Manson (begun 1906) — - Göttingen edition (begun i 931) — Rahlfs "

4. Vetos Latina 9

— Sabatier — Edition of Erzabtei Beuron (begun 1949)

5. Vulgate*0

- Edition of trte Benedictine order (begun i 926) — Edition of the Würt t . Bibelanstalt (ed. R. Weber)

it Herc. we follow Würthwein, Text, ρ. 113-120; see ako MeCarter, Textual Criticism, p. 62-75.

IS The BHS evidence is gi'eatly reduced. and die apparatus also contains literary critical proposítions. The Hebrew Univcrsity Bible ( H U B ) project Stands out at the forefront. For deci-phering the language of the apparatus, compare H.P. Rüger, An English Key to the hitin Words and Abbreviations and the Symbols of Bibtica Hebraica Stuttgartensia (Stuttgart, 1981); and R. Wonne­berger, Understanding BHS. p. 4011.

• 6 For references to the text distribution, sec Würthwein, Text, p. 30-32, cspecialfy foowotes 60,6i; and Tov, Textual Criticism, p. 21-79. 100-12 1.

1 7 For references to the text distribution, sec Würthwein, Text, p. 45; Tov, Textaal Criticism, p. 80-100.

18 Würthwein, Text. p. 76ff; Tov, Textual Criticism, p. 134-148. 1° Würthwein, Text, p. 92ff; Tov, Textaal Criticism. p. 134. 20 Würthwein. Text, p. 99; Tov, Textual Criticism, p. 153.

42 §3 T E X T CR1T1CLSM

b. Critical scrutiny means grouping the text witnesses according to their weighr (see I I I 1); e l i in ina t ing easily recognizable textual co r rup -tions and changes; and corre la t ing text witnesses dependent upon one anodier.

2. L ingu is t i c and Mater ia l Examinat ion o f dre Various Text Transmissions

a. Linguistic examination aims speeifieally at the lexical, metr ica l -stylistic, and grammaticai analysis o f the text:

1. Lexical inspection: Does the fbnnula t ion under investigation p ro ­vide meaning in the context? I n addi t ion to the famil iär dictionaries, the concordance can bc consulted for i l l u m i n a t i n g a word's r ä n g e o f meaning.

2. Metr ical -s tyl is t ic inspection: Is this particular ( p o r t i o n o f the) verse possible metrically-stylistically? W i t h poetic texts, one should consider the parallelismus memborum. I n l igh t o f the p rob-lems concerning Hebrew meter, caution is advised regarding changes based on metrical observations.

3. Grammaticai inspection: Is this particular ( po r t i on o f the) verse possible grammaticaUy? I n text c r i ü c i s m , die grammaticai analy­sis finds its expression p r i m a r i l y in the elucidat ion o f unusual forms, peculiar construetions, as well as rare syntactical rigurcs.

b. Material examination asks: Is this word or this verse possible i n this Iocation for reasons o f content, history, or die h is tory o f theology? T h i s question comes closely in to contact w i t h other exegetical ap­proaches. Often, i t can only be answered when die results o f furdier exegetical procedures are taken in to consideration. Here i t is shown that text c r i t ic i sm Stands i n comprehensive corre la t ion w i t h the re-main ing methods.

3. Reasoned Decision

See the fo l lowing tor the mediodological prineiples w h i c h enable a de­cision regarding which text f o r m is considered as the "or ig inal text."

I I I . Prineiples for the Text Cr i t ica l Decis ion

1. In ipor ta nee o f the Text Witnesses T h e old text-crit ical rule nmnusetiptaponderantur non numerantur ("manu­

scripts evaluated, no t counted") means that the decision for a particular read-

Commentary on the Approach and the M e t h o d 43

i n g cannot be grounded in the sheer mimerical major i ty w h i c h the text w i t ­nesses afford. Rather, a decision can on ly be grounded i n the importance o f the witnesses. T h e importance o f the individual text witnesses ensues from the text his tory w i t h its changing relationships and dependencies.

a. As a rule , M T takes preference over cvery other transmission, as long as i t is not defeetive hnguist ical ly and materially. T h e reason for this prece-dence is that i t is the transmission o f the original language and rests upon a calculated process o f transmission o f the text th rough careful studies. W i t h i n M T , the consonanlal stability has a higher status than the vocalization. W h e n M T offers a faultless and underslandable text, a decision against M T is con-ceivable, and even probable in several places, but i t must be careful grounded.

b. Accord ing to their signifieance for text cr i t ic ism, the further sequencc of text witnesses is: text witnesses f rom recent Palestinian manuscript finds (par t icular ly Qumran) , and Samaritanus; further, witnesses (retroverted in to Hebrew) f rom L X X , Aqui la , Symmachus, T h e o d o t i o n , Peshitta, Ta rgum, Vulgate , Vetus Lat ina , the coptic translations, and the Eth iopic , Arabic and A r m c n i a n translat ions. 1

As findings which are to be taken seriously alongside M T , such text w i t ­nesses only come in to question, i f i t is demonstrable that they are no t already dependent upon M T , and do not owe their deviations to tendencies o f d ie i r o w n transmission or translation.

2. Decision between Rqually Tmportant Text Witnesses I f a decision between two equally impor tant text witnesses becomes nec­

essary, then the fo l lowing holds force: a. Lectio difficilior lectio probabilior ("the more diff icul t the reading, the

more probable a reading"—to the extent that the kctio difficilior is not mean-ingless, and is more readily explained as a t ranscript ion oversight). Th i s rule, however, is on ly a result o f the more general principle:

b. T h a t reading is secondary whose or ig in f rom the other can be con-ceived w i t h the least constraint.

3. Explanat ion o f the Discarded Reading Af te r deciding for a particular reading, one must explain how the deviat-

i n g reading o f die text transmission čame to be (at least for M T ) .

4. Conjectures Free textual reconstruetions, d ia t is suppositions about the original

word ing , wh ich are not supported th rough any available text witnesses, are to be used w i t h the greatest frugality. As a rule, they are only aeceptable i f no

- l Würthwein, Text, ρ. 114.

44 §3 T E X T C R I T I C I S M

available text transmission provides a meaningfnl text. However, i t should be noted that the text witnesses themselves may already contain conjectures over against an incomprehensible text. I f a conjecture is unavoidable, then i t should be appended as elosely as possible to the imagery of the letters o f M T

IV. Summary o f the Text Cr i t ica l Procedure

1. Establishing and cri t ical ly scrut in iz ing the transmitted text a. W h a t does M T öfter? b. W h a t does tbe cri t ical apparatus o f BF1S, as wel l as B H K ' (!),

offer? I t is recommended diat one Consulting die witnesses men-tioned in Β I I la based on special text editions.

c. W h a t do the commentaries offer?

I f the need arises, deviations f rom M T in the text witnesses are to be contemplated in their o w n textual context, and customari ly trans­lated in to English.

d. H o w do the texts allow themselves to be grouped, cr i t ical ly eval-uatcd, and sorted, according to Β 11 l b and I I I 1?

2. Examin ing tbe various text witnesses a. l inguistically (lexically, grammatically, stylistically) b. materially Aids : concordance, dictionary, grammar, commentaries

3. Decision according to the fo l lowing criteria: a. M T takes preference as a rule! {manuscripta ponderantur non nu­

merantur). b. W i t h equally impor tan t readings: ledio diffkilior lectio probabilior. c. Cor robora t ion : Secondary readings should be explainable f rom

die preferred. d. I f no reading lays claim to the or iginal w o r d i n g (crux): conjec­

ture.

No te : Further methodological treatment o f the text can, i f need be, ne-cessitate revision o f one's text crit ical judgment.

C. R E S U L T S

Text cr i t ic ism is the fundamental endeavor concerning die w o r d i n g o f the text. I t seelcs to restore the "o r ig ina l " w o r d i n g o f the text by cr i t ical ly assessing the text transmission. D e t e r m i n i n g die textual base provides the i n ­dispensable pre l iminary work for subsequent exegetical procedures. Once die w o r d i n g is established, then these procedures can and must be applied.

Litera ture 45

D . L I T E R A T U R E

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D O V E R M E W

O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament: An Introduction, §§ 113-125: p. 669-721 (additional references throughout and p. 778-785; for die execution of text criticism, see es-peciallyp. 718-720, 785).

EE. Deist. Witnesses to the Old Testament: Introducing Textual Criticism. The L i t ­erature of the Old Testament 5. Pretoria, 1988.

G. Fohrer. Introduction, §§ 78-80: ρ. 489-515 (additional references throughout and p. 529-530).

. Exegese, § 4 ( L . Markert). O. Kaiser & W.G. Kümmel. Exegetical Method, ρ. 5-11. P.K. McCarter. Tēxtual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible. Philadel­

phia, 1986. _M. Noth. O T W , §§ 40-47: p. 301-363. R. Smend. Einleitung des AT, §§ 3-5. E. Tbv. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis, 1992.

. "Textual Criticism." ABD, Vol. 6, 393-412. R. Wonneberger. Understanding BHS: Α Manual for the Users of Bibha Hebraica

Stuttgartensia. Rome, 1990. E. Würthwein . The Text of the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia He­

braica. Grand Rapids, '1995.

Regarding Hebrew Poctry: Alter, R. The Ar t of Biblical Poctry. New York, 1985. O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament; A n Introduction, § 6: p. 57 64 (additional references

also p. 988f). G. Fohrer. Introduction, § 5, p. 43-49 (additional references also p. 517-518). O. Kaiser. Introduction, § 27, p. 326-337. K. Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition, p. 91-100. J.C. Kugel. The Idea of Biblical Poetry: Parallelism and Its History. New Häven,

1981. M . O'Comior. Hebrew Verse Stiucture. Winona Lake, Indiana, 1980. D.L . Petersen and K . H . Richards, Interpreting Hebrew Poetry. Minneapolis, 1992. W.G.E. Watson. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOT.S 26. Sheffield, 1984.

For lexicons, grammars and Literature on syntax, see § 2 C D .

IT F U R T H FR S TUDY A N D C R I T I C A L ALTERNATIVES

A. Aejmelaetis, ed. On the Trail of the Septuagint Translators: Collected Essays. Kampen, 1993.

P.S. Brock. "A Qassified Bibliograph}' of the Septuagint." In: Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des Hellenistischen Judentums VT. Leiden, 1973.

F. Delitzsch. Die Lese-und Schreibfehler i in Alten Testament. Berlin—Leipzig, 1920.

46 §3 T E X T C R I T I C I S M

J A . Fitzmyer. The Dead Sea Scrolls. Major Publications and Tools for Study. p. 205-237. Atlanta,-Ί990.

RAY. Klein. Textual Criticism of die Old lestament: The Septuagint after Qumran. Philadelphia, Μ 981.

S. Olofsson. The L X X Version: Α Guide to the Translation lèchnique of the Sep­tuagint. Coniectanea ßiblica. Old Testament Series 30. Stockholm, 1990.

M . H . K . Peters. "Septuagint." ABD, Vol. 5, 1093-1104. Qumran and die History of the Biblical Text. E M . Gross and S. Tàlmon, eds. Cam­

bridge, MA—London, 1975. De Septuaginta. Festschrift for J.W. Wevers. Λ. Pietersma and C. Cox, eds. Missis-

sauga, Ontario, 1984. H.-J. Stipp. Textkritik-Literarkritik-Entwieklung. F.Thl. 66 (1990): 143-159. Studies in the Septuagint: Origins, Recensions, and lnterpretations. Selected Essays

with a Prolegomenon by S. Jellicoe. New York, 1974.

Additional Bibliography in E. Würthwein. The Text of the Old Testament, p. 242-276, as well as in the notes and work of R. Wonneberget-. Understanding BHS, p. 77-85.

ΙΠ. TLLUSTRATFvT. F.XECUTTON

D. Barthélemy. Cntique textuelle de l'Ancien Testament, vol. 1: Josué, Juges, Rudi, Samuel, Rois, Chroniques, Esdras, Néhémie , Ester. OBO 50/1. Fribourg, 1982; vol. 2: Isafe,Jérémie, Lamentations. OBO 50/2. Fribourg, 1986: Vol. 3: Ezechiel, Daniel, et les 12 Prophètes. OBO 50/3. Fribourg, 1992."

R.W. Klein. "Döing Textual Criticism." In Textual Criticism of the Old lestament: The Septuagint after Qumran. p. 62-84. Philadelphia, T981 .

R. Wonneberger. Understanding BUS (in entirety).

Additional examples of text critical work may be found in the volumes and fascicles of the Biblischer Kommentar series (or Hermeneia and Word in English), where the re­sults of the text critical procedure are summarized extensively in connection with the translation.

Literary Criticism

A. T H E T A S K

Ε T h e Overarching Quest ion o f the Development o f an O l d Testament Text

I n practice, the subject o f exegetical w o r k is an O l d Testament text sev-eral verses i n length, once i t has been text crirically clarified. D u r i n g the his­torical Observation phase o f this work (see above §1 Β Π 2), this text's t ra in o f thought may appear consistent. N o t infrequently, however, i t may also appear to be w i t h o u t inner cohercnee. T h e text may bc eonfusing because i t exhibits repetit ions, mul t ip l e climaxes, or mu l t i p l e Statements o f in t en t ion . T h e text can exhibi t gaps or breaks where a transit ion is missing. I t can even manifest contradictions wh ich in fact should be mutual ly exclusive. Both impressions— consistency or inconsistency—can prove either true or false in the subsequent methodological t reatment o f the text. For example, supposed inconsistency can be disproved when consistency arises f rom the inelusion o f tbe context, by n o t i n g Convent ions o f fo rm (see §7) , by no t ing content associations bound to the fo rmula t ion at that t ime (see §8) or by no t ing historical realities (see §9) . T h e apparcnt deficiency o f the text's material coherency wh ich causes the impression o f inconsistency is then, i n reality, our deficiency o f knowledge. However, this impression of inconsistency can be true i f these ineonsisten-cies remain, o r i f new ones become visible, even after d ismant l ing our lack o f knowledge by the methodological treatment o f die text. As far as we can see, w i t h ali exegetical responsibility, die O l d Testament is füll o f such cases o f endur ing inconsistencies or o f supposed consistencies. H o w does one ex-plain that?

b i the Biblia Hebtaica, we encounter individua! O l d Testament texts in the framework o f O l d Testament books. However, these books are a particular type

48 § 4 L I T E R A R Y C R I T I C I S M

w h i c h is unfamil iar to us as contemporary users o f the book. F r o m the out -set, these books could be completely independent works o f l i te ra ture—for example, Isaiah, Jeremiah, die Book o f the Twelve, or the book o f Psalms. However, O l d Testament books can also have or iginal ly been only parts o f larger w o r k s of l i terature. For example, the books o f Levi t icus and 1 Kings were never fomiula ted as isolated w o r k s . For understanding a part icular text, bo th cases are significant because we cannot adequately understand a text w i thou t die contexts to which i t belongs. As a rule, the l i terary works to which the text belongs have not been wr i t t en down in a s ingle s i t t ing, regardless of whether they covcr the cntirc biblical book at band. W h a t we have before us in such a work, i n tnany cases, is no th ing more than the final literary state which has developed in to a w r i t i n g over time. T h e most significant t h i n g about the process is that the more recent editions o f a l i terary w o r k do not replace the fomiu la ted material o f the older version. Rather, they inainta in i t , bu t they expand, enlarge, and reorder i t . lndeed, newer editions ineorporate other transmissions, or even other wri t ings , i n to the text; or they transport the re-ceived text i n t o other l i terary works. T h i s process is not just presented as the fai thful t ranscript ion o f that wh ich was given, as seen later in the eonsci-entiousness o f the Masoretic transmission. I t also represents a productive con-t inuat ion which enlarges the text. T h e process is motivated by the effort to add In terpre ta t ion , appropriat ion, and actualization for a new t ime to the older edi t ion . I t also struetures the corresponding enlarged edi t ion . O l d Tes­tament exegesis operates w i t h i n the framework o f this h i s tory o f product ive g r o w t h . I n order to securc the original context's con t r ibu t ion to understand­i n g a text i n a w r i t i n g , exegesis must therefore necessarily ask: D u r i n g wh ich phase o f the l i terary g r o w t h were the text's component parts or iginal ly f o m i u ­lated? A n d how did that w r i t i n g look d u r i n g this phase? Exegesis must pay at tent ion to the larger path o f meaning which a particular text takes when tbe w r i t i n g in which it Stands is expanded.

T h e manifestation o f undeniahle inconsistcncies is connected w i t h this ex­panded eharacter ol the o r ig in of O l d Testament wr i t ings , even i n the narrow confines ol a single text. T h e great faithfulness w i t h wh ich older fo r rnu-lations remained proteeted du r ing a wri t ing 's cont inu ing productive develop­ment brings w i t h i t anodier S i tuat ion. M a n y O l d Testament l i te rary w rorks demonstrate inconsistencies between the actualizations and expansions which are older and diose which are more recent. T h e inconsistencies are notice-able i n die current shape o f the entire work , but occasioually they may even be noticed i n a single passage where iormula t ions from different phases o f the work's development stand side by side. Exegetically confirmed inconsisten­cies are therefore signs o f the wri t ing 's development, its productive evolution, or even the development o f an individual text w i t h i n that w r i t i n g .

H o w do enduring inconsistencies reveal diemselves? A n d w h y do they ne-cessitate that one not v iew individual O l d 'lestament texts (such as a narrative

T h e Task 49

or a prophet ic speech) or especially larger text complexes (such as the Penta-teuch or an entire prophetic book) as the result o f one or iginal formulat ive act? I n other words, w h y not view the inconsistencies as texts which have been fomiula ted i n one setting by one author? I n scholarly circles a whole series o f imlkators has l ong confirmed the impression that the texts have g r o w n to the current fo rm by means o f an anonymous process." Above ali , material differ-ences and tensions w i t h i n a text, or a text-complex, stand i n the way o f their derivat ion from a single author. Lnstead, these differences imp ly that one must reckon w i t h several layers o f g r o w d i , different sources, or relatedly the act o f co l lec t ion . 2 3 T h e fact that the text has attained its current w o r d i n g th rough several formulative acts over an extended period is also frequently proven by divergences in the language and format ion o f die text-' 4—or its historical back-ground ( ineluding cult ic and historical-theological realities). ' 5 Addi t ional ly , i t is proven by conf i rming that the same text appears more than once, oceasion-ally i n different versions. 2"

I f one diinks o f the or ig in and eharacter o f today s texts, then i t w i l l surely seem s t r änge to learn that many O l d Testament texts have been processed over the course o f ccnruries by reformnlat ion, broadening, expansion, and even by Insert ion in to larger contexts. One must, however, take in to aecount the reali­ties o f ant iqui ty in general and o f Ancien t Israel i n particular. A t that point , the intellectual creation o f a single person, and the specific f o r m o f the l inguist ic ntterance do not yet represent an independent asset. I n the present t ime, the dynamic narrat ion o f sagas and fairy tales provides a certain analogy. T h e es­sential St imulus for the produetively developing transmission w i d i i n die O l d Testament lies in changes in experientialperspective. Even diese changes require

'Die perspectives arc only mentioned here. For speeification and expansion, sce below Β II 1 (p. 53f) and §5 Β ΠΙ (ρ. 65).

For example: Tbc. two versions of the miracle of the sea in F.xod 14:2 l f can hardly have stnnd side by sidc in the samc narraiivc trom the beginning: 1) .Moses divides ihc sca into two dams of warer on the righr and Icft; 21 an cast wind blowing through the night canscs rhe watcr to recede.

24 For example. in the main portion of die bookof Judges (2:6-16:31), it is possible to isolate different independent transmissions (e.g. die Deborah-Barak narrative, in ehapter 4, and die song of Deborah, 5:2-3 la) and a bracketing, Schematizing frame (+.M-5; 5:31b) based on linguistic and formal criteria. This determination iodientes redactionaJ reworking of older narrative material.

25 For example. in lsaiah, the historical background of chapters 1-39 is hmdaiiiem.illy difler-ent from chapters 40lf. After ehapter 40, there is no reference to die historical Situation of die latrer eigbtli Century, in which the prophet lsaiah appeared (1.1; 6:1; 7:13, etc.). bistead, the specches arc spoken in the time of die c.xile (45:1: Cyrus; 47; 52:7-12, etc.). Chapters 40ff were therefore attributed to an uiiknown prophet of tliis period (»Deutero-Isaiah«). Also, the histori­cal background of chapters 1-39 is not unified (cf. 11:11-16 or 21:1-10). This variety leads to die differentiation ot later, post-Isaianic pieces.

2f- Examples inelude: the parallel* Gen 12.10-20; 20:1-18; and 26:1-13; 1 Sam 23:19 24: 23 parallels 26:1-25; 1 Kgs 17:17-24parallel? 2 Kgs 4:8-37; and Ps 14 = Ps 53.

50 §4 L I T E R A R Y C R I T I C I S M

interpret ive and actualizing revisions o f the texts in l i g h t o f the author i ty o f existing transmissions. These revisions rcveal that one's o w n t ime is in ter -preted and mastered wi th the reeeived texts and by the received texts.

In o rder to see the range of possibilities. one can become oriented with the fol­lowing portroyal of the chronologicai sequence of the phases of development for an Oid Testament literary work. The following picture is suggested in many cases:

1. Initially, individuo! umts are formulated and transmitted orally. For example: a prophetic speech, a wisdom saying, a legat saying, a culiic psaim, or an ancestral narrative.

2. While still orciiy transmitted, individua! texts can be strung together or colieaed. Beyond the setting for the speech in stage ( I ) , now ihe context of the coHection also influences the meaning of the single unit.

3. An important Station on the path of transmission is the initial written record of these units o r colieaions and their attachment to a writing. Now a literary entity arises. In order to fashion this literary entity, n e w text components can be attached which are speciticaily formulated to unree and to strueture the whole. From the outset, these t e x t components serve the redaction of the transmitted material within the framework of t h« writing. Additional!-/. however, individual interpretive additions can oceasionaily appear in this stage which do not have the entire writing in their honzon. Apparently, this stage quite decisively affected the transmission of prophetic speeches. The prophetic pnonouncements, for example, stnpped of their original communicative setting, were n o w compressed into a Condensed formula-tion for written transmission in a future time.

4. Wi th this initial recording phase, the end of an Old Testament writing's productive path of transmission is, as a rule, a long way from complcte. The writing which origi-nated in this manner develops further. How? Different possibilities come into view which are also partially related to one another: (a) Tbe writng grows in siže and be-comes a corpus when it ineorporates similarly developed writings; or it grows when it enters another writing. With such processes, newly formulated tex t material arises to unite and to strueture the new totaiity. Quite obviously, the entire construetion is organized anew during this stage. (b) The writing is not intertwined with other writ­ings to become a new corpus, but it grows from within (e.g. the book of Ezekiel). In th;s case, one must also reckon with the following for each growlh stage: isolated additions, additions strueturing the wnole. and new accents based on arrangement. (c) Some of the Ẅest tex t components of an Old Testament writing can even have the intention of iiterarily anehoring this writing to large "canonical" Corpora: Ps I , with its accentuation of the Torah and its use of josh I , anehors the psalter to the Torah and the Nebúm. Mal 3:22-24 diso anehors the Book of the Tweive to the prophetic canon.

T h i s process reveals the fo l lowing : T h e accents of meaning f r om an i n d i ­vidual text are ehanged over the course o f the productive transmission o f O l d lestament wr i t ings . Exegetical work seeks these accents o f meaning in order

to discern the fullness o f tbe witness w i t h i n die O l d Testament itself. Exegeti­cal w o r k must i l luminate the changes by differentiat ing and coord ina t ing the

T h e Task 51

text components according to developmental phases. Inconsistencies i n a par­ticular text are neilher reasons to destroy bibl ical entities by arrogant attack nor to overemphasize the individual parts. Rather, inconsistencies aid in ques-t i o n i n g and observing the nmltiplicity ofperceptions of God wh ich a text can already accrue in the process o f its transmission w i t h i n the O l d Testament. § § 4 - 6 serve as the mediodological investigation o f this State o f affairs.

W i t h §4 we enter a field o f closely related methods, which ali concentrate upon the text's development du r ing the t ime in wh ich the text is produetively fashioned w i t h i n the O l d Testament. T h e procedures o f l i terary cri t icism (§4) , transmission his tory (§5) , and redaction his tory (§6) , which w i l l be more ex-tensively presented in the fo l lowing , each concentrate on a particular aspect o f this phenomenon, the development o f an O l d Testament text. By contrast, changes to the text which have taken place on the other side o f the boundary o f productive, developing transmission do not belong in the methodological field wh ich we now enter. Rather, as we stated in § 3 , they belong i n the area o f text cr i t ic ism.

I f one looks at tbe conerete transmission processes i n the O l d Testament, then one dist inetion is certainly impor tan t in principal : Are the processes oral or written in nature? A number o f O l d Testament texts have existed on ly in wr i t t en fo rm (such as amials, lists, and probably also the Succession His tory ' o f 2 Sam 9-20 + 1 Kgs 1-2). For a major i ty o f texts, however, one should aecept an oral and wr i t t en transmission phase. Accordingly, the processes o f produc­tive transmission look different. T h e y are recorded in the texts differently, and methodologically, they must be approaehed differently. T h e y must be ap-proaehed on the wr i t t en level w i t h l i terary cri t icism and redaction history, and they must be approaehed on the oral level w i t h transmission history.

I I . De t e rmin ing the Task o f L i t e ra ry Cr i t i c i sm

L i t e ra ry cr i t ic ism is assoeiated w i t h the realni of wr i t t en transmission, and i t therefore iiivestigates the text at die stage o f its jived, written f o rm uhi­t i on. T h i s formula t ion could have been fixed in a single setting and w i t h i n the frame o f a larger l i terary context w h i c h st i l l exists w i t h i n the O l d Testament w i thou t modif icat ions. 2 7 I f so, the l i terary critical i nqu i ry provides no results. I n the vast major i ty o f cases, however, a given fo rmula t ion , and its current context w i t h i n the O l d 'lestament. materialize dur ing a l i terary history which may be rather b r i e f or lengdiy. A particular formulation can later be ineor-porated in to a larger l i terary complex iv i thout notable changes. 2 8 However, i t

2" F.xamples inelude the book of Ruth and perhaps Lamentations. 28 Examples inelude the Holiness Code (Lev 17-26) which w3s inserted into die Priestly

wriling and the Succession story (2 Sam 9-20+1 Kgs 1-2), which was ineorporated inlo the Deutcrononiistic history.

52

can also have grown in several phases. For example, dur ing the c o m p o s i ü o n o f

new l i te rary e n t i ü e s , i t can be compi led f rom several previously indepcndcnt

formula t ions . 2 9 Addi t ional ly , i t may or may not have experienced expan-

sions and additions.'"

Accordingly, l i terary cr i t ic ism asks:'1

1. Is the text under investigation formulated i n one sett ing or at different

times and as a rule by different audiors? T h i s is the question o f the text's literary integrity, o r i n other words, die q u e s ü o n o f its or iginal coherence

and consistency.

2. I n die case o f unity, for wh ich wider l i terary context was the text l i rst for­

mulated? Or, in the case o f disunity, for wh ich wider l i terary contexts was

the text t ransmitted and formulated d u r i n g its various developmental

stages? Or, i n which expanding wider l i terary contexts has a unif ied text

developed over time?- 2 T h i s is the question o f the larger literary contexts,

29 LCxamples inelude die ilood story ((Jen 6:5-8:22) and die miracle-storv of die erossing of the sea (Exod 13:17-14:3 1). Relatedly, one may also inelude the Pentateueh itself to the extent that one dews it as a combination of written sources.

50 Examples inelude Deut 28 (Verses 45—68 are a later expansion; sce the commentaries.); Isa 11 (Verses 6-9,10,11-16 arc later additions, cornpare the discussion in the commentaries); the book of Job (Chapters 32-37 arc clcarly rccognizable as an addendum. See further the Old Testa­ment introduetions).

-U Kaiser (Exegetical Method, ρ. 12-14; for dclimitation sec also Huber in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 45,48f) considers the delimitation of the texts and die analysis ot their strueture part ol die task of literary criticism. According to his presentation, they canuot be pertonned without the Instru­ments of fonn-cricicism. These tasks will therefore be assigned to the form critical process (See below, §7B II , ΙΠ.1. [p. 102-108] and C I [p. 115]), where die scope of a passage can be clarified out of its larger literary context. Conversclv, bv invesrigating the text in light of its immediate context, literary criticism can occasionally provjde the impression that die given text, with its scope, presents no imlependent pericope, because apparent pronouncements from the immediate context must be included (for example, i i Isa 6:4-6 were die subject ot die exegesis).

For Richter {Exegese, p. 49t,6.3-65,69), literary criticism cannot overstep the inner realni of the text, or text-complex, under analysis. For him, the larger literary contexts in which the text/text complex belong (and relatedly the smaller units contained therein), arc not yet deter-minable in this methodological Step (cf also Huber, p. 48,57f). However, one should ask whether Riditer's literary critical starting point is achievable according to the eharacter of the act of his­torical recognition and in executing historical work. He seeks to exclude prejüdices by preconeep­tions that are condidoued by the liistory of research, and therefore limits himself solely tü the Observation and die evaluation ol lonnaliml linguistic indicators. In order to avoid erroueous conclusions, the literary critical process should begin more broadly, in the sense of a coinpre-hensive historical approach. A text, in its literary "unity or compositum," is not just a linguistic phenomenon, it is 3I50 a historical phenomenon. Tins historical aspect and die process of analysis must continually correct one anodier interactivcly. Therefore, the analy ucal result requires cross-checking with those things which arc historically conceivablc (see below, p. 56). Also, the analytical procedure must observe, from the beginning, that the origin and development of the text m3y not be scen without the historical events associated with it. In die practice of exegetical work, this cross-cliecking happens interitionally, repeatedly, by taking up insights already acquired from the

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 53

to wh ich also belongs the q u e s ü o n o f the strueture o f these contexts and the posit ion o f the text under investigation w i d i i n those contexts.

B o d i questions are dierefore analytical approaches o f l i terary cr i t ic i sm. t h e first analyzes the individual text whi le the seeond analyzes the literary contexts o f the layers o f the individual text. T h e synthetic flip side o f this approach is the task o f the redaction critical investigation (see §6) . I t deals w i t h the manner i n w h i c h these layers grow together, their relationships and their changes, and the manner in which they come to be situated in their current l i terary context.

Π Ι . Terminology

The component "literary" in the term literary criticism should connote the delimi-tation of literary criticism to the period in which the development a text proeeeds to the level of its fixed, written formulation. The definition and aims of "literary" by tne disci­pline of literary studies or (modern or new) literary criticism are not intended bere (see the discussion of New Literary Criticism above, §1 CV).

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A M ) M E T H O D

I . T h e Quest ion o f a Texts L i t e r a ry In teg r i ty

T h i s approach traditionally dominates l i terary critical research. I t finds its p r imary ut i l izat ion in the narrative wri t ings o f the O l d Testament as well as in the prophetic wr i t ings . Recently, however, through the w o r k o f W Beyerl in and K . Seybold, and others, i t has also become impor tan t for the Psalter. I t ex-amines whether a text has been fixed i n w r i t t e n fo rm by one author, or a group o f authors, i n the course o f a single formulative act. I f not, and l i te rary dis-u n i t y is determined, then the additional task results, namely separating the

sub-diseipbnes of "Introduction to the Old Testament" and the "History of Israel'* (see l f and lg below, p. 54, and footnote 41). Without doubt. caution is also recommended over against an un-cridcal, uncontrolied aeeeptance of scholarly opinions. Still, in this regard, the interdependency between tbe literary critical resulr and the insights of other exegetical technique.s operates as the crucial stage. This interdependency already makes it necessary, within the literary critical analysis, to consider those processes of a text's development to which the other methodological aspects of exegesis are related (especially transmission liistory, below, p. 55. and further pp. 63fi). At the same time, however, it requires diat one hold open the literary critical result. This broader starting point of literary criücal work is also consistent with the fact that, if need be, the larger literary con­texts of a text can be detennined within its scope. Limiüng the literary critical question only to the text under invesügation will not be the procedure of this textbook, since text Clements, several verses in length, have never experienced a literarily independent existence (cf also Knierim, [see above footnote Η] ρ. 1 ,í 1 f).

54 § 4 L I T E R A R Y CRJTTICISM

fixed, wr i t t en formulations analytically." As a rule . those possibilities already mentioned (Α.I. and A.2.) w i l l come in to play.

I I . Methodologica l Prineiples for the Question o f a Text's L i t e r a r y In tegr i ty

1. Indicat ion o f L i t e ra ry D i s u n i t y W h e n investigating the l i terary in t eg r i ty o f texts, l i terary cr i t ic ism must

be methodologically careful to ask only those questions which are s t r ic t ly re­lated to die transmission stage of the wr i t t en fixation, that is, to the layer o f the given formula t ion .

T h e fo l lowing matters are thus important :

a. Doublets: T h e same line o f content is formulated twice w i t h i n the same paragraph.

b. Double or mul t ip l e transmissions: Ehe same p í e e e appears more than once w i t h i n larger text complexes ( in a different version).

c. Secondary brackets: T h e formulat ions o f various text components are clearly recognizable as balanced and are related to one another.

d. Tensions in vocabulary (lexical, grammaticai , syntactical, t e r m i -nological) , especially contradictions and breaks i n the texts p r o ­gression.

e. Differcnces i n the manner o f speech and style ( fo rm, l inguis t ic usage; poetry and prose in the same text).

1. Differences of historical background (different historical realities wh ich are chronological , cult ic, legal, and theological).

g. For certain l i terary layers, or sources, significant theological asser-tions, phrases, and l inguist ic peculiarities.

h. Tensions and unevenness o f content as wel l as elements typical for a genre. For the examination o f the context, see footnote 31, and ΠΤ below.

I t is self-evident that interdependency also exists w i t h the procedures o f § 7 - 9 at this poin t . Moreover, carefully processed impressions f rom the Observation phase (see above, §1 I I 1, and especially I I 2) can be applied to the text here w i d i prof i t . They are now processed methodically and explained while exclud-i n g possible alternatives.

I n the case o f l i terary disunity, the various text components should be ordered chronologically, relative to one another ( W h a t is older/vounger? W h a t is dependent/independent?), i f the l i terary crit ical analysis has produced criteria for do ing so (cf further §6A)

>̂ Huber, ρ. 54-57. attenipts to elassily the resulting possibilities.

Commenta ry on the Approach and Me thod 55

2. L i m i ta t i on s T h e validi ty and effectiveness o f the questions about the text produced by

1 a-h are subject to l imitat ions i n certain cases:

a. Observations from I a and b remam ambiguous without additional support by I d,e.f. and/or g. For today's exegete, a danger exists with I a which is obvious. One pre-supposes a strictly logical, consistent train of thought, in our ser-se, as the ideal (the exorbitant demand of modern iogic upon an ancient text). However precisely for that reason one is able to scrutinize that danger This prescpposition of a strictly logical text, however, would imscortstrue the histoccal chcmacter of the texts as much as if the ques­tion of a text's particular stylistic devices were neglected (e.g. repetition, and the complex use of images and metaphors). Under certain circumstances, lb, taken by itself, can too quickly give way to a modern perception about a text's multiple appearance.-M

b. Moreovei: the strength of the facts mentioned in / b also depends upon the cnar-Gcter of the work under investigation (intention, strueture, acquaintance with the transmission). Double and multiple transmissions weigh heavier in a ciosed work that is fashioned by a unified concept (such as if the Succession History of David contained such a concept) than in a work which is dependent upon pre-existing text matenal, and which collects, composes, and reworks transmissions which have been passed down (such as the History of Davids Ascendency in I Sam 16-2 Sam S).

c. The criteria of Id-h llkewise do not.operate without limitations. (!) At any rate, with early Old Testament texts one may frequently observe that

the authors of larger literary works ineorporate various types of oral transmissions which come to them, virtuaily unehanged. They even protect the ancient, Transmitted wording, Thus, within the same i'rterary work , tensions in vocabulary, manner of speech, style, and content can be due to this coliecting and codifying (by contrast, the Priestiy writing and the Books of Chronicles arc different). Thus, these tensions do not derive from literary disunity.35

(2) The facts mentioned in ( I ) apply not only m v iew of the collective eharacter of the larger work as a whole, but even more for the individual secf/ons of such works. Here, one may demonstrate that a list of criteria used by literary criticism at the turn of the Century, which continue to be partally operative today. cannot be utilized uncon-ditionally in literary critical analysis. Certain features can akeady derive from processes •η the oral pre history of a text and ihus find a transmission historical Solution.'0 These features inelude diffenenc.es in language (words, style), in nistoncal and chronological details, in the presupposrtions of legal, social, and religious (cult and piety) conditions, in ethical and theological understanding, and in material contradictions'' Likewise, the impression of literary disunity can be misleading in redactionaily formulated texts be­cause the compiexity of the statements. or the order of the Statements, stems from their relatedness to the entire wrrtmg (see below, §6),

Observing tensions of the type mentioned m Id-h therefore demands, for meth­odological reasons, that one suspend judgment during a text's literary critical treatment

• , 4 Cornpare Gen 12:1 Off and 26:lff within the Yahwist's narrative and the consequences of the undifferentiated appraisal by exegetes who ascribe Gen 12 and 26 to two sourees.

-,5 Cornpare again Gen 12 and 26. •iΛ C f Noth, t'enhtMtchal Irailitium, p. 20f. '" F. Baumgärtel, "Bibelkritik 1. AT." in R G C , vol 1, colurnn 1186 (literary mricism).

56 § 4 L I T E R A R Y C R I T I C I S M

untii one concludes the transmission historical and the redacVon historical investigation. As a resiilt of the interdependence of the methods, even the procedures in §§7-9 can once again provide viewpoints for the question of the literary integrity. Ί he intention of this Ob­servation is not to dvveli on our impressions of the text's inconsistency (or consistency). Rather, the intention is to push forwaivt to the emergence of the text itself. Statec slmply: Literary criticism is not persuasive just because one can use rt, rather it is persuasive where the text forces one to use rt. Only when the tensions cannot be explained in favor of literary unity must the literary criticai consideration be applied anew. Then the criteria cited in section I can be evaluated for the formative layer without impediment

d. The convmcmg proof that a literarty fixed Vortage (e.g. source text) has seen used, can only be presented if the copy's original formulation can be extricatec as an ad-equately closed entity, free of influence from the borrowing author. Acceptance of several (actors will necessarily weaken such proof, although it must not eíiminate it. These factors inelude: aeeepting that the author has only taken up the copy mcompletely, aeeepting that numerous places adapt their formulation to the new context, or aeeepting that transpo-srtions of the original text occurred with the borrowing.

e. In order to counterartthe danger of analytical oversensitivrty, one should. by com trasi, attempt to undersiand and to interpret a given text synthetically, as a si/pstomive toto/ity, in the sense of synchronic reflection. In the course of such a process, individual threads, which appear to be füll of tension. can also be seen eiachronieally and devclop-mentaüy as complimentary aspects added to a complete and thoughtfully construeted totalfty.38 Here, one must also observe the interdependence of the various methodologi­cal approaches. The Old Testament author's genre, opinion, and the type of presentation play an important roe as the subject of cross-checking questions. They can deümit the lit­erary critical endeavor because literary analysis cannot depe-nd upon that which appears inconsistent to the modern reader's logteal, stylistic. and material demands upon a text. Rather, the historical approach oflrterary analysis has to infer what was literarily possible at the time of the text's literary formulation. and what was not,

f. One critically correctlve funetion of the literary critical anaiysis. similar to the ap­proach in section e ) , finally requires a procedure by which one must test whether the achieved result is even ivslorically conceivab'e for the development of an Old Testament text. In so doing, one must consider the diverse eharacter of Old Testament transmis­sions/-

Generaliy in those places where longer transmission historical growth of material be-comes apparent on a braad basis (as for example in Genesis), comprehension has to make room for the thoughtful transmission historical perspective. In light of the mdepen-dent narrative unrts it « difficult to coneeive histoncaliy that the texts are combined from literary sources even to the level of half-verses. By contrast the literary critical view has proven itself in the Pentateuch in those piac.es where entire narrative units have been Ift-erarily distinguished/'1' If texts provide utile in the way of reference points for a transmission histoncal development tnen, on the basis of observations which indicate disunity, one may

5S Cornpare O.H. Steck. Wahrnehmungen, ρ. 16-35 (especially 26ff), for Gen 2:46-3:24. Also, Steck, Der Seböpfimgsberkbt der Priestersrbrift, -'1981 (especially p. 26-30, 244-255); also I I . Barth, Die Jesaja-Wbrte in derjosiazeit, 1977. p. 10f, 86-88, 187-1 »9, for Isa 28:7h- 22; 29.1-7; and 31:l-4+8à.

W Comparc also §5 Β II 1 (p. 66f). 40 Comparc, Koth, Pcntatcuchal Tiadirions, p. 24f.

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 57

reckon historically with the literary adaptation of a fixed, written text. These observations afow one to confirm short explanatory additions and giosses. They also confirm ex-pansions, revision into collections, ar.d supplemcntal redactions. Those places where one must accourrt for fixed Statements already in oral tsaaüon (prophetic speeches, partia! psalms. legal sayings, wisdom speeches. and apparently even in prophetic narratives) create a particularly dlfficult problem for literary crilicism and transmission history. In these cases it is scarcely possible to decice from the text. rtseif whether the processes represent written or oral expansion. Overlapping viewpoints must be taken into account regarding the place of origin. the tradent. and purpose in order to reach a decison. If ma­terial arguments dictate an oral development of the text. then the analysis must insure critically that the results correspond to the growth process as it would be possible in oral trädition.

I I I . T h e Question ot Larger L i t e ra ry Contexts

I f the text under investigation is i tself no t already the larger l i t e rary context (as for example, i f an entire prophet ic book w i l l be analyxed), d ien the text 's relationship to the preceding and the f o l l o w i n g context should be examined l i terary crit ically. T h i s procedural step begins by taking stock o f the given immediate and broader context. T h i s step is pursued by the literary critical inquiry in to the context. I t takes in to ac­count this context's Contents, its arrangement (in the sense o f strueture and composition—see footnote 80), and its thought progression. I t does so in order to distinguish that which or iginal ly belonged together l i terar i ly f rom more recent contexts i f necessary. This process leads to the determination ot the or ig inal l i terary layer as wel l as, it necessary, determinat ion o f more recent layers to w h i c h the entire text under investigation belongs."

Thus , the task o f classifying a text i n to the respeetive l i te rary context to w h i c h i t belongs must even be per tormed i f the text under consideration is l i terar i ly homogenous.

I n the beginners praetice, l i terary cri t ical results w i l l be applied f rom the present State o f d ie discipline ot in t roduc t ion . T h i s discipline w i l l provide In­format ion for the historical ident i t ica t ion o f the l i te rary layers 4 ' as w e l l as results regarding l inguist ic contour and fo rm (§7) .

41 Kxamples: The larger literary context ol Arnos 8:1-2 (die harvest basket vision of Arnos) was originally the vision cycle ot Arnos 7:1-8; 8:1-2; 9:1-4. This cyck was later expanded and has hecn combined with other transmission complexes to roakc the current book of Arnos (cf Kaiser, Old Testament bitroduetion, p. 217f). The larger literary context of 1 Sam 26 is first the history of the ascendancy of David. Later, the context becomes a narrative work which combines the histoiy of the ascendancy widi the Succession History to the throne. Later still the context becomes the Deutcronomistic history. The larger literary context of Gen 9:1-6 is first the Priesdy writing, dien developmental stages in which die priesdy writing has been worked into larger literary works.

4 2 Naming the layer. author, date and place of composition, material profile, etc.

58 §4 L I T E R A R Y C R I T I C I S M

T h e reconstruct ion o f larger l i terary contexts essentially occurs w i t h i n the frame o f l i terary cr i t ic ism. However. these results require expansion, dif-ferentiat ion, and verification by the remain ing methodological procedures. These procedures w i l l evaluate the result o l the tex t—immanent l i te rary analysis for its historical plausibility. I t is impor tant to pay attention to die f o l ­l o w i n g : the unif ied profile o f Statements o f a larger l i terary context; the transmission process standing behind that context inc lud ing the redaction his­torical perspective; the fo rm and the historical setting o f that context.

IV. Summary o f the Li te ra ry Cr i t ica l Procedure

1. The question o f die texts l i terary integrity: a. Is the text understandable by itself, or does i t represent on ly a

segment which requires the context? Examination o f the edges o f the text, examination o f the corpus w i t h regard to l inguist ic reference signals which relate the text to the context (e.g. suffixes, unint roduced persons, presuppositions o f the action).

b. Is the formulat ion o f the corpus l i te rar i ly homogeneous or not? Use o f the g u i d i n g question and the C o n t r o l l i n g question above in Β I I .

c. I n the case o f l i terary disunity: — precise dcl incat ion and division o f the text formulat ions in to

different l i terary layers. — content relationship o f die layers to one another: For example,

two original ly independent formulations are combined second-arily w i t h or w i t h o u t redactional formulat ions connect ing and compensating them. Also, an existing l i terary fo rmula t ion re-ceives a gloss, isexpanded, or enlarged ( in conjunction to what?).

— relative chronological relationship o f the layers to one an-odier, i f the l i terary critical analysis offers indices for this task.

Observe: Possible alternatives must be expressly e l iminated w i t h ra­tionale, and a revision on die basis o f the procedures o f § § 5 - 9 must be held open dur ing the process.

2. T h e question o f the larger l i terary contexts o f the unified text or, re­latedly, o f the different l i terary layers: a. Reconsidcration o f question la : W h i c h passage o f the i m m e d i ­

ate context (previous or subsequent) does the text (or the particular l i terary text layer) specifically presuppose?

b. For which O l d Testament l i terary work was the text (or the i n d i ­vidual l i terary layer) first formulated? H o w is this l i te rary w o r k arranged, and where does the text (or text layer) stand w i t h i n that arrangement? (preparat ion for the

Results 59

redaction historical question regarding the intended posi t ion o f the text (or text un i t ) i n the l i terary work , cf §6 Β I I 2). D o the more recent layers o f the text have parallels i n other places o f this l i terary work? (preparation for the redaction his­torical question: D o these internal stages relate to one another as individual expansions or redactional processes? C f § 6 Β I I 2.) Co r robo ra t i ng question: To what extent do the l i terary critical Undings in the text under investigation correspond to the l inguis­tic and material eharacter o f the larger l i terary framework?

c. I n what broader l i terary contexts was the text under investigation transierred w i t h its l i terary layering, even if this transferring d id no t affect the fo rmula t ion o f this particular text? (Corre la t ion w i t h §6)

The component questions b and c stnve toward the larger context in wnich a Statement has been formulated or the context in which iL entered the Old Tes­tament . They prepare the redaction historical investigation (§6) and the deter­mination of an :ndividual s tatements meaning within the frame of its entire con­tex t (§ i 0). Practically, one must rely upon secondary literature (Oid Testament introduetions, commentar ies and their introductions, monographs) for clarifi-cation of b and c. Even f o r the beginner. this reiiance η no way excludes the pos-sibiiity of limited contributions on the basis of the text under investigation.

C. R E S U L T S

T h e results o f l i terary cr i t ic ism can be seen in the fact that i t performs the necessary groundwork for other exegetical stages. Transmission history can begin its analysis w i t h the oldest l i terar i ly homogenous version o f the passage under considerarion (or relatedly its [sourcel components) which was obtained by l i terary cr i t ic ism. Redaction history employs the results achieved by l i te rary critical analysis when i t coberently riresents the history o f die encountered text in the realm o f wr i t t en transmission and when i t coherently presents the oper­ative work ing procedures and motifs. A t the poin t in w h i c h the larger l i terary context o f a text is demonstrated, and at the po in t in wh ich the texts place in the context is determined, l i terary cr i t ic ism makes i t possible to inquirc into the author, place, and time for the l i terary version. Simultaneously, this demon-strarion provides the respeetive l i terary context in whose framework the text can be material ly interpreted i n the coneluding section ot determining the his­torical meaning.**

43 Examples: Arnos 8:1-2 should first be interpreted in the context of die vision cycle, Cor­respondingly, the components of the Yahwistic prima! history should be interpreted brst and foremost in the (rame of die Yahwistic work, etc.

60 § 4 L I T E R A R Y C R I T I C I S M

D . L I T E R A T U R E

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D O V E R V I E W

J. Barton. "Sumte Criticism." ABD, vul. 6, 162-165. G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 5 (Ε Hübet) , § 9B (G. Fohrer). Ν . Habel. Literary Criticism of the Old Testament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship.

Old Testament Series. J.C. Rylaarsdam, ed. Philadelphia, 1971. Ο Kaiser. Exegetical Method, ρ. 11-16. K. Koch. The Growth of tbe Biblical Tradition, p. 68-78. M . Not l i . A History of Pentateuchal Traditions. p. 5-41 (esp. p. 20-25). Atlanta, 1981

(reprint, 1972 translation).

I I . EXPANSION A N D C R I T I C A L ALTERNATIVES

I . Engnell. Methodological Aspects of Old Testament Study. VT.S 7 (1960); 13-30 (esp. 21 ff).

K. Rcraltorff. "Literarkritik und Traditionsgeschiehte." F.vTh 27 (1967): 138-153. . 'Die Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch JSOT.S 89.

Sheffield, 1990. VV. Richter. Exegese, p. 49-72. H . Ringgren. "Literarkritik, Formgeschichte, Überlieferungsgeschichte. Erwägungen

zur Methodenfrage der alttestamentlichen Exegese." T h L Z 91 (1966): col. 641-650.

S. Segert. "Zur Methode der alttestamentlichen Literarkritik." A r O r 24 (1956): 610-621.

H J . Stoebe. "Grenzen der Literarkritik im Alten Testament." T h Z 18 (1962): 385-400.

J.H. Tigay, ed. Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism. Philadelphia, 1985.

ΠΙ. EXEMPLARY E X E C U T I O N

I I . Gunkel. Genesis. TTK Ϊ / 1 . p. 137-140. (Literary criticism on Gen 6:5-9,17,28f.) Göt t ingen , 3 1910 (=T977).

I I . - J . Ilermisson. Deuterojesaja. BK X I . Fascicle 7. p. 1-80. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1987. W Richter. Die Bearbeitungen des »Retterbuches« in der deuteronomischen Epoche.

BBB21.p . 1-62 (Literary criticism onjudg 2-12). Bonn, 1964. C R . Seitz. "The Crisis of Interpretation over the Meaning and Purpose of the Exile."

F T 35 (1985): 78-97 (Literary Criticism. on Jer 21,24,27,37-43). Κ. Seybold. Bilder zum Tempelbau. Die Visionen des Propheten Sacharja. SBS 70.

p. 11-23. (Literary criticism on Zech 1-8). Stuttgart, 1974.

TV HISTORY OF RESEARCH

R.E. Clements. Α Century of Old Testament Study. Rev. ed. Guildford, 1983. O. Eißfeldt. "Literarkritische Schule." RGG' , vol. 4, col. 388-390. Η . Greßmann . "Die Aufgaben der alttestanientlicben Forschung." Z A W 42 (1924):

1-33 (esp. 2-8).

Litera ture 61

N . C . Habel. Literary Criticism of the Old Testament. Minneapolis, 1971. H.F. Hahn. "The Critical Approach to tbe Old Testament." Old Testament in Modern

Research, p. 1-43. Philadelphia, 1954. R. Knierim. "Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction." Tn

D.A. Knight and C M . Tucker, The Hebrew Bible and Tts Modem Interpreters. Philadelphia-Chico, 1985, p. 128-136.

D.A. Knight, ed. Julius Wellhausen and His Prolcgomemi to the History of Israel. Semeia 25 (1983).

K. Koch. The Growth of the Biblical Tradition. p. 68-76. H.-J. Kraus. Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments,

(see die subject index under "Literarkritik."). Neukirchen-Vluyn, Τ 982.

The Transmission Historical Approach

Λ. T U E T A S K

L De ic rn i ina t i on

I f ari O l d Testament text or text complex developed in the realni o f oral speech before its t ranscr ipt ion, then one utilizes the transmission historical approach.

Above all, the fo l l owing state o f affairs offers the reason for inquiry be l i i i id a text's oldest asccrtainable w r i t t e n phase in to the realm o f its previous oral transmission. T h e content o f a text, or even parts o f a text, appears to be inde-pendent o f its immediate context ( inc luding aspects o f bo th f o r m and genre, in ant icipat ion o f §7) . Thus , i n the t ime o f its first utterance, the text was original ly understandable w i thou t additional text material. One dius appears to encounter the phenomenon o f a "stmill unii." O n the one band, l i terary en t i -ties so small i n siže were no t t ransmit ted in w r i t t e n fo rm separately, and their combinat ion w i t h other "small uni ts" in to a c o l l e c ü o n is a secondary process. One the other hand, such phenomena arise in conjunction w i t h spoken actions (eult, school wisdom, legal ora t ion, prophetic pronouncement, narrative ac-t i v i t y ) . For these two reasons, die assumption is oftered that here one en-counters the recording o f small, or iginal ly oral speech units. Indeed, in special cases i t even appears that these small units experienced changes du r ing oral their transmission wh ich is s t i l l detectable, as text observations can suggest (along w i t h investigation on die basis o l § § 7 and 9).

T h e transmission historical approach concerns itself w i t h such justifiable de-ductions f rom the oldest w r i t t e n fo rm o f the text back in to die arena o f die oral development and transmission. Accordingly, the precision o f these trans­mission historical deductions manifests i tself differently depending upon the extent o f the first wr i t t en recording upon the formula t ion o f the text. Of ten

64 §5 T H E T R A N S A I I S I U N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

in the area o f eult, wisdom, and law, one can situate the given fo rmula t ion in the oral phase for reasons o f usagc. W i t h prophetic logia, i t is frequcntly not possible to reconstruet the coinplete, or ig inal ly oral fo rmula t ion behind the Condensed, wr i t t en fo rm. T h e wr i t t en fo rm can even tako aecount o f the ef­fect o f die prophetic word. W i t h individual narratives, the possibili ty diat one can t rače the formula t ion 's oral phase is generally even smaller, as w i l l be shown below.

A t the same time, the transmission historical approach is o f essential sig-nificanec. I t provides insight in to the development and or ig in o f die text, i n to the text's purpose and use in conerete situations, and in to die ins t i tu t ions o f Israel. Eurdier , the transmission historical approach i l bmina t e s the appear-anec, independence, and contour o f "smaller un i t s" w i t h i n the w r i t t e n trans­mission o f the O l d Testament.

T h e task o f transmission his tory is therefore to determine the f o n u and development o f the text in diis oral transmission phase, in as much as that is possible, and to e.xtract any other supportable conelusions from this area. 4 4

Transmission his tory first proceeds analytically. I t begins w i t h the oldest l i t e ra r i ly homogenous version o f a text , or relatedly its component (source) parts, as established i n the l i terary critical stage. I t then inquires further, back in to the realni in wh ich the text has been orally t ransmit ted and i n wh ich i t was or ig ina l ly formulated. Transmission his tory thereby aims at a phenome­non frequcntly encountered i n Anc ien t Israel: a major i ty o f texts have d ie i r o r i g i n in the realni ol" l iv ing speech (such as individual narratives, legal s t ipu-lations, prophetic speeches, and cultic songs). T h e y are first conveyed i n oral transmission. D u r i n g this oral transmission, changes can also enter die trans­mi t t ed material.

A. synthetic stage begins w i t h the analytical results, bu t reverses the direc-t i o n o f inquiry. To the extent that i t is possible and that i t is suggested by evi-dence, this stage atrempts to portray the development o f the t ransmit ted text, i n its historical derivation and context, f rom its first recognizable oral form to die oldest wr i t t en fo rmula t ion . I t h ighl ights the effective changes and his­torical factors.

I I . Terminolog) 7

Elsewhere in exegetical l i terature, one also finds the t e rm "transmission h is tory" l imi t ed to the h is tory o f a transmission un i t , o r the merger o f i n d i ­vidual pieces, d u r i n g the stage o f oral t ransmission. 4 5 I t must also be notcd ,

44 The task is thus a constituent question within the framework of the overarehing question about the development of an Old Testament text (see above, §4 Λ I [p. 47ffj).

45 Gompare Fohrcr. Introduction, ρ. 2901 (ehart). Recently Fohrer {Exegese, p. 119ff) has modified his rlcfinition in so far as hc also atrributes "possible earlier, and therefore "precursory", stages of codification" (p. 120, cmphnsis ours) to transmission history. However, for Fohrer, diis

Commentary on the Approach and the M e t h o d 65

however, that "transmission h is tory" w i l l often be perceived i n another sense which ineludes redaction h i s t o r y 4 6 or which is related to the analysis o f a spe­cific text's w r i t t e n or oral prehistory. 4 7 M a n y use the t e rm " t radi t ion his tory" as a synonym for "transmission his tory" in the narrower sense, as used by us. 4 3 Likewise , many use the t e rm "transmission h is tory" in a broader sense wh ich ineludes wr i t t en t ransmission. 4 9 Finally, i n order to differentiate be­tween the methodological process and die subject w h i c h i t investigates, the designation for the method contains the component o f ' ' c r i t ic i sm", wh ich many researehers use i n the sense o f f o r m i n g scientific judgment (transmis­sion cr i t ic i sm, t rad i t ion cr i t ic ism). T h e same goes for die methods ot redaction history, f o r m history, and t radi t ion his tory. ' 0

Β. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D T H E M E T H O D

1. Relationship to L i t e ra ry C r i t i c i s m 5 1

1. Expansion Methodolog ica l ly refleetive l i te rary cr i t ic ism and transmission his tory

complement one another meaningfully. Ana ly t i ca l ly de te rmin ing a text's de­velopment d u r i n g the w r i t t e n transmission stage is conducted by l i te rary c r i t ic i sm, whi le de te rmin ing the oral transmission stage is conducted by the transmission historical approach.

2. De l imi ta t ion W h e n cr i t ical ly distinguished f rom l i te rary cr i t ic i sm, the transmission

historical approach should b r ing the fo l lowing to bear:

a. T h e o r ig in and format ion o f numerous O l d Testament texts derive from the arena o f oral transmission.

b. T h e prineiples o f oral transmission can be considerably differentiated f rom those of wr i t t en transmission. 5 '

expansion has a purely theoretical eharacter, since the "precursory" codification stage is no longer something which is "'immediately available."

4* Classic examples: Nodis The Druteronvmistk History and Tbe Chroiiiclcr's History (see below, §6 D 111 [p. 93]) and Pentateuchtil Tradilwns (see above, p. 60).

47 Su Koch, íirtnetb ofBiblictd 'Tradition, ρ. 38,51,531,57. 48 So, for example, Κ Baumgärtel, R G G \ vol. 1, col. 1187. 41? So, for example, von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, ρ. I lf,187,306f. etc.; A.H..J.

Gunneweg, BHH, vol. 3. col. 2018-2020. 50 Cornpare, for example, Fohrer, Exegese, p. 7,12 If. 51 C f also §4 Β II 2f (p. 55). 52 Cf. §4 A l l (beginning on p. 51) with §4 Β I I 2f (p. 55). See also Koch, Grmsth of Biblical

Tradition, §7 (especially, p. 89-91.)

66 §5 T H E T R A N S M I S I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

One should dius certainly note the fo l lowing: Frequently, die outline, contour, and e s senüa l traits are determined in the reahn o f oral transmission, especially i n narrative texts. However, not every specific formula t ion is determined there in . 5 '

I I . Transmission His tor ical Processes' 4

Transmission his tory can be applied w i t h a prospect for conerete results 5 5

to those texts wh ich arose in the realm o f oral transmission and to those wh ich were also occasionally subjected to certain changes and formarive i n f l u -ences du r ing oral transmission.

1. l y p e and M ä n n e r o f Changes I n order to understand the type and manner in w h i c h the transmission

Segments (small units) were changed du r ing oral transmission one must con-sider diat O l d Testament texts derive f rom extremely diverse formative rela­tionships. T h e means o f influence upon individual segments are very different depending upon the formative circumstanccs.

I n those places where traditions had been populär narrative material before they were recorded in wr i t t en fo rm , one should consider dia t on ly the C o n ­tents were in i t i a l ly fixed d u r i n g the oral phase.' 6 Thus , these transmissions were s t i l l relatively open for re formula t ion , broader development, correla-t ion , and i n t e r t w i n i n g w i t h o ther narratives and w i t h por t ions o f other nar­ratives. T h e composi t ion of different elements necessarily produces certain tensions. By contrast, i t is less apparent that the or ig ina l w o r d i n g was con-stantly changed du r ing oral transmission when insr i tut ional frameworks (or relatedly reflective procedure) lead to fixed formulat ions which c o u l d then be oral ly t ransmitted. 5 " I n those cases, the effect o f the transmission tradent

5' The following is valid in diese cases: If verse numbers are assigned during the course of a transmission historical analysis, then, in contrast to literary criticism. die isolation of verses or verse parts does not generali}' intend a tixed voeubulary. Radier die assignation iudicates the extent of transmission components they contain.

5+ Hermisson. Jakobs Kampf am Jabbok, 251-257, offers important. extensive reflecüons upon the presuppositions for the origin and transmission of orally transmitted produets in hght of narratives.

55 Cf. section V below, p. 69. '<> Sociologically: in die main, die period of die tribal System of Israel before l ü ü ü BCt, bul

still in die Nordiern Kiligdoin; tradems: perhaps travelling story tellers. "lexts in the Old Tes­tament: especially in Genesis to Samuel; Example: Gen 32:23—33 (cf. Eiliger, Der Jaivbskampf am Jabbok, and Hermisson, cited above). J .R Floß, Wer schlügt s w ? , demonstrates that one may rrack a preliterary phase of this text bv linguistic investigation, in contrast to E . Blum, Komposition (p. 140f}; 175ff).'

57 Sociologically: in tbe monarchial period of Israel and under the influence of courdy cul-ture diese institutional frameworks are expanded; rradents: schools and school-like groups. Texts in tbe Old lestament: especially cult songs. legal sayings. and, in pari, prophetic logia, wisdom sayings, but also theologically conteniplativc narratives about prophets.

Commenta ry on the Approaeh and die M e t h o d 67

m o r e l ike ly manifests i t se l f in the o rde r ing o f the col lect ion, in in terpret ive

and actual iz ing introduct ions , expansions, appendixes, or c o n n e c ü v e pieces (as

l ong as these are not better a t tr ibutcd to the wr i t t en t ransmiss ion phase) .

2. Mater ia l Character o f the Changes To unders tand the Substantive mater ia l eharacter o f the changes whose

transmiss ions can be attr ibuted to the course o f the t ransmiss ion history', one

mus t cons ider a broad array o f possibil i t ies:

a. n e w material accents" (especially narrative); b. Substantive theological transformations (for example, the meorporat ion o f

pre-Israelite material into the sphere o f Israelite religionT' ' ;

e. changes on the basis o f d i sp lacement ( regard ing popula t ions , terr i tory ,

sett ing, l eading f igures) or par t i cu lar (h i s tor ica l ) events i n the r e a l m o f

t r a n s m i s s i o n 6 0 ;

d. changes on the basis o f ins t i tut ional or theological a l terat ions in the

tradent c i r c l e 6 1 ;

e. changes associated w i d i u n i t i n g ind iv idua l pieces into a co l l ec t ion (as-

s ini i lat ions , h a r m o n i z a t i o n s , tetherings , enrire c o n n e c ü v e p ieces ) . 6 2

58 Example: In the Pemiel saga of Gen 32:23-33, the namine scene (32:28-30a) is a secon-darily added narrative modi because it Interrupts tbe demand and the bcstowal of blessing (32: 27b,30b) and forms a second ebmax to the narrative beside the namingof the jilace (32:51).

" Example: bi the pre-lsraelitc/Canaanitc form of the Pernici saga, the man liad reallv threateneil Iiis divine counterpart (as 32:26f dcmonstiatcs). However, the Israelite version, through its additions of 32:29,31bß (even clearer in the version of Hos 12:4f), cxprcsses that Jacob was fundamentally the loser in this balile. He had only endured (y/Win 32:29), and thus is his life spared (32:31). The formulations of 32-.26f have been implicitly transformed widiout change to the word­ing (these are also transmission historical changes).

<•* Example: The original Cannel story in 1 Kings 18 wams to show how a people vacillating between Y i l V V H and Baal were led lo a significant YHWHconfession in the tinie of Aliah (corrc-spondence between 18:31 and 18:39!). By contrast, 18:l9h,20,40 highlighl die events of the Willing of the Baal prophet». This displacement of accem signifies a rcworlcing which acnializcs rhe older Cai'inel transmission luider the iinpression of die reign ofjehu and his eradication of tbe Baal wor-shippers(2 Kgs 10:18-271.

f'l Example: The expansion of the Pcnuel saga in 32:33, which etiologically connects a cer­tain table cusrom wirb Jacobs limp, happens first when the saga leaves its pre-lsraelite and its proto-Israelite transmission circle, which was still limited to tbc people of Jacob, and was passed on by transmission tradents oriented toward all Israel.

<·- Example: 1 Kings 18:18b, 19a are components of a collectors transition (because of laier reworkings, only incompletely reeeived) from the droughi narrative (17:16; 18:1-2a [2b- 16?], 17-18a) to the Carniel story (18:21-39). For examples from die Pentateuch, sec Noth, Penl/t-temhallraditnms, especially p. 198-227.

Fohrers {Exegese, p. 12üf,128f,139f,l 41 f) djffcrcntiation «ithin the realm of oral transmis­sion represents an unnecessary complication, which is also impractical in light of the te.xt material. He distinguishes between "colleetor's ordering," which he assigns to transmission criticism, and ''composition," which should be invesugated in composition criticism and redaction criticism. I3y contrast, we assign all proeeedings taking place in die realm of oral transmission to transmission

68

ΓΠ. Methodologica l Questions for the Analyt ical Process"'

yjyi 1. Is the text under investigation t ransmit ted elsewhere in the O l d Testament or in Israel's environment in a manner wh ich does not indicate l i terary dependence {double and multiple transmission)}6* W h a t does comparison provide?

2. H o w does this text appear under foun critical inspection}^ Does this inspection indicate an ent i ty which is complete, free-standing, and independent o f the context? I n a narrative text, what do the seenie strueture and, above ali , the lines o f tension produce for the question o f the coherence and con­sistency o f a small unit? Can one determine lines in the profi le o f the genre (elimax, lines o f tension, in t roduc t ion , conelusion; expanded genre, mixed genre) or by compar ing genre historical results which allow eonelusions con­cerning the transmission historical processes and wh ich allow a re-construetion o f the preliterary fonii(s)? w '

3. W h e r e do material tensions and curiosities exist w h i c h , however, no longer allow l i terary division? W h i c h lines are no t eonceivable, or are even improper, at the t ime of the text's l i terary composi t ion and thus po in t to a p r io r arena o f transmission his tory? 6 7

4. W h i c h lines allow themselves to be classified to a specific transmission stage for theological, historical, l inguistic, or history o f religions rea-sons?°*

historv, and ali proceedings taking place in the written transmission realm wc assign ro literary criticism and redaction history.

f> Richter rejects argumentation solely on die basis of content criteria for transmission his­torical analysis (Exegese, 44.152-163; there under the tenu "tradition criticism," cf discussion above, p. 65). Such caution is warranted. However, one should also doubt whether deduetions concerning preliterary stages of a text are possible exclusively on the basis of linguisuc-structural indices. It is not eonceivable why material tensions, history of religions phenomena, or culrural history phenomena (that is to sav phenomena related to the content of the text) may not be evalu-ated as signs of an oral prehistory of the text unit as such, especially since linguistic-structural tensions can be missing trom a text widi a preliterary prehistory. Reaching beyond the transmis­sion historical process to odier exegetical processes is therefore again essential.

t>4 bor examples. sce footnote 26. 65 Again, the interdependence of the methods is revealcd! 66 Example: the multiple elimax of Gen 32:23-33 (see above, footnotes 58 and 61). 6" Example: die presentation of Y H W H ' s wrestling with Jacob in Gen 32:26f (see above,

footnote 59). 6 S Example: the Jolling of the Baal priests in 1 Kgs 18:40 in distinetion to the historical set­

ting of the Gannel scene as a «hole (see above, footnote 60).

Commentary on the Approach and die M e t h o d 69

5. Does the homogenous genre proper ty (§7) necessitate the accep-tance o f the oral or ig in o f a small un i t for a text whose formula t ion is fixed because o f die artna in which it is utilized (cult, wisdom, law)?

6. Does a corresponding Unding simultaneously necessitate furdier i n -qu i ry in to an oral transmission f o r m despite redactional rrworking o f the formula t ion (prophet ic logia)?

I V T h e Synthetic Process

By mobihVing historical (§9) and fo rm cri t ical (§7) considerations, die synthetic presentation o f a transmission un i t s path i n oral t rad i t ion should i l luminate the reasons for the o r ig in o l diat transmission uni t .

T h e synthetic presentation should endeavor to explain the historical necessities and the intentions which have determined the transmission u n i t s development and the changes w i t h i n the frame o f oral transmis­sion. 6"

T h e same is true for the process o f the connection o f several such transmis­sion units in the realm o f oral transmission in to a larger transmission complex (collections, narrative cycles). W i t h the question o f the intent ions o f trans­mission, the synthetic process o f the transmission historical approach already furnishes elements for de termining historical meaning (§10) .

V. Applications for the Transmission Histor ical Approach

Individual texts as well as large text complexes (for example, pentateuchal sources) allow themselves to be treated transmission historically regarding die transmission components assimilated in them and their shape in oral tra­d i t i on . A m o n g the O l d Testament wr i t ings , the historical books generally prove productive for a transmission historical investigation. I n addit ion to the narrative transmission, i t is especially impor tan t to consider the legislative material as w e l l . 7 0 By contrast, changes scarcely appear i n older wisdom and cult texts in the phase o f oral transmission. 7 1 W i t h prophetic logia, the trans-

W A close correlation thus cxisrs between the transmission historical approach and the deter­mination of the historical setring of transmission layers!

70 For example, one has to consider the problems which the Book of the Covenant creates in this regord. Sce tbe recent work of F.. Otto, Wandel der Rechtsbegründungen in der Gesellschaftsge-schtchte des antiken Israel. Eine Reebtsgescbicbte des ^Bundesbitcbes« Ex XX 22-XXIH ] 5, Leiden, 1988.

'1 In the Psalter, however, transmission historical and literary critical problems are neverthe-less settled in die arena of the formulations of individual psalms". This fact is demonstrated, for example, in the invesngarions of W. Beyerlin and K. Seybold. Cf. K. Seybold, lntroducing tbe Psalms. Edinburgh, 1990, p. 255ff (more extensive bibliography in tbe German edition, Die Psalmen. Eine Einführung, 1986, p. 208ff).

70 §5 T H E T R A N S M I S Ī O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

mission historical i nqu i ry is in principal necessary, bu t progrcss toward the prel i terary formulations is frequently blocked.

V E Summary o f the Procedure o f Transmission H i s t o r y

1. Analyt ica l Questions a. Does the l i te rar i ly homogenous text, or one o f its l i t e ra r i ly inde-

pendent layers, suggest materinireasons indicat ing an orally trans­mi t t ed piece existed previously? A n d can one exclude a purc ly literary 7 (!) imi ta t ion o f the eharacter o f small units (perhaps in re-lation to the genre)?

b. Does Β I I I 1-6 provide analytical text indicators which strengdien this supposition?

I c. W h a t sbape d id the oral transmission take? — Possibly, the fo rmula t ion is reeeived completely intact (for

example, i n cult songs, sacral and profane legal stipulations, wisdom sayings, even, w i t h qualification, the incorporat ion o f prophetic logia).

F r o m the other side, can one isolate elements o f the formula t ion which more l ikely belong to the wr i t t en recording? — Less o f the fo rmula t ion is reeeived intact (for example, w i t h

prophetic logia). W h a t can one isolate as a l inguist ic or material presupposit ion o f the li terarily-compressed prophet ic logia wh ich comes closer to die i r oral l inguist ic shape? — T h e formula t ion is probably not reeeived intact, but possibly

the out l ine, perspective, or emphases are reeeived (for ex­ample w i t h individual narratives).

2. Synthetic Questions a. W h a t are die reasons for the origin and transmission o f the text's

reconstrueted oral phase, and what are the conditions o f its ins t i -tut ional framework (§9)?

b. A r e Uiere indeed indicators o f a change (transmission h is tory) w i t h i n the oral t rad i t ion , and what arc the reasons and the ma­terial signals o f t l i is change (see Β I I 2)?

•

c. Are there compositional indicators in the context that the text, or text laver, was incorporated in to orally t ransmit ted collectiotis of

#vK correspondingly small units? I f so. what material change does this process produce?

Note : Transmission historical investigations are necessary, but they are to a large degree reconstruetions. For this reason, they require Support f rom similar Undings according to §7 and § 9 .

Results 71

C. R E S U L T S

I . l i i s igh t i n to the O r i g i n and Changes o f a Transmission U n i t w i t h i n Oral Tradi t ion

I f one is able to t rače a text's o r ig in and, i f necessary, its formative changes back in to the realm o f oral t radi t ion, then transmission his tory prepares indis­pensable insights for understanding this text. One can detect locality, t ime, rationale, and the arena o f usage concerning the o r ig in and the changes. T o -gether w i t h the transmission form's characteristic components, these insights Ieave traces in oral t radi t ion up to die oldest l i terary version ol the text. Also , on the basis o f diis prehistory, diese insights make the text understandable.

Π . Transmission H i s t o r y as Actua l iz ing Procedure

Transmission historical research makes the transmission procedure under­standable as a process o f continual realization and actualization beginning wi th die realm o f oral tradition. 7 - ' I t does so even when this process p r imar i ly shaped the present text i n die subsequent wr i t t en phase (see §6) . T h i s pro­cedure may be classified in three aspects:

1. T h e revision o f older transmission pieces and, at times, their new real i ­zation is a conspicuously frequent feature in the O l d Testament. Those responsible for such transmission apparently operated f rom the convic-t ion that both texts and speeches are not s imply "f inishcd" i f their con­erete ehronologieal reference has faded. N o w , as before, these texts cou-ceal an i n n e r actuality " w h i c h could always have fresh meaning extracted f r o m t hem" i n a changed S i tuat ion. ' '

2. T h e o ld transmission piece gains its actuality in the changed S i tuat ion, but o n l y th rough reappropriat ion and interpretation. Simple repet i t ion does not suífice.

3. T h e strueture o f the transmission process inside the O l d Testament, in a certain respect, can stimulate and or ient the task o f reappropria t ing and actualizing O l d Testament texts i n the present.

I I I . Transmission H i s t o r y as the H i s t o r y o f die Rel ig ion and Eaidi o f Israel

T h e analytical por t ion o f the transmission historical investigation o f texts can provide access to historical dara.' 4 T h e synthetic aspect o f the transmis-

Comparc- especially von Rad, Old Testament Tbeology, vol. 1, p. 3-5.129f, and Vol. 2, p. 42-44,45-49, and context.

7J V. Rad, loc. rit., Vol. 2, p. 46. •4 Cf. IV below.

§5 T H E T R A N S M I S I O N H I S T O R I C A L . A P P R O A C H

sion historical investigation creates the condi t ion that one may fur thermore observe a very particular k ind o f h is tory . 7 5 U n d e r transmission historical Ob­servation, even a small text uni t like Gen 32:23-33 presents i tself as a series o f developmental stages which eonceal a kind of rel igio-historical eompendimn. Fur thermore , one may recognize the his tory o f IsraePs faith f rom the trans­mission his tory of larger text complexes. One recognizes this his tory as a re­sponse to specific historical experiences understood as C o m i n g f r om Y I I Y V H , and as the Integrat ion o f newly encountered intellectual conceptions- Trans­mission his tory thereby opens the possibili ty o f retracing the path o f Israels fa idi and its i n c l i n a ü o n s , especially i n tbe realm o f Israelis beginnings.

IV. Access to Histor ical and Rel ig io-His tor ica l Data

I n their final fo rm which now lies at hand, Statements f r om O l d Testament texts frequendy stand i n tension w i t h the im3ge w h i c h the his tor ian must depict for the history o f Israel. T h i s fact at first appears to d iminish greatly die value o f the O l d Testament as a source o f research for the h is tory o f Israel . 7 6

Transmission history, however, has changed this Situation. One must differen-tiate the question o f the text's historical content, to the degree that t r ad i t ion h is tory allows one to pereeive the text in various developmental stages. N o w each o f the developmental stages allows i tself to be investigated separately for its historical content. O n the one hand, the historical content can relate d i -recdy to details offered i n the text. O n the other hand, however, i t is given indirect ly in the relationships and the processes by wh ich those responsible for transmission were determined i n their o w n time period. O n l y then do eross references between archaeology, or die h is tory o f re l ig ion , and reports o f die O l d Testament texts often become clear. 7 7

D . L I T E R A T U R E

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N A N D OW.RVTEW

G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 9A+B D.A. Knight. 'Tradition History." ABD, Vol. 6, p. 633-638. K. Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition, p. 38-57. VV.E. Rast. Tradition History and the Old lestament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship.

Old Testament Series. J. C. Rylaarsdam, ed. Philadelphia, 1972.

" s Cornpare Rendtorff, Geschichte und Überlieferung, especially ρ. 83,85,88ff. 16 This fact should not be cvaluated as negative too quickly. For the problem, cf. von Rad,

Old Testament Theolgy. vol. 1, p. 3-5,105-111. T> For discussion of the whole question, sec especially Koch, Growth of Biblical Tradition.

p. 54-56.

Li te ra ture 73

Π. EXPANSION A N D C R I T I C A L ALTERNATIVES

I I . Birkeland. Zum hebräischen Traditionswesen. Die Komposition der prophetischen Bücher des Alten 'lestaments. A N V A O 11. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. 1938 No. 1, Oslo, 19.38.

E. Blum. Die Komposition der Vätergeschichte. W M A N T 57. Ncukirchcn-Vluyn, 1984.

K. Jeppesen and B. Otzen. eds. The Productions of Time. Tradition History in Old Testament Scholarship. Sheffield, 1984.

D.A. Knight, ed. Tradition and Theology in the Old Testament. Philadelphia, 1977. S. Mowinckel. Prophet)- and Tradition. A N V A O I I . l list.-Eilos. Klasse. 1946 No. 3.

Oslo, 1946. G. v. Rad. Old Testament Theology, Vol. 1, esp. p. 8-10,12-14,121-135; Vol. 2, every-

where. R. Rcndtorff. Geschichte und Überlieferung. In: Studien zur Theologie der alttesta-

mentiiehen Liberlieferungen (Festschrift. G. von Rad), p. 81-94. Neukirchen, 1961. . Literarkritik und Traditionsgeschichte. EvTh 27 (1%7); 1 38-153.

W. Richter. Exegese, 152-165. H . Ringgren. Literarkritik, Formgeschichte, Uberlieferungsgeschichte. T h L Z 91

(1966): 641-650.

Works Dedicated to the Discussion o f Oral Tradition: R.C. Culley. "Exploring New Directions." In U.A. Knight and G.A. Tucker. The

Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia, 1985. p. 167-200. , ed. Oral Tradition and Old Testament Studies. Seineta 5 (1976).

G. Fohrer. Introduction to the Old 'lestament, § 3: p. 36-41 (see also additional liter­ature on 568f).

R. Knierim. "Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction." In: D.A. Knight and G.A. Tucker, The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia, 1985. p. 123-165.

K. Koch. Tbe Growth of Biblical Tradition, 78-91 (note especially the most impor­tant literature on ρ. 78f).

A.B. Lord . Tbe Singer of Tales. Cambridge, M A 1960. H. A. Stolz and R.S. Shannon, eds. Oral Literature and die Formula. Ann Arbor, 1976.

I I I . EXEMPLARY E X E C U T I O N

G. W. Goars. Genesis. FOTT. I . Grand Rapids, 1983. K. Elliger. Der Jakobskampf am Jabbok. Gen 32,23ff als hermeneiitisches Problem.

Z T b K 48 (1951): 1-31 (also in: Elliger, Kleine Schriften zum Alten lestament. Th l î 32. ρ. 141-173. Munich, 1966).

J. P. Floß. Wer schlägt wen? Textanalytische Interpretation von Gen 32,23-3.3. B N 20 (198.3): 92-132; B N 21 (1983): 66-100.

H . -J. Hermisson. Jakobs Kampf am Jabbok (Gen. 32,23-33). Z T h K 71 (1974): 239-261.

J. Jeremias (s. § 6 D I I I ) .

74 §5 T H E T R A N S M Ī S I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

Μ . Noth. A History of Pcntateuchal Traditions. Atlanta, 1981. O.H. Steck. Überlieferung und Zeitgeschichte in den Elia-Erzählungen. W M A N T

26. Neukirchen-Vluyu, 1968.

I V HISTORY OF RESEARCH

H.-J. Kraus. Zur Geschichte des Überlieferungsbegriffs in der alttestamendichen " Wissenschaft. EvTh 16 (1956): 371-387. . Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments. Neu­kirchen-Vluyn, 31982 (See tbe subject index under "Uberlieferung", "Uberlie­ferungsgeschichte").

Redaction Historical Approach

T h e in t roduc t ion to § § 4 - 6 above (§4 A I ) offered an ideal model con­cerning die o r ig in o f an O l d Testament w r i t i n g . I n most cases, this o r ig in does not oceur i n a single act w h i c h conceives and composes a w r i t i n g in the final fo rm wh ich comes to us. Rather, this o r ig in oceurs i n a multi-stage process over an extended per iod dur ing wh ich an older po r t i on is occasionally ex­panded and newly aecented. As a rule , the origin of an Old Testament literary n-ork therefore means the history of origin! T h i s history o f o r ig in o f an O l d Tes­tament w r i t i n g can even stand out sharply in a specific text. T h i s contrast is particularly true i f transmission historical and l i terary critical analysis establish that the text contains transmission Clements, and especially formulations, f rom different times. T h e more recent material is thereby attached to older, pre-existing material and enriches die older material w i t h new accentuations which change the older material. Exegesis cannot neglect this aspect i f i t wants to do justice to the in ten t ion o f the Statement, or more precisely, to the major i ty o f v icwpoints in a series o f Statements which fol low upon one another. A n d exegesis cannot neglect this aspect i f i t wants to make accessible the ke ryg-matic riches o f the text's final t o n n w h i c h are articulated as a word f rom vari­ous transmission witnesses f rom different O l d ' lestament times. Therefore , one has to t r ače the course o f a wri t ing 's developmental h is tory in the v iew-points ehanging w i t h i n the text.

I t is possible that transmission historical analysis demonstrated that the text goes back to an oral transmission fo rm (old individual narratives) or to an oral speech form (individual sayings or cult ic texts). Further, one may have to aceomit for a subsequent transmission phase, s t i l l w i t h i n oral t radi t ion , which arranged or collected these units and provided them w i t h new accents o f meaning. I f so, then one calls upon the transmission historical synthetic approach to elucidate this process, as we noted i n § 5 . As we saw, i t appears cxt remcly diff ieult to make progress toward this oral prehistory o f the components o f

76 §6 R E D A C T I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

O l d Testament wr i t ings and to encounter historical findings w h i c h are even plausible w i t h i n that prehistory. Today this di f f icul ty is recognized even in those places where one must undoubtedly aecount for a prehistory, unl ike the times wh ich euphorically ut i l ized form criticism under the supposition i t could almost access die original biblical act o f proelamation. T o backtrack behind the formative material o f a text's fo rmula t ion is much more di f f icul t tban one di inks, but i f necessary, one must do so hypothetically, using careful, reasoned deduetions.

By contrast, one encounters relatively f i rm ground w i t h the developmen­tal phases o f a text in an O l d Testament l i terary work on the written level-— phases (3) and (4) in our ideal pattern. Herc , as l i terary cr i t ic ism analytically elucidates, one encounters fixed formulat ions and li terary contexts for the i n ­dividual text. Here one sees l inguis t ic and material inconsistencies w i t h i n the individual text i tself or regarding its immediate or its wider context. Fixed vo-cabularies may be separated f rom one another and arranged chronological ly in relation to one another, possibly even i n a single l i terary uni t . Here , even w i t h a l i te rar i ly homogenous text, one may often observe d u r i n g the w r i t ­ing's developmental history, that the text comes to stand in diverse contexts w i t h different accentuations. Redaction his tory concerns itself w i t h the area o f w r i t t e n transmission, above ali w i t h the analytical materials f r o m l i te rary cr i t ic i sm. I t envisions these analytical materials synthetically as elements o f a historical , transformationaJ process w i t h i n the framework o f a text's devel­opmental history—hence the component "history" i n redaction history. T h e component "redaction" i n redaction his tory iniplies that a l inguist ieally pre-existing text wou ld be revised in this process, in the sense o f a changed con­struet ion. Thus , one discerns the eharacter o f the redactional measures. Pre-existing text material (also now newly integrated) or several l i terary entities are joined in to a new whole, by means o f reorder ing (composi t ion) and/or die redactor's own, new, textual inscript ions. As a ru le . these measures have also been carefully conceptualized. Ehe new is therefore constructed by cons t i tu-tive j o in ing to the o ld , or relatedly, i n keepmg wi th die o ld . Correspondingly, redactional and pre-existing material fo rm a newly understood whole i n die resul t ing w r i t i n g . I n this respect, redaction is a text -bound shaping w h i c h is characteristically differentiated in method and perspective f rom a wri t ing 's more or iginal formula t ion .

Such changing, redactional processes of revision appear in different ways with wideiy divergent literary horizons. Severe.! important cases of redactional proceedings are mentioned bere as typicai exampies.

I . When formeriy oraiiy transmitted material is first written down {"first written version"), it may already mvolve meanmgfu! redactional processes. These processes are evident in the deiiberate ordering in which the transmitted material has now been in-corporated. They are evident in the revision of the formulations by which the transmitted

T h e Task

material is acclimated to the entire writing and its sequence of Statements. As a result, the transmitted material is now only understandable within the framework of the writing as a whole. These procedures are evident in new redactional formulations which were first formulated for the developing wnting without a transmission historical basis. and which may directly express the redactionai intention. These new expressions range from small. commentary-like insertions into sma'l sections of a text, to more comprehensive new formulations (such as superscriptions and subscriptions) which have the entire wnting in view and which serve to strueture that wnting.

2, If an Old Testament writing alneady exists, then its "continuation" {"Fortschrei­bung") can appear subsequently, for example in the following procedures:

a. Occasionally, individual commentary-iike additions are utiüzed in light of small text sections. These additions range from glosses (linguistic or historical) to speech for-mulas and to additions of content and theology. They are attached to the immediate context linguisticaliy and/or by content. Over time, such additions, whose honzons are limited to the immediate context mstead of the entire writing, can develop further with particular Lhemes, They may be atxached in Clusters onto passages of the origi­nal literary entity. However, if it is not recognizable that additions are components serving an expanded rcstructuring of the whole (!) writing (that is, if they are treated as isolated additions). then the redaction historical approach finds application only in the narrow .framework of the additions immediate context.

b. In the text bemg exegetically treated, more recent additions, which literary criticism elucidates. can also be pan ofthe total redaction ofthe writing. This is the case when corresponding additions are found elsewhere in the wnting. Included among these corresponding additions are those which are aüke in content, in the redactional method. or which come from the same historical period. They shed new light on the reeeived writing as a whole. In this case, the task of the redaction historical approach is expanded to determine what the continuation found in this particular text wants to contribute to the total redactional profile.

c. As a rule, only one variety of (b) constitutes literarily homogenous additions, frequently somewhat larger in size. They not only represent an expansion of a pre-existing im­mediate context, but also have been formulated speoficoily foi the writing es redac­tional productions. These additions were alneady mentioned under section I). They are of greatest significance for the redactional profile because here the concerns of the redaction can unfold freely through new accents or detailed material expansions. Precisely because these newly formulated Statements also wish to revise something, it is not astounding that they take up many formulations from the entire writing, pointing backwaixis and forward. They referto other redactional formulations in the writing. They restrueture and reaccent the context with older formulated material. And thus they provide direction to the reader for the entire writing in its redactional sense. Also, one shouid observe the position of the specific formulations. They often have a materially strueturing Function for the whole.

d. The redactional revision of a writing can also be aecomplished with or without addi­tions to the text by resttveturing the entire reeeived writing. This restrueturing changes the perspective by shedding a different light upon the text being treated because, in some cases, a writing's newly available macrostrueture (reaügned into struetured sections) wants to understanc the text differently (as well as the associated text).

78 §6 R E D A C T I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

e. Finally. in addition to cases in which the redaction historical process not only contin-ues the existing wnting by restructuring and by specific formulations, one must also account for those cases which conneci pre existing transmitted material from else­where with the given writing to prcduce a new entity. This pne-existing material may be of a type which is oral or written. Conjoining two writings into one new redac­tional whole can provide a new dimension of meaning for each text component in both writings when the conjoming occurs with deliberation and with redactional structuring.

The preceding list of possibilities manifests the redactional processes of revision. ft seeks to make dear what must be taken into account in this methodological stage. It is a bnoad field in the true sense of the word.

The beginner snould not become discouraged with this breadth, and should limit himself/herself more precisely to potentiell redactional manifestations within the assigned text for the most part, additions and the immediate context are the working horizon. For the wider literary horizon of the assigned text (the redactional development cf the Old Testament literary work from which this text ongmates), the beginner may rely prirnanly upon Information from Old Testamen* introduetions, upon recommended secondary literature, and upon directions from the instruetor, The task of independently investigating texts redaction historically in the framework ofthe history of development for an entire literary work requires a precise knowledge of this work down to its particular formulations. And it invoives tedious, detailed concordance work. Practicaliy, it can only be undertaken with special concentration in the discipline ofthe Old Testament in the coneluding phase of one's studies. The following comments for this area can only be given as initial Instructions,

Here are three d e l i m i t i n g remarks to close this in t roduc t ion i n t o the redac­t i on historical approach:

First , both the revising and that which is revised belong to "redaction". Accentuations which have been ineorporated in the redaction process, do not allow themselves to he elevated to the po in t that one investigates on ly the re­vis ing interventions (restrueturings, new formulat ions) . Rather, these inter-ventions are eonstantly plaeed in relat ionship to that which was revised. Its meaning must therefore be determined as tbe new understanding ofthe revised. T h a t wh ich is revising certainly direets how that w h i c h is revised is now to be understood and to be read. T h e redactors o f O l d Testament w T Ì t i n g s were generali}' not of the opin ion that their redactional Statements invali i lated the older, revised Statements. For d i em, the w r i t i n g is vaiid i n the to ta l i ty o f ali of its Statements. T h e redactional Statements show die reader, however, diat the older (now revised) text now has only a parrial va l id i ty wh ich is hmi t ed concerning rime, persons, and/or content. For example, older judgment State­ments and redactional salvation Statements can stand side by side on the re­dactional level o f a prophetic w r i t i n g . However, the revised and the re\ 7 ising material do not stand out f r o m one another by the typeface used in the devel-

T h e Iask 79

opment o f an O l d Testament w r i t i n g . T h e n how did an ancient reader recog-nize die redactional meaning? T h e ancient reader recognized the redactional meaning by continuous reading o f the w r i t i n g , above al l , in the macrostruc-tural and in the micros t ruc tura l position in which the redaetionallv revising Statements are placed. These Statements are recognized especially at the be­g inn ing and end o f the w r i t i n g , the beginning and end o f the major section o f the w r i t i n g , or the beginning and end o f the individual pericope. A1J o f this has implicat ions for exegetical praxis, namely, that the meaning o f redactional ad­dit ions must be determined in relationship to the pre-existing text element which was revised. (See footnote 205 below.)

Second, i t is necessary to offer a warn ing against the op in ion diat one can, or even should, l i m i t oneself solely to exegesis o f die final form of tbe text reached in B H and thereby avoid the hypothetical i nqu i ry in to older stages. I n numerous cases, the final f o r m o f an O l d Testament text indicates complex, even contradictory Statements w h i c h must be clarified. Therefore, these State­ments force one to diachronic analysis ( l i te rary cr i t ic ism, see §4) and synthesis (redaction his tory) . O f course, the meaning intended i n the final f o r m must also be determined. However, i t is on ly diseernible i f one can grasp the p r o ­ductive reaccentuation o f the last hand. T h i s task, however, presupposes clar i-fication o f the previous stages w h i c h have the same status as the final f o r m o f the text i n the riches o f the O l d Testament witness. A so-called "holist ic exe­gesis" must ask itself how i t w i l l avoid exegetical arbitrariness w i t h o u t dia­chronic textual perspective.

T h i r d , the redaction historical approach may also be pereeived thor-oughly as an approach to the problem o f the history of reception (cf Chr . ü o h -men, see D below). However, one must be sure to keep i n m i n d that exegetical interest is not l imi t ed to the reception, the productive appropr ia t ion. A l o n g -side the reception, o f equal value, Stands the question o f the older material's o w n meaning, o f the meaning o f the reeeived. B o t h must be secn in re la t ion­ship to one another in order that a text's productive transmission process releases a movement o f meaning (see § I O C I I ) .

I n keeping w i t h the exegetical praxis w i t h i n one's studies, the f o l l o w i n g development o f the redaction historical approach concentrates p r imar i l y on the redaction historical processes w i t h i n the framework o f a specific text to be treated.

A . T H E T A S K

W i t h the redaction historical approach, exegesis continues the trans­mission historical work , in reg-ard to its synthetic aspect, but for the realm o f written transmission. I t thereby eoncludes the investigation o f the productive

80 §6 R E D A C T I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

transmission process o f die text in the O l d Testament. 7 S T h i s approach traces the text's history from its first wr i t t en fo rm through its expansion, or relatedly commentary, by means o f additions. Tt also traces a text's h is tory th rough its i ncoq io ra t ion in to larger complexes all the way up to its final version i n the current l i terary context. T h i s approach thereby determines the operative his­torical factors and the intentions o f the Statements. 7 "

T h e redaction historical approach as such brings in to focus the course o f the development and the pos i t ioning o f a text w i t h i n a w r i t i n g by die relative chronological order o t the redactional actions. T h e approach thereby works th rough the older text phases, new relationships, changes in formulat ions , and changes i n context. Ehe redaction historical approach understands these elements as redactional process. T h e procedural steps o f §7 and §8 w i l l then contr ibute f o r m cri t ical and t rad i t ion historical perspectives w h i c h fur ther clarifies this process. T h e procedural step o f §9 w i l l also at tempt to pursue ab­solute chronological , historical necessities and intent ions for the redaction historical development as described. As w i t h the procedural steps o f § § 3 - 9 as a whole , all o f this preparatory w o r k is undertaken for the final, decisive p ro ­cedural step o f § 1 0 . I n §10 , de te rmin ing the historical meaning is undertaken for the individual redactional text stages (see §10 C I ) as wel l as for the course o f the redaction his tory as such (see § 1 0 C I I ) .

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D M E T H O D

I . Relationship to L i t e ra ry Cr i t i c i sm

The redaction histoncal approach works closely with literary criticism and evaiuates its results. Both exegetical Steps concentrate upon the wntien stage of transmission. Lit­erary criticism processed partial conclusions on the analytical level. Redaction history now has the specific task of syntheticaüy coordinating those partial conclusions with the aspect of the historical progression. As already accented at the end of §A, the goal is therefore to comprehend the merging of the materials separated by literary criticism; to pinpointthe Signals of processing which were likewlse designated by literary criticism; and to trace the material motives and intentions in this redactional processing. In the latter aspect. redaction history lays the groundwork for determining historical meaning (§ 10) under the particular oerspective of the assimilation and processing of older material. Recaction history is thereby contrasted with the earlier widespnead negative evaluation o' additions and redactional work ("secondary" in the derogatory sense). It utilizes the redactional history of a text and the new Interpretation bound to it precisely because of its notable characteiistics.

"8 See above, § 4 A I (ρ. 470. 7 9 Redaction history also yields a closc correspondcncc to the procedure of determining the

historical setüng.

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 81

Redaction history also comes into play with a literarily homogenous text. Even in this case one must ask in which phase of the writing's developmental history the text's formulation took place. One must ask how ihe text relates to other redactional measures of the same phase. One must ask how it Stands in its relationship to immediate and broader context. And one must ask how its Statements are changed as the wrrting grows into its final fo rm. Moreover, in the case ofthe first written version, one has the task of determining the material relationship to the oral transmission material which >s now writ­ten down.

Tl. Redaction Histor ical Processes

1. Processes for the In i t ia l Recording o f Oral Transmission 8 0

W e begin, so to speak, w i d i die case o f the oldest recoverable redactional process, the wr i t t en registry o f material previously transmitted orally. T h e fact that a n oral transmission phase precedes is suggested by fundamental Observa­t ion as follows (see §5): T h e text to be treated is comprised o f a "small un i t " or it fonns a sinall un i t along w i t h the context; the text is presented as a sfring of such units; or the text contains such a u n i t when liberated from additions. Tn order to validate this uni t , it must stand by itself, formally and materially, and not require the surrounding text as an original ly planned context necessary to the understanding.

A t the same t ime, these small units are not given to us by themselves. Rather they are encountered on a larger l i t e rary level w i t h i n a wr i t t en con­text. h ö r example, they are encountered as ne ighbor ing psalms, wisdom say­ings, legal sayings, ancestral narratives, woe oracles, o r s a lvaüon Speeches (e.g. Isa 41:8-13,14 -16,17-20). T h e ereation o f this juxtaposi t ion/compila t ion, by its strueture and occasionally by its formulations, is a formative act on the mit­ten level which is fixed for posterity. Therefore, it is a subject for die redaction historical approach. I f the first w r i t t e n version productively shapes older trans­mission, then the first w r i t t e n version could also be scen as the last step o f the transmission history. I f so, it naturally leads to die new status as wr i t t en m a ­terial. T h a t new status now leads in to the field o f redaction history.

SO The fact that Fohrer (Fjcegcse, p. 140) does not ascribe the terai "redaction" to this process is, in part, a tenninological problem. We pereeive even compositional literary processes (like those noted below in "a") to fall under "redaction." Fohrer differentiates hcre between "composition"

and "redaction" (Exegese, p. 139-142). However, when Fohrer eliminates tbe revision of oral trans­mission that is undertaken with die act o l writ ing (described below in "h") from redaction

criticism, it vaise* die question in which methodological step he then pereeives this process, which

is by no means a process ol "pure literary ereation" (Exegese, p. 140). For us, "composition" means

the entire available context and tbe purpose of tbe Statements which possibly grow out of diat

context. This context, in which a particular text Stands at die developmental phase of the writing,

may be preliterary or literary. The synthetic approach, transmission history and redaction history, concentrates upon the ereation and extent of a composition, or of an intended text sequence in its

respective totality. With regard to the entire «Ork, it concentrates on each of its developmental

stages.

82

a. T h e first w r i t t e n version can be pure codification, i n w h i c h the form o f the first w r i t t e n rendering o f the specific section corresponds precisely w i t h the final oral stage. I n this case, one asks the redaction historical question on ly w i t h regard to the f unetion of this text. I f necessarv, one also asks about the imp l i c i t change ot the text's meaning w i t h i n die pert inent l i terary context, i n -sofar as the text enters in to such.*"

b. By contrast, the first w r i t t e n version o f pre-existing oral transmission can also signify its extensive (or more l imi t ed ) re formula t ion and ravording by the author o f the wr i t t en mate r ia l . " T h i s r eword ing is recognizable by the l inguist ic characteristics as wel l as the convergence o f the relevant l i te rary context w i d i the redactional profile (to die degree diat the text enters a bterary context w i t h the first wr i t t en version). T h e problem of " t rad i t ion and redac­t i o n " dien presents itself, namely different ia t ing older transmission elements f rom the por t ion be longing to the t ranscr ibing author and de t e rmin ing the motives for adopting the transmission piece.

c. b i diis regard, one should note that when differentiat ing between " t ra­d i t i o n and redaction" one should by no means expect the t rad i t ion to consist on ly o f transmission pieces wh ich are clearly defined, detaehable, and w h i c h previously were transmitted independendy One should not expect that t rad i -tions are l imi t ed to the transmission historical prehistory o f the text as already elucidated. Rather one should consider that an author who is reconceptualiz-i n g by using older transmission pieces can also articulate the redactional in t en t ion and coneeptions w i t h additional educational elements. These ele-

81 Examplcs: Individua] legal sayings as in Exod 21:18ff in the growingliterary trame uf the Book of the Covenant and of the Sinai perieopc (before the Pricstlv, Deuteronomic, and finally Pentateucbal material); individual wisdom sayings as in Prov 15 in the frame of tbe book of Proverbs introduced by Prov 1-9 (wisdom as a living person'); individual cultic texts like Pss 46 and 47 in the frame of literary collecdons of psalms and finally of the theologically strucrured Psalter.

S2 Contrary tu current upinion, diis process appears to be of greatest significanec for under­standing the recording of prophetic transmission. Widi prophetic literature, it is insignificant, from a methodological standpoint, that the author of tbe oral material and die writing redactor may be identical. Compare especially U l i . Steck, Wahrnehmungen Gottes im Alten Testament. T h B /O.Muních, 1982, ρ. 171-186 (particularly pages 179ff on Isa 7:3-9). In addition, seeH.-J. Kraus, ZA W 85 (1973): 39 to the woc-sayings of Isa 5:8-24; Barûijesaja-fPorte, ρ. 10f, on Isa 2S:7b-22. Working on Hosea, J . Jeremias bas produced grotmd breaking insights into die processes of the first written version of prophetic speeches. He shows how the older material bas been arraiiged into a planned, stxuctured composition using redactionally available parallel forms, thematíc expo-sitions, catchword connecrions, cross-rererences (backward and iorward), bridge Statements, abbreviations, and. through the written formulation, by concentration upon larger material sub-jccts in the context under the presupposition diat the reader of the prophetic writing already knows the preceding material. The first written version ineorporates the older material into a form which is only understandable for a reader by Observation on the entire written context because of its cross-refcrcnced words, word plays, and pattems of construetion. Cf. in its entirety, J.Jeremias, Der Prophet Hosea, A T D 24/1, Göttingen, 1983, and also his Hosea studies from 1979 and 1981 mentioned on page 10 ol diat book.

Commentary on the Approach and Me thod 83

ments can have represented mobile , isolatable material known by the author.9' These procedures w i l l be studied further in the frame o f t radi t ion history'.

cl. T h e composi t ion o f a pre-existing oral transmission in to a larger work by a revising author presents its redactionallprofile variously. O n die one hand, the redactional profi le presents i tself when i t seleets, orders, and coordinates the old U'ansmission as well as when i t reformulates and rewords the old trans­mission (see above, " t radi t ion and redaction"). O n the other hand, w o r k i n g out the intentions o f the redactor should especially rely upon die purely redac­tional components o f the work (i.e. reformulated components w i thou t basis in transmission pieces).*"' These redactional components appear mostly in the fo l lowing:

— Framing Formulat ions ( in t roduct ion and conelusion) — Connect ing pieces — Speeches and prayers (concentration o f central theological points)

Based on the transmission historical investigation, i f a text under con-sideration suggests itself as the first recording o f oral material , then i t is ent i rely sufficient for an exegetical exercise ( l ike an exegesis paper) to pursue two questions in this difficult field:

1. Regarding the text fo rm o f this phase, what could be attributed to the first written version? One should aseertain redactional measures which eonsolidate, strueture, and adapt a text t o the framework of a l i ter ­ary enti ty. Indeed one should aseertain these measures by extract-i n g a earefully deduced oral f o r m o f the text, and by ascertaining agreement w i t h similar measures i n other places in the same w r i t i n g . M o r e recent secondary li terature should po in t to these places.

2. W h a t material intentions are expressed in these redactional measures of the first written version i n view o f the total o rder ing , aetualization, and acceiituation o f the transmission as now shown? Again, parallel

>*î Thus the Yahwist, when forniing the paradise narrative (Gen 2:4b-3:24), used an older paradise story which entered Gen 2:4h-3:24 as a clearly defined transmission piece and therefore belongs to the transmission historical prehistory of Gen 2:4b—3:24. Alongside this older story, he also used knowledge such as the concept ot ereation lying behind 2:7 or the concept of the trec of life, Undouhtedly, hc also leamed these materials through the medium of texts, but hc did not bring tbese texts into his paradise narrative with their original contexts. As a rcsult, they can only bc methodologically pereeivcd on die tradition historical path (cf. Steck, Wahrnehmungen, ρ. 48-51).

84 Examples: Gen 6:5-8 + 8:20-22 and Gen 32:10-13 (Yahwist); 1 Sam 23:14-18 and 26:25a (author of die History of the Ascendancy, cf. R. Rendtorff, "Beobachtungen zur israelitischen Geschichtsschreibung anhand der Geschichte vom Aufstieg Davids," in Probleme biblischer The­ologie. Festschrift Gerhard v. Rad, 1971, p. 428-439 especially 43 I footnote 17).

84

appearances in die same w r i t i n g , at the same in i t i a l l i terary layer, serve a substantiating funct ion.

2. Snbseqnent Stages Tnsofar as a text has a further l i terary his tory after its first w r i t t e n c o m p i -

lat ion, then one should ask the redaction historical question anew for each o f die text's redactional stages.

The directions given for the first written version apply correspondingly to the redac­tional processes which play a role in the redactional stages. When creating a literary context, a nedactor can simultancously mcorporate written texts alongside oral transmis­sions. in some circumstances, this new usage nepresents a second redactional stage.115 A redactor can unite two or more individual texts (or relatedly complexes), which already ex;st in written form, into a larger entity. These transmission pieces may be combmed either by interweaving the accounts.8b or by aitaching them to one another in blockst7 Fi­nally, the redactional activity can manifest rtself in pre-existing wrrtten texts which may be expanded and revised by the redactor's owo formulations. This activity may occur in the procedures already noted but may also occur independently ofthe formation of larger" lit­erary compositions (or relatedly literary works).m Ii redaction history is directed toward an extensive text complex of several literary layers, then it seeks to recognize connec-tions between the redactional work of each individua! text. From that recognition, it seeks to reconstruct entire redactional layers and to situate these historically ard theo-iogically.39

Tn the redaction historical t reannent o f a texts stages wh ich are subse-quent to the first wr i t t en version, i t is best to differentiate between diose texts w h i c h present themselves analytically (according to §4) as l i terar i ly composite and those wh ich are l i te rar i ly homogenous.

85 Example: The incorporation of die memorial of Isa 6-8* into a more extensive collection ot lsaiah transmission (see Rarüi, Die Je.siijii- Wime in derjosiiizeit, 282 284).

8* For cxamplcs, sce above footnote 29. 8? For cxamplcs, sec above footnote 28. 8* For cxamplcs. sec footnote 30. For die Classification of glosses (small, clarifving additions

which, in certain circumstances, may be only a single word), see G. Fohrcr, "Die Glossen im Buche Ezechiel," ZAW6Ì (1951): 33-53. In those places where die redactional work Stands in die context of tbe first written version of an extensive work (especially a narrative), then that which was said in "Id" above, p. 83, applieü. For example, in tbe case of the Deuteronomistic History, comparc the position and tbe type of redactional formulations injosh 1*; Judg 5:31b; 1 Kgs 8: 14fr, 2 Kits 17:7-23; 22.1 f; 23:24-30, etc.

sv Examples: Isolation of Deuteronomistic redactional layers in the complex of Deuteron-omy—2 Kings (cf Kaiser, introduction to the Old Testament, §16): a Deuleionoinistic redactional layer in Arnos (by H.VV. Wolff, Joel and Arnos. Henneneia (Philadelphia: 1977 [1969]) or relatedly die Deuteronomistic material in Jeremiah (by W Thiel, Die denteronomistische Redaktion von Jere-mia 1-25, 1973). Isolation of a redaction of the lsaiah transmission in the time of Josiah (by Barth, Die Jesafa-Worte in der Josiazeit). Isolation of redactional layers which produce a connection be­tween lsaiah 1-39* and lsaiah 40-62* (by O H . Steck, Bereitete Heimkehr, SBS 121, 1985).

Commenta ry on the Approach and M e t h o d 85

a. Literarily Composite Texts

L e t us examine the case i n which a wr i t t en text (first w r i t t e n version) later reeeives further additions and changes. I f these additions and changes do not derive f rom the same l i terary level, then, in conjunction w i t h l i terary cr i t ic i sm, one seeks to determine their relative sequence. I n order to profi le the redaction historical process, the f o l l o w i n g i l h i -mina t ing questions are asked for each stage which has been extracted:

• I n w h i c h position is dre change/addition placed i n the text? Does i t exhibit a material func t ion toward the pre-existing text wh ich is structural , ampl i fying, correct ing, and/or connective?

• How is the change/addition formulated? Does i t take up formulations f r o m the immediate context for reference, moor ing , strengthening, or reaccentuation? Does i t w o r k w i t h formulat ions which are found in dre immediate or broader context in order to create intent ional re­lationships to the pre-existing text and to direet the reader to notice these relationships? M a y one understand die change/addition as a conscious, ampl i fy ing counter - forn iu la t ion to these formulat ions f rom die immediate or ne ighbor ing context? Concordance w o r k is indispensable for this task. I t should consider characteristic words and w o r d ensembles. T h e goal o f this aspect is again: W h a t new aecent, and in what manner, does this redactional change bring?

Because o f the interdependence o f the methodological steps, the me th ­odological approaches o f § § 7 - 1 0 must also be ineluded to elarify these ques­tions. Th i s fact is self-evident here as elsewhere.

More far-re?.ching are the aspeets wnich pertain to the ordering of these redaction h;storical manifesrations found in the text under consideratien. Düring a student's exe­gesis, these aspeets should only be traced with support of secondary literature:

• Does this ehange/aedition revise only the specific text and, if need be, its immediate context from the same literary level? Does it therefore concern only a specific dis-ruption whose horizon is a limited context? Are there related mamfestations from the same literary level? How does the literary work appear wnen it reeeives these spe­cific additions?

• Or is the change/addition to the text a cornerstone for an expanded reformulated lit­erary work as a whole? In other woras , is it an element of a comprehenstve redaction of this work? Tbs possibility is suggested, for example: — if the redactional disruption gives the text a prominent position in the macrostruc-

ture of the writing (e.g, the addition of Isa 51:1 I = 3 5 : 1 0 ) , or if a bridgmg function between larger sections of the wnting should be observed;

— if the redactional disruption makes the text stand out as the bearer of a material concern ofthe redaction which provides significance for other redactional disrup-tions in the writing;

86 §6 R E D A C T I O N fflSTORICAL A P P R O A C H

— if the text thus produces untntelíigíble trains of thought regarding the text's for­mulation and its sequence of Statements, but these thoughts point beyond them­selves and Droduce their function in reference to the total redactional profile of the wnting.

An essential cnterion for an assignation of this type, as for ali redactional manifes tations, occurs when the text concerns processes which do not stand aione. Rather, these processes expressiv serve the purpose of accentuating a larger literary entity which is thus being revised. This purpose is similar to superscriptions, structural blocks, and larger coherent, redactional formulations.

l'he formulation of concepts or word ensembles can also offer help in recogniz­ing redactional measures on older text material when it can be demonstrated that they are also characteristic for a writing's redaction. Deuteronomistic formulations in the Deuteronomistic History and in jeremiah present a striking example of this aspect. How­ever, one must guard against overvaiuation at this point In non-Deuteronomistic prophetic redaction the same line of thought from the same irterary layer may be formu­lated quite differently because the language is bound to the existing immediate context (for example, cf. Isa i I : I I I 6 to 27:1 2f; and Isa 35 to 62:10-12!).

insofar as possible, one should attempt to situate a text's redactional man i -festation w i t h reference to its posi t ion and funct ion i n the redaction o f the en­t ire w r i t i n g and the wri t ing 's composit ional strueture. Insofar as possible, one should also attempt to ga in more detailed historical determinations about this redactional layer according to §9 .

b. Literarily Homogenous Texts Two cases should be considered:

In an Old Testament literary w o r k which has experienced a multi-layered develop­ment into Its final form, the procedures of §§4-6 can establish that a text had probably already reeeived its iiteraniy homogenous form with the prsi written version More recent dis-ruptions do not appear in the text even though the writing to which it belongs has grown considcrably after its initial phase. If so. the redaction historical approach is not profitable for this particular text in regard to subsequent developmental stages. However. the redaction historical approach does prove helpful by asking whetherthe position and func­tion of the integrated text have subsequenlly changed with the growth of the wriiing (by restrjeturing, expand>ng, or recreating the context o f t h e writing). Even after its initial in-senption, contextual reaccentuations of an lsaiah text like 5:8-10 can thus be traced through ali stages ofthe developing lsaiah book.

T h e second case is more impor tan t . A l i t e ra r i ly homogenous text has no background i n oral ly transmitted material before the w r i t i n g or iginated, nor has the text been incorporated as wr i t t en material dur ing any stage o f the w r i t ­ing . Rather, the text has been composed in its entirety, f rom the beginning, for some phase o f the cont inuat ion o f that w r i t i n g . T h e text is thus a redauional formulation. T h i s phenomenon was already mentioned i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to §6 , and i t appears that, u n t i l now, no t enough consideration has been aceorded to this facet in O l d Testament research, especially i n die area o f the Prophets, but also die Psalms. I n certain circumstances, i f causes one to reexamine the

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 87

l i terary cri t ical analysis once again. M a n y texts appear to be composites be­cause one observes them in I so lat ion , and because one does not takc in to account a unif ied redactional text's diversity of perspective over the entire re­vised w n t i n g . One must therefore consider whether a l i te rar i ly homogenous tex t i s really a redactional formula t ion .

Section "a" spoke of changes/additions which literary criticism uncovereo within a literarily composite text If these changes/additions exhibit a redactional eharacter related to the whole work, rather than just a narrow contextual horizon, then the redactional formulation is differentiated from them. The redactional formulation is dif-ierentiated by the fact that it does not appear as an intrusion into the older text. Rather, the text represents an original, unified text created fortne redaction of the wnting. On a large scale, the redactional formulation funetions in the framework of the entire re­vised writing like the addition/change funetions in an older text on a small scale.

I f one represents the reeeived l i terary material f rom an earlier phase o f the w r i t i n g by using an empty box, and the new redactional additions by a shaded box, then the fo l lowing schematic drawing results:

4 1 2 3 1

1 = Redactional addition to older texts 3 = Redactional formulations 2 = Older texts without redactional intrusion 4 = Supersciiption

W h a t characteristics could suggest a redactional formulation?

• Such texts prefer l i terary seams. TTiey oceupy an explanatory posi­t ion in the total strueture o f the w r i t i n g . T h e y have an explanatory, b r idg ing , or coneluding funct ion i n view o f die entire revised work . N o t infrequently, several o f these texts refer to one another.

• As w i t h ali redactional formulat ions, these texts do not stand on their own . T h e y constantly stand in relat ion to the l i te rary surroundings w h i c h are being revised and in relat ion to the entire w r i t i n g which is being struetured.

• These texts coineide w i t h redactional accentuations which the w r i t ­i n g also demonstrates i n this layer as a whole and i n other redac­tional places. T h e y do so in strueture, sequence o f Statements, and subject profile.

• Regarding their funct ion i n the entire revised w r i t i n g , these texts serve to strueture and enrich the whole in the sense o f preeision, reaccentuation, correct ion, and later expansion.

88 §6 R E D A C T I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C E I

Therefore, what facilitates the acceptance o f a l i terar i ly homogenous text as a redactional formulation?

• The literarily homogenous text appanently represents a "text for the book" according to those characteristics already mentioned. It shows -itself from the outset to be created for a larger literary framework, The text gains its function solely from this framework, Correspondingly. when observed in Isolation, it. is not really understandabie. One comprehends betten however, if one sees it in connection with the entire literary work for which Ί was created. Also, one can see how the text, in the mmd of the redactor, wants to direct its appropriate reader reception. Redactional formulations are directed toward the contmuing reader reception ofthe entire writing. The deter­mination of a redactional formulation therefore presupooses insighi into the origin and construetion ofthe relevant redaction for the entire wnting. Also, it gains essen­tial support by demonstratmg corresponding redactional intrusion in other places of the writing.

• Redactional formulations are differentiated from new fermulations which are not bound to the transmission of a wnting, because the redactional formulations are cot-relared to the literary entity which they revise. This conscious referencing is expressed in the contextual position in which ii is placed, but especially in the thoughtful ere­ation of references to the context ofthe wnting (preceding and/or subsequent). The iatter is true even though the redactional formulation (depending on the scope of the amplifying intention) must by no means consist solely of these references.

The eharacter of these references :S at first ambiguous. Perceiving them as a liter­ary cevice can only be aceomplished through foundational concordance work Hence a series of perspectives come into view:

— Does the text's formulation point to interrelotionships wilh other formulations in the frame of the same work? With heuristically exposed evidence, the following comes into view: irterally repeated formulations (unintroduced quotes), eharacter-istic word ensembles, charactenstic words, allusions, counter-formulations, and references to content.

— How do these inrerrelationships operotel Which is the older contributing text? Which is the more recent, receiving and assimilating text?

- If the text is to be treated as a redactional cross-reference (i.e. a conscious liter­ary cross-reference) which serves the reader reception, then tnree alternatives must be eliminated:

I - One must eliminate the possibrity that the reference is only a widely used, tradrtional phrase. For example, the messenger formula in a prophetic wnting is not, by itself, a literary cross-reference in this writing.

2. One must eliminate the possibility that the references are not treating stock language within the scope of small units in the pre-iiterary phase. For example, these appear in various psalms, and inside lsaiah - or Deutero-lsaiah—logia.

3. One must eliminate the possibility that the reference simply draws upon knowledge ofthe older reference without implying that it must presume a iit-erary/redactional adoption within ine framework and within the service of a book's cohesion. For example, do the cross-references of Trito-lsaiah demon-strate on oceasion. that Trito-lsaian knows Deutero-lsaiah, or do they mark redactional connections in the framework of a literary continuation?

Commenta ry on the Approach and M e t h o d 89

— The following can serve as evidence that the reaactiona! eharacter of a cross-refer­ence operates within the frame of the literary work;

1. The redactional adoption musi be shown to be literarily dependent upon the older (or at least redactionaily contemporary) contributing text within the framework ofthe writing's developmental history.

2. The redactional adoption also implicftly presupposes the contnbutmg text's literary positon and context for the redactor and reader

3. The receiving text elsewhere exhibits characteristics of a redaction text 4. The reference is reconciled with the procedure and the matenai concept as

manifested in this redactional laycr elsewhere in the wnting, 5. The reference produces its meaning for the author, and the reader (!), m con-

neetion with the contexts of the redactional formulation and with the strueture of the revised wnting. Also, it consequently presupposes the con-tinuing reader reception ofthe redactional work as a whole.

One must therefore think literarily and, for the benefit of a redactional formula­tion, one must continually ask the basic questions: In order to understand lins texl do the redactor and reader presuppose the writing's preceding or subsequent context? And should this text strueture and illummate the entire wnting?

— Here, as elsewhere, it is methodologically important to eliminate other op-tions. Constellations of the alternatives (2) and (3), mentioned above, do not lead to redaction texts relating to the entire writing. Rather, they lead to "smaller units," that is to texts without an ongmal relationship to the context. texts which stand alone. texts which are understandable by themselves, and which are self-contained literary transcription; of texts which were orally transmitted.

I t is self-evident that when de te rmin ing redactional formula t ion one may on ly gain suffieient certainty by means o f a redaction historical investigation o f the entire l i te rary work . T h i s l i terary w o r k must also have gained a clear picture o f the redactional process, strueture, Organization, and subject profile o f the redactional phase for diat w r i t i n g i n whose composi t ion diese re­dactional formulat ions have their setting. Accord ing to §9 , more detailed h i s ­torical determinat ion must also come in to plav at this po in t regarding the redactional layer f rom wh ich this fo rmula t ion derives. Also , redactional for­mulat ions can be intluenced by other elements, apart from their internal ref­erences to the book (traditions according to §8 , knowledge o f formulat ions f rom other wr i t ings , influence of neighbor ing canonical books, etc.).

I I I . Summary o f die Redaction His tor ica l Procedure

T h e redaction historical approach investigates the internal ( l i t e ra ry c r i t i ­cism) and the external (context) processes which may be observed from the text's development dur ing the w r i t t e n transmission. T h e t ime period eovered by the investigation Stretches f rom the first wr i t t en version o f oral ly transmit­ted material un t i l the last productive change o f a text and/or its context at the

90 §6 R E D A C T I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

conclusion o f O l d Testament wr i t ings . W h e n t reat ing the realm o f the first wr i t t en version, the redaction historical approach begins w i t h the results o f §5 (transmission units and, i f necessary, the j o in ing o f these oral units). T h e ap­proach turns to the productive process o f tbe recording o f these transmission units in relationship to formula t ion and/or Organizat ion . W h e n t rea t ing the remain ing stages, the redaction historical approach begins w i t h the results o f §4 ( l i t e ra r i ly homogenous or l i terar i ly composite text) .

Redaction historical investigation can be guided by the fo l l owing ques­tions:

For the first written version: a. D i d §5 determine that the text had already essentially been f o r m u ­

lated in oral tradition? I f so, then one does not expect a significant p o r t i o n to be redactionally formulated, or redactional formulat ions are min ima l . T h e redactional po r t i on may then consist o f the codi f i -cation, and after that, the col lec t ion and o rder ing o f the material i f this had not already occurred in oral t radi t ion (catchword connec-t ion , transitional formulat ions, superscriptions, and subscriptions).

b. D i d §5 determine that the text's fo rmula t ion could , i n practical terms, hardly be gieaned exclusively f r o m oral tradit ion? I f so, then the text essentially results f r o m and for the first wr i t t en version ( h o -mogenei ty over against the redactional profi le o f the entire l i terary context). Tt is then necessary to determine more precisely the s ignif i ­cant redactional p o r t i o n i n the fo rmula t ion , col lect ion, and order­i n g in l ight o f the pre-existing material .

For the remaining stages: c. D i d § 4 determine that the text was a literarily composite text? I f so,

then one must evaluate two possibilities: aa. Does the text indicate that wr i t t en materials o f diverse or ig in

have been redactionally uni ted in to a single ent i ty (e.g. the c o m -pi la t ion o f sources) and then joined (or compared) using redac­tional transitions, etc.?

bb. Does the foundationaJ text e.xist i n a w r i t t e n f o r m w h i c h has been expanded by part icular formulat ions preceding the text, w i t h i n i t , or concluding it? D o diese formulat ions concern i n d i -v idual izeđ glosses and additions which are solely focussed on die narrow hor izon o f die immediate context? O r are the additions pa r t o f a redactional cont inuat ion ot the entire w r i t i n g (concur-rence w i t h other redactional formulat ions, and w i t h the c o n ­struetion and the macrostrueture o f the same layer)?

I n either case, for each developmental stage, one should h i g h l i g h t die type of compilation leading to the current text i n its entirety (revising and [!] revised). I f the processes are redactional, then they should be

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 91

placed i n relationship to parallel manitestations and to the composi­t ion o f the redactional layer (setting o f the text in the whole).

d. Does §4 determine that the text is literarily homogenous} f f so, then one should again examine two possibilities: aa. Is die text a component o f an older wr i t t en transmission whose

formula t ion was not changed even to the final fo rm o f the w r i t ­ing? I f necessary, this w r i t t e n transmission could have had oral t radi t ion background as described in (a) and (b) . I f i t was part o f an older wr i t t en transmission, then redaction his tory should de­termine the original l i terary context o f this text along w i t h the texts setting and funct ion in that context. T h e same is true for all other contexts in wh ich the text is used in the course o f t ime, and the indirect changes which the text de facto experienced as a result o f the change o f context. D u r i n g these context changes, the text becomes revised.

bb. Is die text o f a type which has been w r i t t e n just for its l i terary context, for the purpose o f eontinuing, or ient ing , or s t ruetur ing the w o r k being formed? I f so, redaction his tory should deter­mine the entire redactional level in wh ich this con t r ibu t ion is admitted to a redaction o f the w r i t i n g . Further, redaction his­t o r y should determine the redactional attributes wh ich charac-terize this redaction text. I t shoidd also specifically determine the eompositional and material funct ion o f this type o f text for the whole . In this case, the text belongs to the revising com­ponent o f a w r i t i n g . I f there are more recent, productive devel­opmental phases o f the entire w r i t i n g , then natural ly the revis­i n g text of an earlier phase itself becomes part o f that wh ich the more recent stage revises.

T h e l i terary hor izon in w h i c h a unified text was first formulated is most pivotal for the redaction historical investigation.

A redaction historical investigation constontiy has to ask: 1. D o redactional processes manifest themselves by the formulations

and/or the thoughtfu l composition o f the context ( immediate and entire)?

2. F r o m diese processes, what belongs to the same literary layer, that is to the same redaction o f the work (eorrelation w i t h §4)?

3. W h a t eharacteriz.es this redaction regarding the way it works and its material traits}

4. To what degree do the redactional processes signify a change o f the whole, even o f the work's revised text material?

5. I f different redactional processes fol low upon one another (in the text and/or its context), which changes show diis progression as such?

92 §6 R E D A C T I O N H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

C. R E S U L T S

I . Ins ight in to the Changes o f a Text in W r i t t e n Trad i t ion

T h a t which was said for transmission h is tory in §5 C I also applies to redaction history.

I I . Redaction H i s t o r y as Actua l iz ing Procedure

That which was said for transmission his tory in §5 C I I also applies to redaction history.

I I I . Redaction H i s t o r y as die H i s t o r y o f Israels Fai th

T h a t w h i c h was said for transmission history in §5 C I I I also applies to redaction h i s to ry

D . L I T E R A T U R E

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D O V E R V I E W

J. Barton. "Redaction Criticism."' ABD, Vol. 5, p. 644-647. G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 9B. Κ. Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition. p. 57-67.

I I . EXPANSION A N D C R I ' I I C A L ALTERNATIVES

Η . Birkeland. Zum hebräischen Traditionswesen (see § 5 D I I ) . Chr. Dohnien. Rezeptionsforschung und Glaubensgeschichte. T T h Z 96 (1987):

123 134. M . Fisbbane. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford, 1985. I I . W Hemberg . Die Nachgeschichte aittcstanienthchcr Texte innerhalb des Aken

Testaments. In: Werden und Wesen des Aken Testaments. BZAW 66. Berlin, 1936. p. 110-121. (also in: Hemberg, Beitrage zur Traditionsgesehichie und Theologie des Alten Testaments. Gött ingen, 1962. p. 69-80).

Chr. Levin. Die Verheißung des neuen Bundes in ihrem thcologiegeschichtlichen Zusammenhang ausgelegt. F R L A N T 137. Gött ingen, 1985.

S. Mowinckel. Prophecv and Tradition (see § 5 D I I ) . G. v. Rad. Old Testament Theology. Vol. 2, p. 33-49. W Richter. Exegese, p. 165-173. O.H.Steck. "Prophetische Prophetenauslegung." In: H.F. Geißer. et al, eds. Wahrheit

der Schrift—Wahrheit der Auslegung. Zürich, 1993. ρ. 198-244. R. Wonneberger. Redaktion. Studien zur Textfortschreibung im Alten lestament.

F R L A N T 156. Gött ingen, 1991.

Works Dcdicated to die Discussion of Intertextuality U . Broich and M . Pfister, eds. lntertextualität. Formen, Funktionen. Anglistische

Fallstudien. Tübingen, 1985.

Li te ra ture 93

Κ. Nielsen, "lntertextuality as Biblical Scholarship." ScandJOT 2 (1990): 89-95. D . N . Fewell, ed. Reading Between Texts: lntertextuality and the Hebrew Bible.

Louisville, 1992.

bor the "Canonical Approach," see: J. Barr. Holy Scripture: Canon, Audiority, Criticism. Oxford, 1983. B.S. Childs. Old Testament Theolog)- in a Canonical Context. Minneapolis, 1989.

. Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments. Minneapolis, 1993. G. T. Sheppard. "Canonieal Criticism." ABD, Vol. 1, 861-866.

Cornpare also tbe contributions t o J S O Τ 16 (1980).

U l . I L L U S T R A T I V E E X E C U T I O N

H . Barth. Die Jesaja-Worte in der Josiazeit. Israel und Assur als Thema einer pro­duktiven Neuinterpretation der Jesajaüberüeferung. W M A N T 48. Neukirchcn-Vluyn, 1977.

T. Collins. The Alande of Elijah. The Redaction Criticism of the Frophetieal Hooks. BiSe20. Sheffield, 1993.

EL. Hossfeld and E. Zenger. Die Psalmen. Psalm 1-50. NEB. YVürzhurg, 1993. De Vries, S.J. Front OKI Revelation to New: Α Tradition-IIistorical and Redaction-

Critical Study of Temporal Transitions in Prophetic Prediction. Grand Rapids, 1995.

J. Jeremias. »Ich bin wie ein Löwe für Efraini . . .<•· (Hos. 5,14). L i : 11. Merklein and I i . Zenger, eds. «-Ich will euer Gott werden«. SBS 100. p. 75-95. Stuttgart, 1981.

. Hosea 4-7. Beobachtungen zur Koniposition des Buches Hosea. In: A.H.J. Gunneweg and O. Kaiser, eds. Textgemäß. Festschrift E. Wür thwein . p. 47-58. Gött ingen, 1979.

R.G. Kratz. Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buche. FAT 1. Tübingen, 1991. J.D. Nogalski. Literary Precursors to the Book of che Twelve. BZAW 217. Berlin:

1993. Redactional Processes in die Book of die Twelve. BZAW 218. Berlin: 1993,

M . Noth. The Deuteronomistic History. Sheffield, 1981. . The Chroniclers History. Sheffield, 1987.

I . W. Provan. He/.ekiah and the Book of Kings. B Z A W 172. Berlin—New York, 1988. O.H. Steck. Bereitete Heimkehr. SBS 121. Stuttgart, 1985. M.A. Sweeney. Isaiah 1-4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of die Isaianic Tradition.

B Z A W Í 71. Berlin-New York, 1988. G.H. Wilson. The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter. Chico, CA, 1985.

IV. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

K. Koch. The Growtb of Biblical Tradition, p. 64-67.

Form Critical Approach

Α. I H K T A S K

T. T h e Overarehing Question of the Presuppositions of a Text or Its Stages

Anyone who has investigated an O l d Testament text, several verses in length, according to § § 4 - 6 w i l l have gained a reasoned picture o f its develop­mental history. Either, one w i l l be able to conf i rm this by the interdependency of the methodological approaches in the procedural steps of § § 7 - 9 , or one must revise the picture. T h i s picture can certainly take different fonns. T h e text can manifest i tself as l i terar i ly homogenous, w i d i or wi thout earlier stages in oral transmission. I f so, one or two developmental stages stand out in par­ticular. However, the text can also consolidate several developmental stages, namely, when the text is l i t e ra r i ly composite and thus reeeives formulat ions f rom several authors at various times. I n any case, the investigation o f § § 4 - 6 demonstrated that the text components can be isolatcd f rom one another ac­cording to the developmental stages. As a rule, diese may be isolated in fo rmu­lations w i t h i n die text. T h e prel i terary oral stage constitutes a significant ex-ception, O n the one hand, w i t h narratives, one can only aseertain the subject matter and outl ine, not the precise expression. O n the odier hand, prophetic logia constitute an exception where the oral fo rm has been Condensed and changed i n t o die existing wr i t t en version for the purpose o f further trans­mission.

T h e methodological steps o f § § 7 - 9 now treat each o f a text s develop­mental stages w h i c h have been separated. Depending upon the conclusions ascertained in § § 4 - 6 , these steps each begin w i t h the oral transmission stage, then move across stages o f l i terary g r o w t h to the existing final fo rm w i t h its own l inguist ic eharacter.

* * *

96

W h a t is the material basis tor the approaches of§§7-9 for each o f the text's developmental stages?

N o one works on a text entirely in a vaeuum. This is true for die one who drafts a narrative, and especially for the one who lormulates a legal saying, a cul t ic song, a wisdom saying, or a prophetic l og ion . I t is also true for the one who appends something to a fo rmula t ion , for the one who later conjoins two different older formulations, or the one who inserts a redactional formula t ion in to an existing text. One selects the means of expression w h i c h one's language provides. One draws upon textual patterns wh ich already exist in one's l inguis­tic wor ld (e.g. legal saying, prayer, h y m n ) . Anyone wish ing to formu late some­th ing comparablc (§7) works w i t h catchwords or w o r d associations f rom intel-lectually pre-fashionea] linguisticfields w h i c h are familiär to the author and to the author's addressees (§8). Last but not least, the author's fo rmula t ion addresses elements from the concrete-historical world i n wh ich the author lives (§9) . A l i o f these elements are existing, supra-individualistic materials wh ich are significant for tbe one who formulates. A text contains presuppositions w h i c h an author shares along w i t h conscious or unconscious knowledge and culture. One must clarify these formulat ions and simultaneously i lh iminate the dynamic path to formula t ion in order to determine what one formulates, w h y i t was formulated i n precisely this manner, what the author means and intends w i t h these f o r m u ­lations. O n l y in this manner can one b r i n g to l i g h t those places where an author creatively adapts these materials (e.g. deviations from text patterns, or a breach o f l inguis t ic fields). T h i s ins ight is indispensable for de t e rmin ing the profile o f the formulat ion antl the specific in ten t ion o f its Statements.

W i t h §7 we encounter once again a field o l closely related methods which ali treat the presuppositions o f a text, or each o f the text's ascertained stages, in its own respeetive w o r l d . F o r m cr i t ic ism (§7) determines die sett ing o f a text in its existing linguistic wor ld . Tradi t ion cri t icism (§8) determines the setting o f a text in its intcllectually pre-fashimied world. T h e historical set t ing (§9) deter­mines the setting o f the conerete historical wo r ld .

11. Start ing Point

I n fo rm cri t ic ism, the text is divided in to each o f its developmental stages. Fach is then investigated regarding its linguistic shape in order to recognize the clues for meaning wh ich manifest themselves f rom the l inguis t ic shape. Therefore, one must know how this text's l inguist ic shape č a m e to be. T h e au­thor, as w i t h the author's addressees, shared a pre-existing linguistic world. F r o m that w o r l d , already available patterns and possibilities are adopted in order to communicate what the author wants to say. A n d sometimes the author devi-ates ft'oni them as wel l . One may differentiate various levels regarding the relat ionship wh ich the l inguis t ic shape o f the author's Statement exhibits to the existing l inguist ic wor ld . Progressing f rom the specific to the whole, these

T h e Task 97

levels inelude: the tona/ level wh ich observes the sound o f the statement; the •word level i n which the individual words o f the text should be investigated; the sentence level treats the individual sentences, and finallv the text level treats the text as a whole w i d i its sentences and words. T h e normal elements con-struet ing the language, such as the lexically imderstandable vocabulary or tbe syntactical rules, are all considered part o f the existing l inguis t ic pat tern and possibilities for the level of sound, words, and sentences. Further, stylistic devices l ike al l i terat ion, assonance, metaphorical speech. or parallelismus memborum are also considered part o f the l inguist ic pattern. T h e fixed speech patterns are o f particular signifieanee for the text level. T h e y provide the l inguist ic contour to the tex t as a whole. Exegesis calls these text types genres. W e also know genres o f this type i n our own l i n g u i s ü c wor ld : official b i r t h announcements, wedding announcements, obituaries, job applications, prescriptions, recipes, nlenus, memos, etc."0 To a large degree the l inguis t ic utterances d u r i n g the t ime per iod o f O l d Testament transmissions were formulated neither freely nor caprieiously. Rather, they were formulated in conncct ion w i t h existing, fixed text patterns.

Ehe seleetion o l die l inguist ic pattern and die possibilities for io rmula t ing a text i n ant iqui ty were likewise neither accidental nor arbitrary. T h e y depend upon wh ich perspective the author wants to use to State and to communicate die facts (statement's outiook). T h e y depend upon the intent ions wh ich the au­thor associates w i t h this l inguist ic utterance (statement's intention). Therefore , one must pay at tent ion to the life process i n whose framework the l inguis t ic utterance takes place (life setting. Sitz im Leben). One example f rom our l i n ­guistic w o r l d w i l l i l lustrate. Someone who wants to communicate tbe death and funeral o f a relative publicly, w i l l compose an obituary according to a pat­tern o f fo rmula t ion wh ich is fixed even d o w n to the vocabulary and sentence construet ion. T h e same death is also reported i n other text patterns when different types o f convcntional procedures treat the event and change the cor­responding perspective and in ten t ion . These inelude: the official, medical con-firmation of the cause o f death, the death certificate, the personal, tactful, sym-patbetic note which gently notifies a relative, and the eulogy, etc. I n addition to the fo rm, each o f diese vary i n sentence formulat ion and vocabulary. T h e v also fol low diverse patterns. Thus , i n view o f the stated facts, there exists a certain coiTelation between the specific l inguist ic shape o f a text and the specific out ­iook and in ten t ion o f the statement." 1 Someone speaking today knows wh ich

Ό Comparc numerous examples in Lohfmk, The Bible: Nov.' 1 Gel lt.' Α Form-Criticism Hamlbook.

"1 Richter {Exegese, p. 32,-11-43) presupposes that the aspeets of form and content can be dif­ferent for a linguistic utterance. The fact that the substance of diis utterance cannot be properly appreciated without determining their form also corresponds to our understanding {Exegese, p. 38,421,114,119). 1 lowever, profound differences exist in rwo respects. The first concerns the

98 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

linguist ic fo rm must be ut i l ized in order to State something f r o m a certain per­

spective and in ten t ion . One's listeners participate i n the same l inguis t ic w o r l d

and can therefore r e c o g n i z e the intent ions o f the Speaker by the f o r m o f the

Statement. As readers o f an O l d Testament text, we must also inquire in this

d i rec t ion about the correlat ion. T h e author's oudook and in t en t ion must

be deduced f rom the l inguist ic shape. However, since the l inguis t ic w o r l d o f

ancient Israel is no longer in t imate ly famil iär to us, this deduetion can on ly

occur i n the process offbrm critical reconstruetion. In summation: W h o e v e r works

fo rm cri t ical ly on the O l d Testament, must observe the conerete Hebrew (or

Aramaic) l i n g u i s ü c shape i n which a text brings a specific condi t ion in to view.

One must deduce the intentions which are expressed by this f o r m .

One must consider, o f course, d ia t our insight in to the markers and die

rules o f diis strueture and in to the use o f die Hebrew (or Aramaic) language is

determination oflhe caneepts form and conlcnt. For Richter, the fonnalized expression of the lin­guisüc utterance (including the formalizcd State of its Contents) Stands over against everything related to die contents, together with the substance (Exegese, p. 32.411"). This mantial, however, underslands forin as the linguistic utterance in its existing, conloured shape, without regulated for-malization. This understanding ineludes fashioned contents (cf. below. p. l ü l f ) . The second dif-ference concerns \bttfiinction of the dist/netion of form and content for the beginning and the execu­tion of the method. Richter applies the exegetical process as a whole in such a manner that in a first part (literary' criticism to redaction criticism) every beginning point should be excluded by content to resist arbitrary encries. For Richter, the exclusive siariing' point should be exaeted from die for-tnalized expression of the linguistic utterance in order to dclimit die investigation of the content discerningly and in a controlled manner (Tliis investigation follows in a second part). By contrast, from the beginning, this mantial takes into consideration the insoluble counection between form ;uid content in respect co form criticism (and dicreby for every transmission stage of a text, to tbe degree that they are subject to form critical investigation).

As prcviously demonstrated above (in foomote 32 for literary criticism and footnote 63 for transmission history), one should also ask whedier Richters starting point, based solely on the fonnalized expression instead of a more comprehensive historical starting point, does not lead to faulty conclusions and faulty judgmeuts. And one should also ask whedier one's starting point does not demand more from die structural analysis than that analysis is able to perform for determining the contents ot a historical Statement. W hen Λ linguistic utterance arises, material intention and lin­guistic sbape stand in conjunetion from the beginning. Exegetical analvsis may not tear this con­ncction apart and split them up into a mediodological sequenec. I f one disregards the impression of the local content and the thematic direction of die linguistic utterance, and if one concentrates solely on die phenomena which can be fonnalized, dien what is a structural analysis, or a determi­nation of form? What is a form critical w-ork in diat case? One must vigorously contest die idea, which Richter staunchly aeeepts. that the starting point of the content must inevitably succumh to the danger of inappropriate entries. Topical analysis of form criticism and especially of tradition historical work (see §8) demonstrates the presupposirion that controllable, verifiable determi-nations of the Statement's contents are possible from the beginning. In some circumstances. results of die structural linguistic science can bc arranged according to a historically applied form critical method. This may be done to the degree that die results are proven sound in the historical realm of Ancient Israel and of the dead language of Biblical Hebrew. However, by no means. may the impiieations of diese results deuacl from tbe comprehensive historical starting point of form criti­cism which corresponds to the historical subject.

T h e Task 99

l imi t ed . Even the or iginal pronunciat ion o f Hebrew remains u n k n o w n to

us. T h e findings f rom the spoken level (tone, r h y t h m , meter) are therefore

to a large degree uncertain.- : Further, research in to the l inguist ic pattern and

its significance is st i l l in its beginnings. T h i s l i m i t e d knowledge is truc for

works in the area of Hebrew syntax (e.g. tenses) and style (e.g. different narra­

tive styles). I f , i n the future, these lead to significant, convineing conclusions,

then certainly fo rm cri t ic ism wou ld gain new possibilities for inquiry. W i t h i n the

framework o f this book, we l i m i t f o r m cri t ic ism to investigating those l inguis­

tic charac te r í s t ics and those means of format ion whose structural markers can

currently aseertain meaning w i d i sufficient elarity by the eonsistent context. '"

Traditionally, this determinat ion occurs especially w i th die question of die l i n ­

guistic pattern on the text level (genres). However, today, the fo l l owing are

also progressively gaining i n importance for good reason: the description o f

the l inguist ic shape o f individual sentence, tbe sentence order o f the text, and

the ascertainment ot the meaning o f this syntactical and stylistic finding."4

One can encounter the form's typical construetion elements w i t h this l inguis-

92 Comparc also Koch, Fermgescbkbte, 2 W (5th edition, 281t; this posdude is not in the English translation).

93 In recent years, attempts to subject Old Testament texts to a painstaking hnguisric inves­tigation have grown dramatically. It has not ahvays been dear, however, that the investigation should treat a linguistic world in its historical eharacter and in tbe Service of ascerlaining die iniended accents of a Statement. l"he linguisüc investigation Stands in close eonnection widi odier approaches of liisloricai-crilical methodology, The formulation υί an Old lestament text is a process of life which has a subject orienled intention. One must consider diis fact over against die ohjective scientific appearance of lavish. linguistically fbrmalized structural plans for texts. L i n ­guistic manifeslarions are important for exegesis when they illuminatc the process by contributing to our cuiTcnt State of knowledge about the subject intentions of Hebrew linguistic phenomena. Examples of intensive linguistic investigations of Old Testament text in die German-speaking world are especially the works of VV. Richter and bis followcrs which appear in Eos-Verlag of St, Ottilien. In the French-.speaking world examples inelude the works of P. Aufbot treating wis-doin texts and psalin texts. For the English-speakiug world cornpare die overview by R . C . Culley, "Fxploring New Directious." In methodological introdnetions (see $2H) corresponding sections are found in Fohrer, Exegese, §6 (G. Wanke); Koch, Formgescbkhte, 298-342 (5th ed. 271-324; not in English translation), and Schweizer, Biblische Texte verstehen.

94 In distinetion to Fohrer (Exegese, §6) and Kaiser (Exegetical Method, section 4), we also treat die investigation of the linguistic shape of a text, not in a separate section, but under tbe larger concept of form criticism together widi the question of form. Tliis investigation is nec­essary prior to and coneurrent widi die determination of genre. In practical terms, the seman­tic analysis (cornpare in particular, Wanke, in Fohrer, Exegese, 76-78: and Koch, Formgeschicbte, 316-330, 5th ed. 298-312; not in English translation) should, for the tnost parr, already have taken place during the first preliminary translation (sec above p. 6 and 11) to the degree that it be­longs to the work of form criticism. This semantic analysis should be attributed to the analy­sis ot the text's linguistic shape under a methodologically tbeoretical perspective. To the degree diat additional contents crystalize around a concept in the framework of a more comprehensive conceptual complex, the semantic analysis crosses over into the tradition historical work (see below, p, 126).

100 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

tic finding.1'5 T h i s finding can, however. also treat the text's formal markers which are independent o f the genre. O n occasion, these markers can he i n c o i -porated preciselv for the l inguis t ic deviation o f the genre." 6 I n formulat ions not influenced by genres (e.g. additions, redaction texts) die f o r m o f the sen­tence and the sentence order represent the most impor tan t l i n g u i s ü c ciues for the desired meaning, along w i t h t radi t ional l inguis t ic fields ascertained in §8 and their use in the text.

I I I . De te rmina t ion

I n exegetical practice, fo rm cr i t ic i sm p r imar i l y elaborates the part icular linguistic shape for a specific text (no matter what size), or if necessary, for each stage o f its g r o w t h that has been ascertained.

I n so doing, fo rm cr i t ic ism pursues two main tasks:

1. I n each case, t o n n cr i t ic i sm comprehends the l inguis t ic shape o f the text inside the individuell sentence and for the sentence progression. I t also highl ights the material aspeets which are indicated by the syntactical and stylistic fo rm i n the individual text and die text as a whole.

2. W h e n they present themselves in die text, fo rm cr i t ic ism determines (for parts and/or for the entirety) when the text level adopts and utilizes genres. Also f o r m cr i t ic ism determines the life set t ing to w h i c h they belong. Certainly, for this task i t must rely upon other independent examples o f the genre.

F o r m cr i t ic ism aiins toward a methodological ly per t inent understanding o f the construet ion and in ten t ion o f the encountered text to the degree that the eharacter o f the l inguist ic fo rmula t ion can be recognized. T h i s a im even ineludes the ehoice o f the genre under whose perspective the expressed con­tents should be seen and for whose purpose they were formulated.

Fo rm critical w o r k does not just consti tute the investigation o f the l i n ­guistic shape o f an individual text and the parallel examples w h i c h appear du r ing the investigation. A l t h o u g h clearly beyond expectations for beginning students, die task o f fo rm cri t icism also ineludes, i n principle, research in to the Hebrew (or Aramaic) linguistic world as a whole and Illumination o f die h is tory o f text patterns (genre history). I n this case, work on individual texts is not the goal but is the means and the material of the investigation.

95 Examples: the sentence type "command" in an admonition or the stylistic device of parol-lelismus membonim in the wisdom saying.

96 Examples: In Isa 7:4-9, the element in 7:9b, which is pereeived as a condirioned threat, sirpcrsedcs the genre "salvation oracle to the king." Also it accentuates the corrcspondencc be­tween behavior and circumstances by die. use of die paranomasia ta 'ànimfi/tê'âmēnû.

T h e Task 101

I V Tennino logy

1. " F o r m " and "Genre" T h e term " t o n n " is used i n the discipline i n different ways. Occasionally i t

is used synonymously w i t h "genre," 9 7 but more frequently its is differentiated ft'om genre i n various ways."B I n this workbook, " f o r m " is understood as an interchangeable t e rm for " l inguis t ic shape." I t is thus not something which can be investigated apart f rom the expressed content. Fo rm and content cannot be separared w i t h i n a l inguist ic utterance. However, the content is con-stitutive to a l inguistic pattern by various conerete features. W h e n the levels o f l inguis t ic utterance arc more elcmentary and simpler, then i t is easier to gen­eralice their contents. Tonal forms, stylistic figures, or sentence types are very general i n terms o f content because o f their broad usage. By contrast, f o r m u -las or genres (and especially no t the assigned text as a whole) cannot be separated f rom conerete contents by their f o r m . T h e t e rm "fonu" thereby designates the existing linguistic shape of a text. I t also designates the genre(s) ineorporated in to the text w i t h their characteristic and de te rmin ing fo rm markers. I t also designates l inguis t ic threads or art forms (parallelisrnus rneni-bonim, among odiers) wh ich are not determined by the genre. These acquired facts about the use and deviation o f given l inguistic patterns are expressions o f meaning.

2. "Formula" T h e te rm " formula" should be differentiated f rom "genre." A formula is

a short, fixed word association.""

3. F o r m Cr i t i c i sm and Genre H i s t o r y ' " 0

" F o r m cr i t i c i sm" and "genre h is tory" are also used w i t h a certain promis-cui ty ( in connection w i t h the corresponding use o f fo rm and genre). However,

V 7 Comparc-, tor example, C . Kulu, RGG', vol. 2, col. 996 (."Form"/ "Gattung"). W Comparc, for example, H .-J. Hermisson, Studien zur israelitischen Spruchueisheit, 1968,

ρ. 138, footnote 1; Criiseinann, Studien, ρ. 13f, footnote 1; Richter, Exegese 33,74,126f,131ff; Marke« in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 86 f; and Kaiser. Exegetical Method, p. 20-22.

9 9 Examples; "With a strong hand and with an outstretched arm" {beyād häziiqa übizröa' nélûyà) for die powerful actions of Y H W H (e.g. Deut 4:34; 2 Kgs 17:36; Jer 21:5): and "I am YHVVH (your god)" ('anì ybvb) for the self-prcsentation ot'YHVVH (e.g. Éxod 20:2; Lev 18:2; Ps50:7). '

Richter, Exegese, 99-] 03 (taken up by Kaiser, Exegetical Method. p. 17; modified by Wanke in I'ohrcr, Exegese, p. 73), wams to diffcrentiare further between "formula" and "lixed expression" (with tbe larter hmited to a specific literary work).

100 Translators note: As evident from the following paragraph and footnote, English usage does not adequately disringuish between the German terms Formgeschichtc and Fonnkrttik. The former literally means "form history" and the latter "form criticism." In English, however, com­mon usage has long cstablishcd "form criticism" as the standard translation for "Formgeschichte,"

102 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

" f o r m cr i t ic i sm,"" 3 1 the conceptual understanding o f half o f the mediod ,

should relate to the method as a whole , whi le "genre h i s to ry" should remain

die name used for die h i s tory o f a specific genre . i o :

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D M E T H O D

I . Const i tuent Questions

Ehe fo rm critical investigation o f a text can be subdivided in to four con­

stituent questions:

1. W h a t fo rm markers does die text sliow, and how does one designate the

text's l inguis t ic shape, in part and in whole (the question ofthe linguistic

shape)} 2. Is the text shaped, i n whole or i n part, under the influence o f a genre (de­

termination ofthe genre)}m

3. i n this particular instance, how does the genre i m p r i n t fit in to the history

o f that genre (genre history question)}

4. To w h i c h externa! life S i tuat ion does the genre belong, and wh ich o f that

setting's requirements and regularities appertain to the genre? A n d how is

the o r ig in o f the text related to this life Situation (question ofthe life setting)}

which inakes it impossible to distinguish Fortngeschkbte from Fnrmkritik in anything other than an arbitrstry manner. Thtis, for purposcs of the immediate discussion the German terms "Fortnge­schkbte'' and "Formkritik" will be used when necessary to enable distinetions. Normally, however, the English term "form criticism" will be used as the standard translation of Formgeschichte, Simi-larly, the term "Gattung" is distinet from the German word "Form". Where necessary, the trans­lation uses the English (i.e. Frcnch) term "genre" for "Gattung" in order to distinguish it from "Form."

101 "Formgescbicble" and "Gaituug.'gestblatte" bave a special meaning in connection with tbe terms "Fonnkritik," "Gattungskritik," and "Forni^eschicblc" for Richter, Exegese, p. 120-125, 149-151 (see die discussion in the 2nd-7th German edition of this workbook, p. 97f.. and the ad-denduni in the 8th edition. p. 74 76). Marken, in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 86f. does awaywith the term "Formgeschichte" and designates the various steps with the terms "Formkritik," "Formenkritik," "Gattungskritik," "Formengeschkbte," and "Ganungsgeschichte.''

102 One should note that Koch, Gnrti'tb of Biblical Tradition, 38,53,57,77, pereeives "Form-gescbichle" as tbe summary term for all exegetical methods, in contrast to the term distinetions used bere.

SO! The Separation ofthe two aspeets (linguistic shape and genre imprint) into two indepen­dent constitutive questions, as we bave done herc. inakes allowancc for the fact that the formation of a text should not be uuderstood solely as formation by existing genres and their related asso­ciations (see discussions above, p. 96 and 991). The distinetion between a text's gerne imprint and its genre-dependent linguistic shape is correedy accented in the newer discussions of method, first by Richter (Exegese, p. 33.74,126f,13 lff) and then also in the methodologies of Schreiner (Ein­leitung), Fohrcr (Exegese), and Koch (Formgeschicbte, 3rd ed. (German only)). In attempting a more detailed development they contrast with the widespread trend of reducing form criticism to die genre question.

Commenta ry on the Approach anil M e t h o d 103

Π. Concern ing the Quest ion o f the Linguis t ic Shape

Anyone who has fol lowed the guides o f this manual to this po in t has al­ready gained foundational l inguistic observations for the text as a whole. T h e y have emerged f rom die Hebrew text, by w o r k i n g f rom the procedural step o f §1 Β I I 2 in reference to the description o f die l inguist ic manifestations and in reference to the possible material aspect thereby expressed.

T h e observational questions f rom that section are also the essential gu id ing questions for the first constitutive question o f the fo rm critical investigation undertaken here (see above pages 8-14).

However, the procedure here in §7 is distinguished f rom the corresponding Observation phase in §1 in two ways. First, the question o f the l inguist ic shape is no longer directed toward the entire text, as was tbe case i n § 1 . Radier, i t is directed toward each o f the text's developmental stages as ascertained i n § § 4 - 6 . T h i s concentrat ion has the effect o f reexamination, conf i rn ia t ion , and/or correcdon regarding the text's ascertained path o f development. Sec­ond, that which was observed in §1 w i l l now be methodically reexamined and explained for the texts o f the individual developmental stages. I t w i l l be re­examined w i t h the aid o f (grammaticai , syntactical, and stylistic) secondary l i terature on the Hebrew (see remarks in § 2 D ; § 7 D ) , as wel l as lexica and con-cordances (see remarks in § 2 C , E ) . D u r i n g this reexamination and explanation o f the l inguist ic observations on a given text's developmental elements, four approaches ímpact i i ig the l inguist ic sbape come to the foreground for each de­velopmental stage.

1) T h e investigation begins by delimiting the established text.

Is die text a completely independent whole? Is i t a self-enclosed whole w i t h a meaningful beginning and end? I f necessary, what continuat ion does i t presuppose (previous and subsequent)? , ( M

Regarding the l inguist ic shape, a small wr i t t en uni t , which can stand by itself, should be differentiated from a redactional fo rmula t ion . I n pr inciple , even i f not true in exegetical practice, the siže o f the text plays no role here (as is true elsewhere in f o n u cr i t ic ism). F o r m cr i t ic ism not on ly treats small units , but also fundamentally treats collections and large l i terary complexes.

2) Thereafter, the question o f the strueture and the structural components is fundamental.

'04 Examples: Psalms frequcntly stand cntírely on their own (but comparc Pss 42/43 and note the possibility of redactional psalms). 13y contrast, a given text from the Succession History can be relatively self-enclosed (e.g. 2 Sam 11:2-12:25; 20:1-22), but at the same time an episode in a larger nanarive whole.

104 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

These c o m p o n e n t s are recognizable , above all , i n the fo l lowing: s cen ic

or h m c t i o n a l sect ions , charac ter i s t i c i n t r o d u e t o r y or c o n c l u d i n g

formulas , c o n n e c t i n g or d i v i d i n g m a r k i n g s o f a l ingu i s t i c n a t u r e (e.g.

the change o f subject) , the sequence o f the sentences , the types o f

sentences (e.g. c o m m a n d , n o m i n a l sentence) , s ty l is t ic devices (such as

repet i t ion) , and the w o r d s w h i c h b i n d the sentences to one another

(such as "because," "therefore"). 1 1 ^

T o classify the text one shou ld fur ther note the fo l lowing: W h i c h

s t ruc tura l c o m p o n e n t s are o f equal weight , and w h i c h are coord ina ted

w i t h or subsumed u n d e r other c o m p o n e n t s ? T h e indiv idual s t ruc tura l

c o m p o n e n t s are further categoriz.ed as i n d e p e n d e n t Statements ( m a i n

clauses, coord inate clauses , and even paral le l sentences) and s u b o r d i -

nate Statements (dependent c lause, relative clause, Infinitive c o n s t r u c -

t ions) . W i t h addit ions and redact ional formula t ions , one m u s t ask

the distinetive quest ion: H o w are they related to the ex is t ing l i t e rary

context?

I t is r e c o m m e n d e d that one should wr i te the text i n Hebrew to graphica l ly i l -

lustrate diese c larif ications o f the Classification regard ing the n i a c r o - s t r u e t u r e

and m i c r o - s t r u e t u r e . Also, even correspondences between indiv idual sentence

c o m p o n e n t s should be emphas i zed (for example by u s i n g c o l o r e d pens) .

?) O n the text level , the specif ic linguistic shaping devices have n o exclus ive s t r u e t u r i n g funct ion (and in part they have ahsolute ly n o s t r u e t u r i n g i u n c -t ion) . C la r i ty c o n c e r n i n g the use and tbe meaning o f diese devices cannot be fundamental ly attained w i thout de l iberat ion o n a mul t ip l i c i ty o f t ex t s . 1 0 6 H o w ­ever, these devices can perhaps exhibit i m p o r t a n t mater ia l accents w h i c h must be evaluated i n tbe detai led interpretat ion (see §10) .

Relatedly, yet independent o l d ie quest ion o f the s trueture , one should

also observe die sentence types ut i l i zed (especial ly n o m i n a l and verbal

sentences), formulas , n o u n and verb classes ( l i k e abs trac t / concre te ;

stative verbs /ac t ion verbs) , s ty l is t ic devices (especial ly d ie use o f m e t a -

phor i ca l speech, a l l i terat ion, assonanee, p a r o n o m a s i a , and parallelismus memborum), and the m a n n e r o f presenta t ion (report , a r g u m e n t a t i o n ,

105 Kxample: Isa 10:5-19. The following are especially important for determining the con­struetion and constrnctural components: the nii)tivational conjimetion "dierelore" (ìākēn in 10:16); the change from YHW11 speech (10:5-7,12b) to an incorporaled quote of the Assyrtan (10: 8-11,1}{) which is twice used within 10:5-15 to thematieize varying aspect.s of the sin: and tbe stylistic device of the cross-refercncc from 10:15 to 10:5.

106 In the practical completton of one's work, the exegete should freely make use of already existing insights from the discipline by drawing upon dicrionarics. grammars. stylistic studies. Old Testament introduetions, etc.

Commenta ry on the Approach and Me thod 105

Ins t ruct ion, etc.; scenic dualism, i n t e r t w i n i n g eharacter). One should also determine their funct ion in the entire text. 1 " 7

4) Finally, one must ask about the reference point of tbe author concerning the subject/facts and the audience. I n a l inguist ic investigation, the perspective con­cerns what is fomiulated, and what is not formulated? W h y , for w h o m , and for what purpose was i t formulated precisely i n this manner and not i n another way? Thus :

Flow do the expressed condit ions specifically present die perception, experience, and t h i n k i n g at the t ime o f the statement's formation? O n what specifically does the statement's author place major emphasis (e.g praying, cursing, teaching)? W h a t does the author leave out? W h a t could also be o f interest by itself, i n association w i t h the statement? 1" 8

For the author's purpose, what is the relationship o f the hearer/reader to the statement or to the condit ions expressed (perhaps different i n historiography f rom p o p u l ä r narratives or i n Statements o f praise from lists)? W h a t does the author wish to teli the reader/hearer (purpose o f the statement)? I U"

Summary o f the Procedural Steps T h e investigation o f die linguistic shaping may thus be summarized ac-

co rdmg to I I 1-4 i n the f o l l o w i n g procedural steps. These steps reexamine and clarify the l inguis t ic observations o f §1 for each developmental stage o f the text:

T h e question o f the delimitation o f the established text Control l ing the results o f § § 4 - 6 . T h e question o f die construetion and the construetional components o f the established text, again Contro l l ing the results o f § § 4 - 6 .

i"" Examples: The use ot alliteration and assonance to draw out the conclnsive judgment on the mis'deeds of Jerusalem and Judah m Isa 5:7b (mt'spùt/miśpukfèiiāqâ/íê'ūqà); use of the nominal sentence to express the existing divine protection for Zion in Ps 46 (46:2,6a,8, etc.). In lieht of nar­ratives, cornpare the famous stylistic comparison between Homer and Gen 22 by E . Auerbach, Mimesis, Ί971 , p. 5-27 (especially 9ff) and the analysis of Gen 28:10-22 by Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 185-195 (with §6).

108 This approach is particularly suited to recognize the special aspect from which a text speaks: What is said in Ps 6, or a related coinplaint song, concerning the underlying afflicuon, and whatis not said? Whatis said in Isa 7:1 -17 concerning die decisive political Situation of Ahaz, and what is not said?

109 Since Richter (Exegese, 75-78,128-137,183) rejects ποη-formalized contents as a starting point, the perspectives named here do not come into plav, for him, in the framework of the methodological steps seeking the form and genre. Relatedly, when determining the genre, those perspectives which are associated with the (ποη-fonnalized!) genre topic also do not come into plav. By contrast, cornpare footnote 91.

106 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

3. T h e question o f the linguistic sbaping devices (stylistic, syntactical) used in the text's sentences and sentence order.

4. T h e question of the linguistic indices o f die author s perspective on die text's subject/facts and its addressees.

I I I . De t e rmin ing the Genre

1. T h e Process o f D e t e r m i n i n g the Genre I t is n iuch more diff icul t today to determine a text's genre than i t was

in die per iod o f classical fo rm cr i t ic ism because O l d Testament texts can no longer be secn simply as the rccord o f small, oral speech units. W h a t we have before us are vvritten texts w i t h i n the framework o f more or less expansive l i terary works. Thus , one should p r i m a r i l y have to ask die question o f the •isritten-literary (!) genres i n ancient Israel which has scarcely been considered to this point . By no means arc all O l d Testament texts s imply the codification o f oral transmission material . Even in those places in wh ich this is the case, one must account for modifieat ion d u r i n g the process o f record ing . I n other words, die Jump into the w o r l d o f Irving -, oral communica t ion i n ancient Israel via fo rm cr i t ic ism is hardly possible any longer. As w i t h §5 , only cautious deductions concerning the influence o f preliterary spoken genres reveal t hem­selves on occasion. D e t e r m i n i n g the genre i n this conventional sense is then best employed today i n those texts wh ich l i terary cri t icism and redaction c r i t i ­cism nevertheless do suggest that the text is a small u n i t whose o r i g i n lies i n oral transmission. Above all , one could consider cult ic texts, w i sdom texts, legal texts, prophetic logia (bu t beyond their record ing in w r i t t e n fo rm) , and the s t rue tur ing o f independent narratives. Natural ly , one should by no means exclude die influence o f oral genre patterns on texts wh ich were first f o r m u ­lated on the l i terary level. T h i s influence may occur in the re formula t ion o f t ransmit ted material wh ich has been shaped by oral genres or i t may occur in tbe secondary l i terary usage o f genres for redactional passages w i t h a corre­spondingly large distance from tbe genre's p r imary oral usage. S t i l l , the m o d i ­fieation which results must be considered constantly.

I n a students exegetical practice, one should concentrate on those l i m i -tations named for de te rmin ing genre. Above all , one should concen­trate on die field o f the small u n i t o f oral o r i g in revealed by § 5 . I n ad­d i t i on , one should concentrate on the secondary use o f oral genres i n l i terar i ly formulated texts.

T h i s concentrat ion is suggested because tbe discipline Still scarcely offers preparatory works for the question o f l i te rary genres (exceptions inelude annals, lists). Therefore i t is recommended that one ask about the genre for each developmental stage o f the text separately. T h e ancient oriental realm represents an impor tan t field, wh ich has been too l i t t l e investigated. I t repre-sents an impor tan t field for die reeogni t ion o f genres and o f stereotypieal life

Comnientary on the Approach and M e t h o d 107

situations wh ich lead to genres. I n certain circumstances. the ancient oriental realm allows deduetive suppositions concerning corresponding realities i n Anc ien t Israel.

O n l y by comparing other texts can one determine whether or no t a text, or text complex, follows the l inguistic shaping o f an existing text pattern for a specific life process (and i f so, i n what manner). A genre presents itself when several texts, l i terari ly independent o f one another, 1 1 0 possess a common foun-darion in respect to structural elements, topics (specific words, contents, and eonstellations typical for this genre 1 ") , and fo rm markers.

How should one proceed in detail w h e n de te rmin ing the genre o f a given tex t?" 2

T h e perspective and purpose o f a statement became recogniz.able w i t h i n the framework o f the question o f the l inguist ic shape in l igh t o f conerete circumstances (e.g. prayer, legal saying, cul t ic rationale, his­torical narrative). T h i s perspective and purpose indicate in w h i c h O l d Testament text realm one should seek correspondingly shaped texts for precedence. (One works p r imar i ly w i t h an Engl ish bible, but controls these observations by using the Biblia Hebraica.)

F r o m there, w i t h the help o f a Hebrew concordance, one can ident i fy and ex-amine other texts w h i c h inelude the same words as the text under investigation and w h i c h are significant for the strueture and for the statement's intent ion (as, for example, w i t h the use o f "because" [ya'an] or "therefore" [lākēn] i n the judgmcnt propbecv, or w i th the use o f "how long?" ['ad tnätay] or " h e a r / answer" ['r/h] w i th the complaint psalm).

I f correspondingly shaped, l i t e ra r i ly independent texts are found i n this manner, then one may more precisely determine the markers ofthe underlytng genre by comparative Observat ion. Simultaneously one may also determine the individual deviation o f the various examples.

By do ing so, this process, in some cases, provides impor tant specifications and corrections regarding the l inguis t ic shape o f die established de l imi ta t ion ,

Π0 The concurring formation of texts can rest upon a literary dependence which imitates the model at hand. The dependence can also be traced back to the hand of a single author who shapes the unity (comparc Marken, in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 92, footnote 97, for the framing pieces of the book of Jndgcs).

I I ' Fxampie, a buriaí song: code word 'êk. contrast between then and now, landatorv pre­sentation of the dc.ui. and others. The genre ropic of many psalm genres is especially ahiuidant (cf. for example, the complaint song of the individual in H . Gunkel and J . Begrich, Einleitung in die Psalmen, 1933, ρ. lS4ff).

112 For die practical completion of the work. the exegete should herc also make use of the currently available insights of the discipline (see above, foomote 106). The exegete should take up the genre detenninations mentioned in Old "lestament introduetions or in commentaries and cx-amine them critically (cf. also Marken, in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 94f; Kaiser, Exegetical Method, p. 25f). Comparc the literature suggestions below in D I I .

108 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

strueture analysis, and determinat ion o f the dominant perspective. However, i f one finds that the text's characteristics, wh ich were observed d u r i n g the investigation, are l imi ted to this text, then as a rule, i t is not possible to speak o f a specific available genre shaping the text. I t may also be proven, however, that the text under investigation is just one component o f a genre."'-' I n order to understand more quickly, i t is recommended that one fo l low the t e r m i -nology established by the discipline for the name o f die genre.

2. Variations and Dcviations in Genres T h e shaping o f l inguis t ic utterances according to exist ing text patterns

does not simply signify d ie i r schematie dupl icat ion because o f the dynamic nature o f the language. F r o m the outset, one should therefore naturally expect differences among individual examples o f a genre and the divis ion o f a genre in to genre categories.

However, stronger dcviations and reformulat ions o f the genre must be understood as one o f the fo l lowing : T h e y may be understood as indicat ing a change in the genre d u r i n g its h i s to ry . " 4 T h e change may •also be understood as a clue to particular contents which arise f r o m die possibilities o f the text- type. A n d / o r the change must be seen as the expressed peculiari ty o f the author(s).

I n the last mstance, the dcviations freqtienth/ provide clues to the specific i n ­tent ion o f the statement for the encountered passage."5

3. (Konsolidation and M i x ture o f Genres A l inguistic un i t is frequently shaped according to a single genre.

Howei^er, one must also take in to account diat, w i t h i n a text, a genre can appear i n die framework o f another genre, e w e r i n g a larger text. T h e tormer would thus be cal led a "component genre" and the latter wou ld be called the "framinggenre" (K . K o c h ) . ' 1 6

Further, one frequendy encounters die consolidat ion or m i x t u r e o l genres. T h e age o f diese linguistic entities has not yet been decided f rom this fact. T h e hypothesis that a genre type bas developed from a simple type o f the genre to a complex type o f the genre is problematic . S t i l l , one must, as a rule , see the mix tu re o f genres w i t h i n one text as the sign o f secondary usage, to the degree that diey do not arise from Uic same lite setting (see below, section V 1).

1 I ·' Example: With regard to its genre. Gen 39 is only a component part of the genre of the novella, which exists in the Joseph narrative as a whole.

1'4 See below, section IV. 115 Example: Isa 7:4—9 (see above, footnote 96). 116 Koch, Gmi'tb of Biblical Tradition, ρ. 18-20. The work by Ε Stolz, Psalmen im nachkul-

tischen Raum, Zürich, 19S3, is instruetive for the question of mixed geures in die psalms.

Commenta ry on the Approaeh and M e t h o d 109

TV' T h e Question o f die Genre H i s t o r y

1. Start ing Point A genre is seldom distinguished i n the individual examples by duplicat ion

o f die l inguist ic shape. M o r e often changes and deviations appear. Reasons for tbese differences can be found in conscious deviation o f the markcrs typical for the genre when adopting the gerne. 1 1 7 T h e y can also po in t to developments and changes to the genre in the course o f the long history o f its use. T h e start­i n g po in t for the question o f genre h is tory appears especially i n the latter phenomenon. Every genre has a h is tory for the period i t was in use. To that degree, an existing genre sample, for a text's specific transmission stage, can be characteristicaJly differentiated f rom other expressions o f this genre, both for-ward and backward in time.

2. Mater ia l for Comparison

Within the Oid Testament and the environment of Ancient Israel, the manifesta-tions of the genre m question oifer the material for investigabng genre history, Genre historical manifestat'ons ensue from the Observation of those changes which result from the development of genre elements, and not simply from the one time modifićation of an author using the genre. (This statement is true unless those modifications themselves effectively change the genre.) Genre hstoncal investigations. as a rule, ariše in the form ol a monograpb, | ! ' They are possible oniy in a very limited form within the framework of an exegesis paper on a specific text

Summary o f the Steps T h e question whether a text, in whole or in part, is shaped under the i n ­

fluence o f a genre, may dius be summarized i n die fo l lowing steps:

1. Start ing po in t w i t h the text One should proceed f rom insights in to the linguistic sbape i n ref­erence to the text's construetion and eonstructural elements. I n so doing , one should pay special a t tent ion to the syiitactieal fo rm o f the content o f the statement. O n oceasion, the contour o f these findings indicates use o f a genre pat tern. T h e facts, l inguis t ical ly conceived under a specific perspective and in ten t ion , indicate in which arena a presumed genre. pattern belongs (e.g. legal regnla-tions, life wisdom, prophetic speech, song prayer, etc.)

2. Search for genre parallels I f a genre pattern impacts the shape o f the text, then the devices o f l inguis t ic shaping, which are themselves fixed component ele-

Π7 Cornpare above Β I I I 2, p-. 108. and below Β V 3, ρ. 112. l t R Cornpare, for example, Criisemann, Studien, ρ. 210-284, for the individual song of

rhanksgiving.

110 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

ments, ensue f rom literarily independent examples of texts uitb corre­sponding text patterns. These devices arc made k n o w n in asso-ciation w i t h typical words, contents, and conceptualixations. 'Fhey are, in pr inciple , located by concordance work in which the O l d 'lestament is searched for l inguist ic manifestarions corresponding i n fo rm and content. I n pracriee, one w i l l have to re ly p r imar i l y on the compi la t ion o f genres in secondary l i terature for the presumed arena o f usage (see below D I I ) . Cu l t , cul t poetry, wis-dom, law, royal court , death rituals, and prophet ic act ivi ty p r i ­mar i ly come in to play. One should note that formulas, idioms, etc. are not genres (for these, cornpare §8).

3. Expression o f the gerne i n the text I f a text pattern influences the text or i f component and f r aming genres appear togedier, then one must more elosely iiwestigate the conerete expression ot the genre i n the t ex t r t i band. Various consid-erations are impor tant in do ing so: — Is the expression o f the genre in the text practically idenrical

w i t h other examples? — I f not, f rom whence does the deviation arise? Does i t stem from

the internal change over the course o f the genre's history? O r does the change stem f r o m the adaptation o f the genre under­taken by the author?

— H o w is the genre's strueture related to die l inguis t ical ly marked strueture ot the text? D o both Serie die same purpose? O r must one revise the text's l inguist ic analysis o f tbe strueture based on the influence o f the genre? O r does the audior deviate from the strueture o f the genre?

4. Consequences o f the genre finding W h a t does the finding o f 3) mcan for the material perspective, the purpose, and the line o f thought? W h a t does i t mean for the life setring and die c o m m u n i c a ü o n sett ing o f the text? is it possible to deduce the original use o f the text in the oral arena? W h a t mate­rial accents does the genre influence contr ibute to die level o f the w r i t t e n record o f the text? For the author and the reader, what does the genre contribute to a text originally coneeived as a w r i t t e n text w i t h i n a l i terary context?

V. Regarding the Question o f the Li fe Sett ing

1. Clar if icat ion o f the Term As a rule, fo rm critical investigation, as praeticed in O l d Testament exege­

sis, treats those genres which allow a specific l inguist ic pattern to be associated w i t h specific socio-cultural conditions and realities ( l i fe setting). One may only

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 111

speak o f this arrangement i f die genre is so rooted i n a life process that repet i-don o f the genre i tself rccalls the process. '" A genre s occasional employmcnt in another realm by no means signifies a new life s e t t i n g / 2 0

The expressed life process designated by the life setting is related to a specific topic to which other life processes can certalniy be related, In this case very different genres also concentrate on this topic. These genres look upon this topic from different perspectives. Thus, fixed linguistic utterances are bound to one and the same topic, that of a milrtary campaign, but they belong to the following genres: oracular inquiry, oracular response, sayings for punfication ntuals, vows, Orders, call to battle, Instructions to the herald, vic-tory song, lists of booty; royal thanksgivmg song, campaign report, stela inscription, These genres represent different processes relating to the military campaign but see one and the same event from characteristic perspectives.

Fo rm criricism is also a socio-literary means o f inspection when considering the aspect o f the life setting. One should not confuse fo rm crir ic ism w i t h a timeless morphology which phenomenologically deseribes an aesthetie w o r l d o f forms.

By way of limitation, however, one must add that the rootmg of genres in a specific life setting does not rnean that it is always possible to decuce the cultural and institutional framework from the text's linguistic shape as fashioned by the genre. Fer one reason, genres can leave the life setting from which they arose (see below, V.3.). For another reason, several genres reflect their life setting so imprecisefy that entering the socio-cultural conditions and realities to which they belong is not possible from the fnguistic shape ol texts formed ;n that setting,

A t any rate, one must observe that deducing oral genres o f speech, and their r o o t i n g i n conerete areas, w i l l always remain an inferred conelusion for the O l d Testament. T h i s statement is true because we only have examples in wr i t t en fo rm which represent a secondary usage. Such an inferred conelusion is not self-evident. I t must be suggested by a positive text f inding according to § 5 , in connection w i t h socio-historieal correspondences which can be de-duced for Israel directly or indirect ly f rom ancient oriental sources.

2. Methodological E n t r y I f the given text exhibits genre influence, dien one must explain the arena

of life to w h i c h the genre belongs f rom die outset. One must explain this o r ig in apart from the nsage in the text. Methodological ly , the relat ionship

11* Examples: The dirge is rooted in the funeral procession (2 Sam 1:17-27). Or the liturgy of tcinple admission is rooted in the process of the pilgrims' entry into the Jerusalem temple (Es 15).

'20 Example: The use of animal and plant fahles in Ezek 17 and 19 (for detail*, see W. Zim-merh, Ezvkiel I, Hermeneia, Philadelphia, 1979, see locations).

112 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

between the life setting and the applicable genre(s) must be i l luminated f r o m two directions:

a) Proceeding f rom the genre (text examples): I n order to reeognize the life setting, one must ask the f o l l o w i n g ques­

tions in l i gh t o f the genre markers as wel l as the context i n w h i c h the genre appears:

" W h o is die Speaker? W h o are the listeners? W h a t mood dominates the Situation? W h a t effect is sought?" , : i

F r o m the perspective o f the one speaking, does die statement presuppose the exercise o f a specific tunc t ion , or a specific "conipe-tence"? 1 - Can the interests and concerns o f specific persons or groups o f persons be seen?

D o die style and type o f presentation (e.g. a folk-tale or theologi -cally reflective narrative style) allow deductions concerning the socio-cnltural roors?

Tb which ordercd life processes in Israel do the genre's strueture, fo rm markers, perspective, and contents po in t? ; , ! )

b) Proceeding f rom the socio-cultural conditions and realities:

Here i t is necessary to obtain knowledge concerning the israelite and ancient oriental h is tory (economic, social, cultic, and religious), to the degree that their acquisitum is possible at this p o i n t . 1 : 4 T h e y eom-prise the material f rom w h i c h the life set t ing can be coneeived and delineated.

3. Relationship between Genre and Li fe Setting

in rhe simplest case this relationship is an immediaie one. The genre is used >n the framework of its life setting, In the Old Testament writings, this case is possibly presumed m written literary genres. It can be deduced with oral genres if the text can be traced Pack into oral transmission. However; the relationship between genre and life setting in the Oid Testament offen presents itself more complexiy, which creates special probiems for form criticism:

Gunkel, Reden und Aufsätze. p. 33. I '2 Cornpare Kaiser, ExegeticalMetbod, p. 27. 123 Example: Individual song of thanksgivmg: the introduetory tada formula (Isa 12:1) or

the naming of the thanksgiving offering in the course of the psalm (Ps 116:17) point to the process of presenting the tâdà. The bi-polarity of the speech can be recognized in two directions (Ps 30:2-4,7-13/5f ). On the one hand, in the process of the todd, the one praying transfere the of­fering to YTfVVH with direct address to Y H W H . On the other hand, the one praying reports ahm» YHVVTTs deed to those partieipating in the sacrificial meal; cornpare Crüsemarm. Studien, p. 2S2-284.

IM For literature, see above, §2 K , L .

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 113

a. A genre can be used outside of iis /ife setting. Either, it can be used ad hoc in another arena without becoming strongly rooíed in that arena, 2 i o r it can become an inte-grated component of another arena and thereby enter a new liíe setting. This ncw setting can be grounded in the change orthe wíthering away ofthe original life setting. I ÎĠ

In the Old Testamentthese secondary usages ofgenres can already appear in the oral transmission. Forexample, such secondary usage can be seen in prophetic logia which are influenced by non-prophetic genres, or in psalms which are impacted by wisdom genres. Above all, however, the influence of oral genres upon the written levei consis-tently represents a secondary usage.

b. Ifa genre makes a transition from the realm in which it derived into another realm, then certain changes in the genre appear which stand out in every genres history (e.g. its topic, eonsolidation with other genres or genre Clements 1 These changes can be noted especially in the numerous cases of ad hoc adoption. In the end, these changes mean that one can no longer speak without qualificaton about one and the same genre, As a result the following may be noted:

1. The current understanding that a Single genre can traverse severe! life setungs is problematic.

2. Even though widely presupposed in current understanding, defining the term life setting soieiy as the place of use for genres of very diverse background is unsatisfac-tory. It fails to take into account that a new arena (life setting) produces Substantive changes when it adopts a genre, as shown above. The term life setting must there-fore be understood more nairowiy. It must be determined as a formulatively effective arena only forthose genres which are rooted ;n that arena and which are consistently used there. Genres which are rooted in another life arena, but which appear in the shaping arena, will then be assimilated (in altered form) into that arena and its genres, as a result of its shaping power.

c. It a genre is taken from the arena from which it derived into another arena, its origi­nal characterist'cs are not entireiy lost, in spite of the fact that the life setting is no ionger present and that the genre has changed. The ve ry fact that the genre nas been se-iected is apparently grounded in the specific intention and purpose of the new Statement. The new Statement was art-culated by bomowing f rom a foreign genre. As a result it is imperative that one observe a genres markers and goai, even when a genre which is used for a different function than its original life setting. This is necessary

i - 5 Exaniples: Use of the wisdom genre fable (see above, footnote 120) or the Instruction to the herald in prophetic pronouncements (Isa 40:9-11; Jer 46:14; etc. Compare Crüscmann, Stu­dien, p. 5 3 f.)

12(5 Kxamplcs: The prophetic dirge (Arnos 5:2; Isa 1:2ff; 14:41>-21; for further exaniples and indication of the ehnrneter see 11. Jahnow, Das hebräische Leichmlied rm Rahmen der Volkerdichtimg, 1923, 162 ft'.); saga tradirions as a component of the Yahwistic wirk. The last instance concerns the transition into the setting in literatnre («erring in the book). "But a question then immediately arises: What is the Sitz im Lehen of this literature itself, that is. for what public or semipublic read-ing of it, and where and by whoin?" (Kaiser, HxegeticalMethod. p. 26).

I ' " Exaniples: The eonsolidation of herald Instruction with the imperative hymn in Isa 48: 20; Jcr 31:7; or the eonsolidation of the dirge with the judgment prophecy in Isa 1:21-26. In both cases there is a corresponding change in the genre topic.

114 §7 F O R Í M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

ifone wants to perceive the intent and perspective of the new statement which was formed using that. genre. 2 S

The Situation changes only in those cases where a genre is brought over solely to reproduce certain contents, or conceptualizalions, which are associated with rt. 1 ' 9

Summary o f the Steps I f the text under investigation is influenced by a genre, then one must

raise die question o f the genre's life setting i n relationship to this text. T h e f o l ­l o w i n g steps may be summarized:

1. Deducing die genre's stereotypical situations The genre pattern was ascertained f rom the text under investi­

gat ion and additional parallels in the framework o f die second component question (Β Π Ι and I V ) . One must inqui re in to the stereotypical Situation wh ich this pat tern requires and i n wh ich i t belongs. I n do ing so, one must eombine inqu i ry i n t o the text i n ­dices w i t h aseertaining corresponding historical realities (accord­i n g to V 2). I n practice, one must essentially examine fo rm critical secondary li terature to see what i t offers.

2. Ulustrating this Situation from O l d Testament (and ancient oriental) sources

I f one bas ascertained a life sett ing for the genre pattern, then one should acquire tbe most grapbic picture possible, his torical ly speak­ing, concerning the processes w i t h i n this framework, especiallv the l inguis t ic processes. I n di is manner, one can i lhistr3te how the l inguis t ic pattern funetions for diis genre w i d i i n this frame­work . One can ident i fy die speaker, the listeners, tbe actions and processes wh ich shape the frame. One can ident i fy the in t en t ion o f this fashioned l inguis t ic act, and the subject's accents and per­spectives which arc seleeted and h ighl ighted .

3. Relationship between the Situation f rom which die text arises and the Situation o f the genre

Af te r this inquiry, one returns to the text under investigation and to die iinpact o f its genre. One considers how- the o r ig in o f this text relates to die S i tuat ion which gave rise to the genre (Ufe setting). For this task, one should examine the possibilities o f V 3 for the text. W h e n there is an immediate relationship between genre and life setting, one should strive to deduce concretely visible i m p l i -eations for its or iginal usage, according to "2" . I n all other cases.

l-S See Fohrer, Introâmwn, ρ. 28f,333. 129 Examples: The use of a natural onomastic list in the theophanic material of Job 38ff

where God is encountered at the end ot the Job dialogues.

Results 115

meaning when there is secondary usage, one must ask what the original life setting contributes materially to the genre's new usage. For example, adopt ing a wisdom genre in Isa 1:2f and a priestly genre i n Isa l i l ü - 1 7 can show that i t is now die prophet who claims die author i ty and the funct ion o f die wisdom Ins t ruc t ion and the priestly Ins t ruct ion. He does so by cr i t ical ly distancing himself f rom the original Speakers o f these teaching utterances.

V I . Area o f Usage

Fo rm cri t icism is not l imi ted to a specific text or to a specific transmission stage. Rather, fo rm cr i t ic ism is meaningful in several aspeets simultaneously. F o r m cri t icism is meaningful in oral as wel l as wr i t t en transmission stages, for a text (component genre) w i t h i n a larger section o f text ( f raming genre), and for an independent text. I t is meaningful for a small u n i t as well as a more comprehensive text complex (such as tbe Yahwistic work or the Deuterono­mistic H i s t o r y ) .

C. R E S U L T S

I . Result o f the Quest ion o f the Linguis t ic Shaping and the Dete rmina t ion o f Genre

Prcsenting the results o f these two component questions can proceed together because they concurr ingly investigate the revision o f an existing l i n ­guistic pat tern and the possibilities in a text. I n addi t ion, de te rmin ing die genre more precisely continues the question o f die l inguis t ic shaping for the text level.

1) I n l igh t o f a mul t i tude o f possibilities, c lar i fying rlie devices o f the lin­guistic shape (by fo rm and content) provides thoroughly impor tan t clues for die special (!) statement profile for this (!) text i n whole and i n part. I t also provides indicators o f the desired material meaning (cornpare examples above i n A Π and Β V I ) .

2) Analysis o f the l inguis t ic shaping and o f the genre provides the rele­vant divisimi of the l inguist ic utterance in to its structural components and their material relationship to one another.

3) A text's un i i onn i ty , fonnally and according to genre, is an indicator of its unity and can signify its or iginal independence. T h i s independenec is espe­cially impor tant for the area o f oral transmission.

4) Further, the u n i f o r m i t y allows die pert inent delimitation over against the context, and thus Ieads to the identif ication o f the units o f meaning which are foundational for interpretat ion.

116 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

5) T h e Statements purpose and perspective can be perceived more precisely by recognizing the l inguist ic shaping, and then by recognizing the shaping o f the genre. 1 ' 1 '

I L Results o f the Question o f the Genre H i s t o r y

T h e results o f the question o f genre h is tory for die exegesis o f a specific text lie i n the fo l lowing:

1. O n l y w i t h such an investigation can one speeify, w i t h historical precision, the genre as i t existed for the text's author.

2. T h e in t en t ion and purpose for the existing use o f the genre can be sketched and profi led by dis t inguishing between that wh ich existed i n the genre his tory and ad hoc changes.

3. Such an investigation makes deduetions possible regarding the historical Classification o f the individual text, or its different transinission stages." 1

I I I . Results o f the Question o f the L i f e Setting

1. Those l inguis t ic utterances u t i l i z i n g a genre w i t h i n the life sett ing f r o m w h i c h that genre stems, provide important rfnes for understanding the text. I t provides clues regarding the text's intention and the limit i n respect to a specific audience and Speaker, as well as i n respect to die directions o f specific social and cul tural stages o f devclopment.

2. T h e meaning o f fo rm cr i t ic i sm for the exploration of historical processes i n Anc i en t Israel rests on the relationship berween genre and life setting. T h e genre allows a deduetion concerning historical and communal rcla-tionships. Genre history reflects changes i n these relationships. However, i t is not methodological ly permissible to convey genre his tory di rect ly onto the historical level o f progress. Genres can still contimie to exist i n a k ind o f inactive State l o n g after the disappearance o f their life setting.13--'

130 It is perrinent to djfferentiate between xhefimetion of the genre for a linguistic utterance and the author's intention when fashioning that utterance. However, "the results of genre criticism" inay not just "provide importani clues for the iiitemion of a Speaker or the author of a wriltcn piece." Radier, deternüning die genre (or relatedly. its concrete usage in a given text) and pereeiv-ing its autlior's intention stand in an hidvssoltẁle interrelationship. Deternuning die intention of a linguistic utterance without deduetions and orientation froin form critical conclusions (or against these conclusions) cannot be perfornied in a manner which is methodologically verifiable. It must therefore remain out of consideration. See H.W. Hoffmann, 7AW 82 (1970): 345f; and H.W. Hoffmann in Fohrcr, Exegese, p. 157-160, whc-rc, on p. 160, the above-cited quote appears (em-phasis ours).

'-'I Compare above. Β III 3 (p. 108). 13- Compare Kocli, The Gnwib ofBiblual Tradition, p. 34-36.

Litera ture 117

D . L I T E R A T U R E

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D O V E R V I E W

J. Barten. "Form Criticism." ABD, Vol. 2, p. 838-841. K . - H . Bernhardt. Die gattungsgeschichtliche Forschung am Alten Testament als ex­

egetische Methode. Aufsätze und Vorträge zur Theologie und Religionswissen­schaft. H . 8. Berlin, 1959.

G. Fohrer. Exegese. § 6 (G. Wanke) und § 7 (L . Marken). I I . Gunkel. Die Grundprobleine der israelitischen Literaturgeschichte. In: Gunkel.

Reden und Aufsätze. Gött ingen, 1913. p. 29-38. . Die israelitische Literatur. Leipzig, 1925 (Darmstadt, 1963).

A. Jolles. Einfache Formen. Halle, 1930 (Tübingen, 41968). O. Kaiser. Exegetical Method. p. 28-4.3. K. Koch. The Growür of Biblical Tradition, p. 3-38. G. Lohfink. The Bible: Νοτν I Get It!: Α Form Criticism Handbook. New York, 1979. F. Stolz. Das Alte Testament. Studienbücher Theologie. Altes Testament. Gütersloh,

1974. p. 43-9.3. G. M . Tucker. Form Criticism of the Old Testament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship.

Old Testament Series. J.C. Rylaarsdam, ed. Philadelphia, 1971.

I I . EXPANSION A N D C R I T I C A L .ALTERNATIVES

D. Greenwood. Rhetorical Criticism and Formgeschichte: Some Methodological Considcrations. JBL 89 (1970): 418-426.

J. Muilenburg. Form Criticism and Beyond. JBL 88 (1969): 1-18. Also in: RR. Iluuse, ed. Beyond Form Criticism: Essays in Old lestament Literary Criticism. VVinona Lake, 1992. p. 49-69.

J.FI. Hayes, ed. Old Testament Form Criticism. San Antonio, 1974. W. Richter. Exegese, p. 72-152. H . Schweizer. Form und Inhalt. B N 3 (1977): 35-47.

_ . Biblische Texte verstehen, ρ. 401t.52ff. A I . Weiss. Die Methode der »Total-Interpretation«. VT.S 22 (1972): 88-112.

Cornpare also die following eategories.

For individual genres, cornpare the summaries of: O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament: An Introduction. §§ 2-16: p. 9-127 comprehensively

(also the Supplements, p. 722-739). G. Fohrer. Introduction to the Old 'lestament. §§ 7-14, 38-41, 47, 53: 51-100,

256-278, 311-317, 347-358 (also the Supplements, 518-519, 524, 526-527). O. Kaiser. Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford, 1984. §§ 5, 6, 25, 28, 29,34. K. Koch. Fortiigesehiehte. p. 271-275 (Bibliography not in English edition). A. Ohler. Studying the Old Testament from Tradition to Canon. Edinburgh, 1985. W H . Schmidt. Old Testament Introduction. §§ 5. 9, 13, 25, 27. J. Schreiner. Einführung, p. 194-231. (Forms and genres in the Old Testament) See also: I . Lande, Formelhafte Wendungen der Umgangssprache im Alten Testa­

ment, Leiden 1949.

118 §7 F O R M C R I T I C A L A P P R O A C H

Dedicated to Semantks:

B. Kedar. Biblische Semantik. Eine Einführung. Stuttgart, 1 *>81.

Dedicated to Strlistics:

L . Alonso-Sehökel. A Manual o f Hebrew Poerics. Rome, 1988. W. Bühlmann and K. Scherer. Stilfiguren der Bibel. Ein kleines Nachschlagewerk. M i t

einem Anhang von O. Rickenbacher: Einige Beispiele stilsrischer Analyse alttes-tamentlicher Texte. Fribourg, 1973.

E. König. Stilistik. Rhetorik, Poetik in Bezug auf die biblische Literatur kompara­tivisch dargestellt. Leipzig, 1900.

W.G.E. Watson. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOT.S 26. Sheffield, 1984. Compare also the literature mentioned in § 2 Ό ; § 3 D 1 (Hebrew Poetry). On the Discussion ot Linguistics and Exegesism: W. Dressler. Einführung in die Textlinguistik. Tübingen, 1972. E. Gülich and W Raible. Linguistische Textmodelle. Munich, 1977. X. Léon-Dufour. Exegese im Methodenkouflikt. Munich, 1973 (Frencb, 1971), K. Koch. Formgeschichte, p. 289-342 (not in English translation).

. Reichen die fornigesebichtlicben Methoden für die Gegenwartsaufgaben der Bibelwissenschaft zu? T h L Z 98 (1973): col. 801-814.

Κ. Koch and others. Arnos. Untersucht mit den Methoden einer strukturalen Form­geschichte. 3 parte. A O A T 30. Kevelaer—Neulrirchen-Vluyn, 1976. Especially part l , p . 1-89.

W. Richter. Exegese, especially p. 21 ff, 27ff.

For the Current Stale ofthe Discussion: R.C. Culley. Exploring New Directions. Tn: The Hebrew Bible and I ß Modern Inter­

preters. Chico, CA, 1985. p. 167-200. R. Knierun. Criticism of Literary Features. In The Hebrew Bible and Its .Modern

Interpreters, Chico, CA, 1985. p. 123-165, H.-P. Müller. "Formgeschichte/Formenkritik, I . Altes Testament/' T R E X I (1983);

271-285. H . D . Preuß. Linguistik—Literaturwissenschaft—Altes Testament. (See above, foot-

note 9). See §1CV.

I I I . EXEMPLARY E X E C U T T O N

J. Begrich. Die priesterliche "Ibra. In: Werden und Wesen des Alten Testaments. BZAW 66. p. 63-88. Berlin, 1936. Also in: Begrich. Gesanunelte Studien /.tun Alten Testament. ThB 21. Munich, 1964. p. 232-260.

M J . Buss. Form Criticism. In To Lach Its Own Meaning: An Tntroductiun to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application. Louisville, 1993. ρ. 69-85.

>*ί An evaluative summary of W Richters tnethod is found in the 8th--llth German edirion of this work'book, ]). 74-76.

Litera ture 119

F. Crüsemann. Studien zur Formgeschichte von Hymnus und Danklied in Israel. W M A N T 32. Neulorehen-Vluyn 1969.

W. Groß . Lying Prophet and Disobedient Man of C-îod in 1 King 13; Kole Analysis. Semeia 15 (1979): 97-135.

The volumes of the commentary series: The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, which have appeared since 1981. R. Knierim und G. Tucker, eds. Grand Rapids.

Pv H I S T O R Y OF RESEARCH

.). Barton. "Form Criticism." ABU, Vol. 2. p. 838-841. I I .F . Hahn. Old Testament in Mixlern Research. Cbapter 4: Forin Criricism and the

Old lestament, p. 119-156. Philadelphia, 1954. VV Klatt. Hermann Gunkel. Zu seiner Theologie der Religionswissenschaft und zur

Entstehung der formgeschichtlichen Methode. F R L A N T 100. Gött ingen, 1969. H.-J. Kraus. Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments.

Neukirchen-ATuyn, -'1982 (see the index under »Formgeschichte«, »Gat tung«, »Gammgsforschung«).

1

Tradition Historical Approach

A . T H E T A S K

L S t a r ü n g Point

The avenues in §§4-6 have already investigated a text's pre-íexí. This investigation asked about the previous stages of the t e x t under investigation, in the sense of fixed tex­tual components from which the text was forrned o v e r t ime untii it reached its final form. Thus in typical pattern an ora; transmission piece served as pre-text for the first written version. VVntten text versions, logether with their literary contexts, then served as pre-texts for additions and redactional expansions in the text Form criticism and tra­dition history also treat phenomena which are presupposed in the text and to which the text refers. However form criticism and tradition history do not inquire alongthe 'ines of §§4-6 which sought phenomena which had been integrated into a text in the course of its transmission and. relatedly, could be isolated analytically as fixed textual components.

Instead, form criticism and tradition history have another starting point regarding a text's presuppositions. They share a common underlying insight, namely that the State­ments of Old Testament texts are not solely the expression o f an isolated author Rather, even when they are first constituted at the beginning of their development Statements were forrned under influences and with shaping devices which provided the author the prerequisites of possible linguistic utterances. From §7, the treatment concentrates upon the pre-text of the "worid" in which an author and the author's addressees live. It is a lin­guistic (§7), intellectuai (§8), and concretely historical (§9) world in which a formulation and its original understanding were taken as self-evident, One could speak ofthe auru of unrealized rezonance in the formulation about which the exegete must later inquire and de­termine if he/she wants to participate m the original understanding of a text ,

As we saw in §7, form criticism treats the linguistic pattern and possibilities presumed in the linguistic realm and the socio-curtural world. Form criticism thus investigated how a statement is shaped iinguistkaliy, and what may be gleaned from that knowledge which impacts the perception ofthe statement's reference and purpose. In other words, one asKS about the presupposed linguistic worfd. its conerete matnx, and how this statement transcends that linguistic world,

122 §8 T R A D I T T O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

Trad i t i on history proceeds f r o m the perspective that an author lives con-current ly in an intellcctital w o r l d o f facts w h i c h are presupposed and fixed. Trad i t ion history asks the äegree to which die contents o f the author's Statements are detennined by pre-existing elements f rom the author's intelJectual w o r l d , the degree to wh ich the Statements can only be understood f rom their back-ground, or die degree to wh ich the author has deviated f rom that intel lec-tual w o r l d .

T h e assertion that one must take aecount o f die influence o f facts f rom the existing intellectual wor ld when t r y i n g t o eomprehend the formulat ion and the or ig inal understanding o f O l d Testament texts is not s imply a postulate. A n overview o f the assertions o l the O l d ' l è s t a m e n t i tself lorces one to this con-clusioi i . I t is shown by certain coiwurrences scattered across the O l d Testament or w h i c h are characteristically bundled together. These coneurrences do not stem from transmission historical or literary dependency of texts. The re one again encounters the same thought struetures (such as the correspondence between deed and condi t ion) , the same fixed images (such as the comparison o f human life w i t h grass), the same fixed thernes (such as Jerusalem as a ci ty w h i c h the waters o f chaos and the nations o f chaos cannot conquer), and the sarne the-matte ensembles. Last but not least, one encounters die saine word ense?nhles w h i c h appear to belong to a fixed technical language. These ensembles were formed in particular inst i tut ions and scholastic circles such as wi sdom, cul t poetry, priesthood, legal concenis, the royal court , and over t ime, also p r o ­phetic rradents. These nianivcstatiuns always appear in fonmila t ions or they direet those formulations and may be labeled by die summary t e rm "fixed Con­tents." I t is chosen because, in part, these nianifestarions lie behind the f o r m u ­lat ions ( thought pattern, religious convictions). Also this rerm was chosen be­cause, i n part, die manitestations are not fixed in formulat ions (knowledge, material) , and because, i n part, they appear i n vary ing formulat ions even though w i t h similar words (compare the vary ing formulat ions in assertions conceming the mastery over the p r imord ia l sea). These nianifestarions are thus p r imar i ly encountered i n lixed words, i n vocabularies, and formulated s truetures 1 1 4 i n die t rad i t ion arena o f ins t i tu l iona l language (scholastic and specialty). T rad i t ion his tory treats these influences w h i c h offer more precise meaning to die fo rmula t ion o f an O l d Testament text and to the or iginal understandability o f diat formula t ion .

)5-t Here in §8. genre is no ionger considered amung die consistent linguistic Clements. Existing, fixed contents were not just transmitted in conneeuon to a single genre. Rüther, these contents could enter very difierent genres. Λ relatively strong association between genre and ex­isting, fixed contents only appears when the association appears with the genre as the topic of that genre. Tradition history concenis intellectual influences on the formulation which can be shown in die text even without genre influence.

T h e Task 123

Existing, fixed contents from a specific intellectual worid influence the assertions of an author living in that world. This influence, investigated by the tradition historical ap­proach, is not just an ancient phenomenon. Today, for example. two commentators might look back over the economic development of Western Furope in the last ciecades. If one commentator speaks of "market fluctualions" while the other speaks of the "captalistic world rocked by crises,"the difference is not explainec by reference to individual. spon-taneously different impressions. Rathen the difference can only be explamed by reliance upon the very different, effectively fixed, intellectual world o'reach of the commentators. O n e example ofthe constrtutive affiliation of a single expression with an identifable in­tellectual world, can be found in the expression "advertistng costs," By itself, tne expres­sion has a clear meaning (costs associated with advertising). This meaning, however; does not by any means ineorporate tne intonation ofthe word which is ccrtainly m-tended but not stated. This meaning is provided by the fact that the expression is a set, fixed term from the intellectual world of fiscal matters and can only be usea and under­stood in dynamic relationship to this intellectual world. Another example: H o w should one understand the following sentence? "Saui's claim of founding a national State is ele­vated by the Davidic conception of a territorial state."VV'hat does "elevated" mean? Does ft mean "raised.""dignified" or"cxhilarated?"The meaning of the word may only be de-duced by the one who knows the precise usage in the fixed, intellectual world of Hegel. Numerous other examples could oe readily brought forth to illustrate the problem we also face with Old Testament texts.

11. De te rmina t ion

For each developmental stage, the t radi t ion historical approach inqnires in to the particular import on a text by its contents (intellectual-, theological-, or religio-historical). T h e t rad i t ion historical approach thereby determines the thought patterns, contents, concepts, or conceptual complexes which are pre-supposed by die text, incorporated in to die text, or revised by the author. T h e t rad i t ion historical approach does not concentrate on a theme as i t w o u l d appear today (such as the image. o f mother in the O l d Testament). Rather, die t radi t ion historical approach concentrates on very specific criteria found in the text. These criteria indicate the fixed contents o f a statement and thereby indicate its involveinent in an existing intellectual w o r l d . T h e y register these contents f rom the perspective o f die author, and thereby evoke how the ad-dressee wou ld have associated the contents.

I n the execution ot exegetical studies, the t radi t ion historical approach direets its attention entirely to the intellectual range o f the formulat ion o f a specific text. I t does so in order to i l luminate the material profile o f die texts in ten t ion in conneetion w i t h the tradit ional (and i f necessary w i t h the transcendenec or infr ingement o f the tradit ional) .

Parallel to die i n q u i r y in to a specific text, yet transcending diat task, the t radi t ion historical approach also concentrates upon the context itself (both the intellectual context and the context in the history of theology). T h e t rad i t ion his-

124 §8 T R A D I T I O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

torical approach concentrates especially upon the h is tory o f various concepts and how they are brought togcther in the framework o f a larger, eontoured concept ion ." ' For the most part, these t rad i t ion historical investigations are available as speciaiized studies, as was the case w i t h studies o f genre history. One should consult diese studies tor t rad i t ion historical clarifications con­cerning findings i n die text.

T h e t radi t ion historical approachs inqu i ry in to the text's t radi t ional con­tents must be distinguished f rom the question o f the history o f the text i tself (transmission his tory and redaction his tory) and f rom the l inguis t ic shape o f the text ( fo rm cr i t ic ism). I t must also be distinguished from the his tory o f a text's reception which o r ig inä res w i t h the Statements o f a text.

I I I . Terminology

The term "tracfticn historical approach" is anything but uniformly understood in exegetical literature as a result of the ambigurty of the expression s first word. Frequently, "tradition" is understood as traditio (the process of transmission), and related to the transmission process of a tex.L. It is then used synonymously with transmission history, or with transmission history and redaction history combined. 3'' The nomenclature used by us. in agreement w t h other exegetes,5'' defines the tradition historical approach from traaitum (that which has been transmitted: tradition 1 3 ' as transmitted contents). The nomenclature relates to the appearance of fixed contents in texts, and it relates to the history of these contents and concepts. Lacking an adequate term, the nomenclature only attempts to stabilize terminology in order to improve tne possibility of cioser agree­ment

1 '5 For examples of this type of investigation, see below under Ό I II . Consult recent investi­gations such as, J. Day, God's Conflict ir-itb the Dragon and tbe Sea (Cambridge, 1985); C . Kloos, 17/11 T/V Combat with the Sea (Amsterdam Leiden, 1986); J . Jeremias, Das Königtum Gotici in den Psalmen (Gottingen, 1087).

1 ><> Cornpare above, p. 641. By contrast, K. Bach (in Probleme biblischer Theologie. Festschrift Vi. v. Rad, 1971, p. 19f, etc.), even uses the German equivalent ot "transmission history"' for that which wc designatc as "the tradition historical approach"! For a discussion of the confusing ter­minology, cornpare the Synopsis of R. Knierini, "Criticism of Literary Features, Form. Tradition, and Redaction," in: D.A. Knight and G M . Tucker, The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Inter­preters, p. 146ff.

'<>" Conipare. for example, Fohrer, introduclimi, p. 29f.31; Fohrc.r, livegese, p. 27 (Hoflfmann), ρ. 1 19 (Wanke): F. Stolz, Das Alte Testament, Studienbücher Theologie, 1974, p. 114f Koch, Was ist Tormgeschichte. p. 71,326ff (neidier passage appears in the English edition), rrcats the tradition historical inanilestations under die term "special linguistic phenomena which require semantic mediods for dieir Illumination." For further discussion of the problem, see below, foomote 163.

ISS "Tradition" in this broad sense designates the entirety of tbe fixed contents into which the tradition historical approach inquires. This delinition also forms tbe basis of our designation of the method as tradition historical. With this independent term, "tradition" is convenuonally bound to a narrower meaning. "Tradition'" is then svnonymous with conccptual complex or the context of the concept.

Commentary on the Approaeh and M e t h o d 125

Β. C O M M E N T A R Y OK T H E A P P R O A C H A N D M E T H O D

1. Different ia t ion f rom die Transmission His tor ica l Approaeh

The Lerminological ambiguity ofihe terms "transmission history" and "tradition his­tory" proeeeds vanously with the mixmg of contents to the point that both aspects can be treated with the same term. ' ? a ^he tradition historical approaeh proeeeds from its constitutive finding that fixed contents constantly reappear in various texts without implying literary dependence is provable or is even probable. Fixea contents reappear without implying xhat this appearatKe is connected wiln tne adoption of a specific trans-mission piece. From this slarting point, it O I I O W S that tne tradition historical approaeh should not simply be identified with the transmission historical approaeh. Those pre-existing elements, toward which the approaeh is directed, are by no means taken up into the text as a fixed transmission piece."!i

Π. Areas o f Trad i t ion His tor ica l I n q u i r y

T h e fixed contents, about which the t radi t ion historical approaeh ìnqu i res , are not all o f the same type . One must therefore differentiate the f o l l o w i n g areas o f t radi t ion historical inqui ry :

1. A n Israelite author, as wel l as the audtor's addressees, lives i n an i n t c l -lectual w o r l d and is shaped by i t . I f one relates that intel lectual w o r l d to the cntire cul tural realm o f Anc ien t Israel (and o f the Aneien t Near East) as a whole, then, in t radi t ion historical lespects, one must consider a par-ticular world vira' together ivith its specific thoughtputterns.'*2 I n this context, the problem o f a particular "Hebrew thought" picsents i tself . 1 4 3

J . " Compare, for example, E . Zengcr in: Schreiner, Einßbnmg, p. 1351; W. Zimmerli, "Alttesramenrliclie Traditionsgeschichre und Theologie," in: Probleme biblischer Theologie. Fest­schrift G. v. Rad, 1971, p. 6.52-647; Rast, Tradition and liistors (see above, §5 U 1), especially ρ. 59ff along with p. 1 ff.

'4(> Compare the detailed methodological discussion by Steck, "Theological Streams of Tra­dition,'' in Tradition and 'Theolog)' in ihr Old Testament, p. 183-191; and Steck, Scböpfimgsbericht, p. 26ff,272ff.

141 Exaniples: Λ tradition historical investigation of Jer 7:1-15 must ask about the coneepr of the imparted protection in the Jerusalem remple which is presupposed in 7:4,10. By contrast, transmission historv asks about the previous stages of the current Denteronomistic version of the text in Jer 7:1-15 itselt. In Judg 4, the tradition historical question treats the coneept of die ex-clusive activity of Y1IW1I in the aft.miment of victory (4:14f), while the transmission historical approaeh tn(]iiires into the oral prehistory of the oldcst litcrarily homogenous version of the text of Judgcs 4. In both cases, the tradition historical approaeh concenis die coneepts which have ti3tu-rally obtained linguistic shape in specific, concrete texts (and are still ascertainable onlv in diese texts). However, these coneepts have not entcred as one of these concrete texts in Jer 7 or Judg 4.

142 Examples; the coneept of a cause and effect relationship (cf. Koch, Vergeltungsdogma). 1*J -See especially, Koch, Formgeschichte, p. 333-336 (bibliography, but not available in the

linglish tninslation).

126 §8 T R A D I T I O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

2. Fixed contents o f the k ind presented b e l o w are also situated in a particular intellectual w o r l d inside Anc ien t Israel (and the ancient Orient): i n specific geographica! realins, w i d i specific social groups, at specific locations, i n -sti tutions, and even w i d i a specific circle o f persons.

Even here, one should p r imar i ly lake characteristic thought patterns in to consideration. These patterns reflect religious and theological convic-tioiis w h i c h determine the perception o f reality and the experiential and intellectual processing o f r e a l i t y . m

3. Further, die reservoir o i knowledge andawareness belongs to the fixed con­tents which stand at the author's disposal as a component o f the author's education. T h i s reservoir is k n o w n to the author f rom individual t r ad i ­t i on pieecs, and these m i g h t even occur to the author, but they are not i n ­tegrated in to the author's statement as a t rad i t ion piece. 1 4 5 Na tura l ly , this reservoir ineludes more extensive material which die author knows and considers when formulat ing a text. As a rule, the vocabulary and die strue­ture o f formula t ion o f these background contents are seldom fixed. For tl i is reason, they are freely shaped when they are adopted i n t o a text. T h i s free shaping makes the contents more diff icul t to pereeive me thodo log i ­cal ly . Ι 4 Λ Ehe constancy o f the fo rmula t ion is greater w i t h fixed images and comparisons, idioms, and linguistic Conventions. These elements must also be considered here .

4. W i t h i n a particular intellectual wor ld , terms can attract a special mean­ing which greatly surpasses the lexically pereeived mean ing . M T Here, as already mentioned, sebo/astie language and speciaiized language, w i d i their characteristic words and word associations which were shaped by Ancien t Israel, play an impor t an t role. Above all , one should ment ion die royal court, the mi i i tary , legal concerns, priesthood, temple poetry, wisdom, the Deuteronomic/Deuteronomis t icschoors language, and a deve lop ingpro-phetie language. A t times, even a single characteristic t e rm may desire to

'** Examples: the conviction that seeing (Jod leads to death (Gen 32:31; Exod 33:20; Judg 6:23, etc.) or diat the world is dividcd into an arena of the elean and the unclean (cf. Num 19:ll-13;Hag2:ll-13).

I 4> See above, p. 82 + footnote 83, and examples from Gen 2:4b-3:24. Further. see Steck, Schöpfungsbericht, p. 28f, and passages concerning Gen 1:1-2:4a (e.g. the Statements about the re­alities before the ereation in Gen 1:2. Stbapfimgphricbt, 228ff).

, 4 " A Store of knowledge, awareness, and materials is then methodologically observable if one inquires into die statement's contents. Then one can sec whether those contents reflect train-ing and education or whether they concern knowledge which the author gained from experience. This is especially significant widi materials when literarily independent parallel texts can be found which suggest die employment of a broader circulation of common contents, in spite of a differ­ent formulation and usage.

W Examples: g'r, rebuke (cf, Gen 3": 10: ,1er 29:27 with the references in Ps 104:7 and Isa 17:13 which stand in die framework of a larger conceptual context); mithseh/miihāseh, " rehige" (cf. Ps 104:18; Job 24;8; with Ps 46:2; 61:4).

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evoke associations in this intel lectual w o r l d . H l i Thercfore , analysis o f a t e rm can frequently not be l imi t ed to its semantic explanation in the con­text o f its various occurrences which results f rom reference to lexicon and coneordance. A n explanation must be expanded by an "investigation o f the theological , material context in wh ich a t e rm is anehored (vocabulary r änge ! ) , as wel l as an investigation o f the te rm s home and its o r i g i n " . 1 4 0

Recent theological dictionaries provide impor tan t suggestions at this po in t . 1 5 " As the gronnd breaking investigations o f O. Kee l have demon-strated, ensembles ofStrands frmn andmt orientalpictorialsymbols somerimes ofTer absolutely essential aids l'or i l lumina t ing the intellectual w o r k l w h i c h shapes a text.

5. Finally, fixed contents also appear as tbemes1'' and coneepts.1''2 These themes and coneepts, however. should be those which Anc ien t Israel i tself formed, not those wh ich were simply taken f rom the exegete's own w o r l d and attaches to texts. U n l i k e the images mentioned i n "3," they are not ex-clusively niaterial knowledge. Rather, these themes and coneepts are compact processes o f refleetion which interpret reality. The vocabulary and the strueture o f fo rmula t ion are also considerably more fixed. T h e y differentjate themselves from the conceptually loaded terms treated under "4 , " wh ich are themselves often components o f themes and coneepts. T h e y differentiate themselves naturally by the seope o f the thought pat-terns and convictions discussed in " 1 " and " 2 " by greater thematic i n -clusivity, stronger mental adaptation, and corresponding, fixed l inguis t ic entities. Themes and coneepts then are distinguished by a thematic po in t o f crystall ization, by a fixed subject o f Statements, and by the extent o f their shaping in respect to vocabulary and strueture o f formula t ion . These characteristics appear even when the l inguis t ic version continues to fhic-tuate w i t h i n a certain frame. Coneepts transcend themes by their theo-logically refleetive elaboration, and by thoughtful different iat ion. T h e y also transcend themes by conf i rming a specific inel inat ion o f the stare-

Ηβ Exaniples: Y T J W H is nârâ' (Ps 47:i; 76:8, etc.) as an abhreviation of YHWH's victorious activity aceording to Jerusalem cultic theology: or mahàšàbiib as an indieation of \visdom influenec upon die formulation of die Yahwistic prologue to the flood story.

HV Steck, "Das Problem theologischer Strörmuigen," E v T h 28 (1968): 447, footnote 4. 150 See above, §2 Μ. '5' Exaniples: die ihcnic of die exodus from Kgypt: compare. for example, Deut 6:12: Judg 2:

12; l's 136:10 15. which use the fonnulauon of "bringing out" (yāsā'in h i f il) of Israel, with Judg 6:13; Hos 12:14; Ps 81:11, etc., which use the formulation of "bringing up" ('Müh in hif'il) of Israel. Also compare Hos 12:10; Isa 10:24-26: 5 l:'>r; 52:1 lf. The thetne of the "day of Y I I W H " (cf. Arnos 5:18-20; Isa 2:10+12-17; 13:2-22). The theme of "return" in prophecy (cf. Hos 5:4; 14:2ff; Arnos 4:6-12; Jer 3:1-4:4; Isa 10:20-23).

152 Exaniples; the coneept of die batrle against the nations (cf. Pss 48:2-9; 76:2-7; Isa 17: 12-14); the Jerusalem coneept of lang (cf. Pss 2; 72); die Deuteronomistic prophetic Statement (cf. 2 Kgs 17:13-17; Jer 7:25f; Neil 9:26^30).

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ment and by a specific profile o f l i n g u i s ü c w o r d i n g . 1 " T h e question o f the concepts is an especially impor tan t area for t radi t ion historical work when presupposed by a text, taken up in to a text, or modif ied by a text. T h i s question w i l l be expressly treated below in section I V

I I I . Recognizing Fixed Contents

H o w can one recognize whether, and i n what fashion, fixed contents are presupposed, assimilated, or modified in a text? Here one must consider f rom the beginning that iixed contents do not manifest themselves i n any text i n a manner i n which they are completely unveiled and explicated. I t is much more characteristic for die phenomenon treated by die t radi t ion historical approach that die intel lectual and conceptual background of a text is taken i n t o view. T h u s the t rad i t ion historical approach treats the elements o f a shaped, i n t e l ­lectual w o r l d which are not formulated i n the text, but wh ich , w i thou t doubt, were considered, intended, and understood along w i t h die text. T h e y are also inevitably indicated by explicit text elements. Thus , fixed contents stand i n the text like the t ip o f an iceberg.

1) T h e best presuppositions for recognizing a text's fixed contents exist where ( in a hermeneutical cirele!) the intellectual wor ld o f Anc ien t Israel (and o f the Anc ien t Near East), or the various expressions o f an intellectual w o r l d , have already been pre l iminar i ly reconstrueted and are k n o w n . These inelude arenas like wisdom and the Jerusalem cult theology. 1"'

<ġjM W h e n investigating a text, the exegete should note threads which recall t \ fixed contents, which must dierefore have parallels i n odier texts. They JrfíÊg provide the basis of a corresponding foreknoivledge, i n the sense o f in fo r -•£L«p, ma t ion obtained by Bible knowJedge ( l ike the language o f die O l d Vmm Testament—psalmic, wisdom, legal, Deuteronomic/Deuteronomis t ic ) .

O n l y i f one can demonstratc these parallels in at least one other l i t e ra r i ly i n ­dependent text, can one speak at ali about a fixed content.

One must dilferentiate sharply between these parallels and an author's literary reference to another O l d Testament text wh ich the author knows. C r i -

I Tt is questionable whether one can reveal "the transmission interesi of a specific tradent cirele" only by the. concepts or their contexts (as Hubcr bclicvcs, in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 111,115). The extensive transmission of die theine "'the day of Y H W H " (see Hubcr, p. 109) is not eonceiv­able without tbe interest of prophetic circles in this theme. See section V below, "The Tradition Historical Approach as Historical Process."'

15* Along with theological dictionaries for catebwords, cornpare the bibliographic references to monographs, especially those mentioned in Old Testament introduetions and surveys. Further, text books and monographs on Old Testament theology and on the history of Israelite religion (see above §2 N) prove valuable. An orientational overview may be gleaned from my sketch, "Theological Sircams of Tradition." See also the chart in Steck, Arbeitsbliitter, 6 (see above, §2 F ) .

Commenta ry on the Approaeh and M e t h o d 129

teria for the latter case are: (1) T h e agreement exists on ly i n these two places. (2) T h e author also demonstrates knowledge and use o f this w r i t i n g in other places. (3) T h e reference is not an expression o f a more broadly disseminated coneept, bu t is a singular Statement. I f these l i te rary references are direeted toward references in the same book, then they eould indieate the eharacter o f a redactional cont inuat ion.

2) Concordana' n-ork is the foundational means for t rad i t ion historical analysis i n a text. T h i s is true for bo th the investigation o f a text in an exegeti-cal exercise and for the expansive task o f at taining a synthetic image o f Israel s intellectual w o r l d and its history o f theology. Likewise, coneordance work also serves to evaluate the hypothetical discussions o f this expansive task.

To the degree that the fixed contents ' vocabulary and the strueture o f the formula t ion remain constant, one may therefore diseover additioiial references for the presumed fixed contents by using a coneordance for a specific text. One Starts on a seleeted w o r d (or formula t ion) contained in the text which is notable or interesting because o f its coneept. ' : i

The more specalized question of the recognition and history of coneepts will be treated in more detail subsequently, in section IV.

3) Finally, many texts already

suggest that they refer to fixed contents by quotations or by the ex-pl ic i t response o f the bearers perceptions,^'-

I V T h e Coneept H i s t o r y Approaeh

T h e question o f the coneepts and the his tory o f coneepts is an especially impor tan t area o f the t radi t ion historical approaeh. I t can be separated t e r m i -nological ly as the coneept his tory approaeh and i t can be seen as a special segment o f the t rad i t ion historical question.

1. Recognizing a Coneept

A coneept is distinguished by fixed vocabulary, charactenstic formulation strueture, specific conceptual contour and a typscal train of thought (matenal logic). These coneepts may be subdivided into various conceptual Clements and agam into individual conceptual

1 5 5 Example: By using the coneordance in Isa 52:12, the notable formulation (y.O bèhippāzân, "(to go forth) in a fearhil hurry," can also be found in Exod 12:11 and Deut 16;?. This leads to the rhemc of the "exodus from Egypr" which Stands in the background of Isa 52:11 f.

156 Ituber draws attention to tbis phenomenon, in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 113f. Furdier ex­aniples: Mic 3:9-12 (verse 11);,1er 7:4,10.

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factors. One should observe that some situations require a certain breadth of Variation in respecito the vocabulary and the consistency of formulation. 5'' Several concepts form a conceptuai complex or conceptuai context, when present in a thematically centralized com­posite and a reflective relationship. Ifthis conceptuai complex perceivesthe experiential world from a self-enclosed perspective, then it can be quaiified as a concephon. For example, in the Old Testament, these conceptions are offered byjerusalemite cuit the­ology, Israelite wisdom. and also the intellectual framing entity of the Deuteronorrvstic view of history with af of its implications exphcated elsewhere (e.g. Deuteronomy).

2. Perspecth'es on the Quest ion

U l i a. Does a text rcly upon pre-existing concepts?

T h i s approach tans out via \'arious indh idua l questions. T h e comparison w i t h odier texts using a concordance is unavoidable.

• Does the text indicate a vocabulary (e.g. a vocabulary range 1 ' 8 or word ensembles) which is encountered in other l i t e ra r i lv independent texts? 1 W

• Is a fixed strueture of formulation thereby maintained? (For example, one should consider active or passive \'erbs, transitive or intransitive verbs, a statement's characteristic contents as subject or objeet.)

• D o characteristic conceptuai contents recur which on oceasion fali in to invariable elements and factors?

• A r e diese bound to one another i n a stable construetion, and do they agree in typical, equivalent material logic, or in a demonstrable train of thought?

• W i d i die same strueture o f fo rmula t ion , the same conceptuai con­tents, and the same tra in o f thought , are there also variations of formulation for the concept using related types o f words? ' 6 0

157 Example: The texts mentioned ahove in toomote 152 concerning the concept of tbe battle ot nations, wherc the attacking powers arc cited as mfläkim in Ps 48:5, as 'àbîri Itb/'anši-buyil in Ps 76:6; and as iimmi/lš\mtmtm in Isa 17:12. Likewise, there arc differences in tbe formulation of the activity of Y H W H and in the subsequent reaction ol the attackers. Kloos (see footnote 135), 75ff,191ff, 198ff, provides an example of die breadth of this Variation for a concept's formulation with respecl to the forma tions for the ehaos balile.

1>8 This phrase does not mean the linguistic scientific tenu of the semantic ränge (cf. Koch, Fotmgescbicbtc, p. 321t) or the word's setting ( c f Koch, Fornrgescbicbte, p. 327t—neither of the.se ictcrenccs appears in the English translation). R.ithe.r, it means the stock ot words and word asso­ciations which arc typical fora concept.

1>9 Example: in the themadc unit of Alic 3:9-12, circulating around Zion/Jerusalem, die formulation that Y H W H is in the midst (biqereb) of tbe inhabitants of Zion (3:11) points to the concept' of the proteetive presenec of Y H W H . on Zion (cf. the corresponding formulation and the context in Ps 46:6; Jer 14:9; and Zeph 3:15,17).

160 Thus the power opposing Y H W H in the ehaos battle can be callcd die primordial sca, the sea, water, billows, Leviarhan, riibiib, and tunriin. Also Yl 1W1 l's mastery and victory appears in different, but related action verbs.

Cummentary υ η the Approaeh and M e t h o d 131

Also , for the most part coneordance w o r k already leads to these references be­cause they maintain characteristic terms. T h e varied formulat ions raise ques-tions: D o the variations stein from the breadth o f die t rad i t ion itself ? D o they reflect historical changes in the coneept? O r should they be a t t r ibuted to the autlior because they agree w i t h die audior's particularity.

8 W Í b. W h a t is the larger association o f the coneept?

I f a pre-exist ing coneept is mediated, then one must also ask to which larger conceptual association (conceptual complex) i t belongs, and whetl ier i t is ac-tually a component o f a conception.

D o the comparisons o f the parallels indicate that the consistent con­eept is also bound to a constant concepttuil contexti D o material relationships and overlaps demonstrate that this con­stant conceptual context represents a mMerially self-enclosed concep­tual association or, on oceasion, a conception? H o w does one determine the center, the thematic crystalliz&tion point, or the ćo re o f this conceptual association? Is this conceptual association distinguished by characteristic t e r m i ­nolog) ' (principa! tenns) wh ich are concentxated in it? Is this conceptual association typically characteriz.ed by the extent of its contents, t ra in o f thought , thought strueture, or the special per­spective on the experiential world?

ẁ v » c. W h e r e is this conceptual association naturally situated?

The formation of coneepts into conceptua; associations presupposes substantiai pro-cesses of reflecton. These refiection processes ans Condensed into a more cr less stereotypical terminology, but one which has its own charactenstic stamp. Forttos reason, the setting of these conceptua! associations can only be sought in Sites of exp.'ict edu-cot'on. As a rule. these are attached to long siandmg insuiulions. One should mention the Jerusalem cult, the rova! court, or wisdom education. These Sites are also tied to charac­teristic functions which are representea by bearers of that funetion (e.g. wisdom teacher, royal offices, temple singers) and by characteristic genres.

d. W h i c h indices poin t to the presence o f an intellectual w o r l d in the text?

The presence of an intellectual world to which a text is conceptually related is primanly recognizable from the text's formulations when compared with independent parallel formulations (cf. "a" and " D " ) . Even examples from the present time snow that one must consider an intellectual world if genres are used which belong to this sculpted world (cf. "c"). VVith the genre "tax return," the intellectual world of fiscal matters is also present. Relatedîy, charactenstic terms from this world appear, like the exampie of 'ad-vertising costs" which vvc used above. These terms appear when treating various related

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genres (tax return, tax laws, tax guide. tax assessment). The same is true forihe Old Tes­tament. The entire intellectual world of Jerusalem cult theology Stands behind every Jerusalemite cultic genns (hymns. genres concernmg the plight of the king and the individ-ual), even when that world is only formuiated in parts. This intellectual world is visible in the topics of these genres by their charaaeristic formulations ( Y H W H as king. refuge, protection, deliverer trom the waters of chaos, etc.).

However, the oresence of a recognizable intellectual world can also be glven by a minimal number of charactenstic formulations when a representative of this intellectual world speaks or acts. in our modern example, the term "advertising costs" is also clearly defined, even without a supporting context or a characteristic genre, when it is used by a fìnancial offìcerwho nspresents competency in fiscal matters. Related!/, in Ancient Israel, one would have understood the appearance of repräsentatives of sculpted worlds (such as lawyers. wisdom teachers, temple singers, priests, etc.) as self-evident embodiments of the world they represent. When Isaiah or jeremiah speaks to the priests, or when Micah speaks to the Jerusalemites, the respective intellectual world must be seen as the back-ground of their speech. It must be seen as a contemporary world for the Speaker and for the hearers, even when expressly formulated indices an?, not extensively present in the text.

Thus, the tradition historical approaeh essentially mquires into what a Statement presumes, intends, and insinuates.

e, W h e r e necessary, how does a text transcend its given intel lectual world?

T h e distinet deviations which an author adopts in existing coneepts demon-strates that t rad i t ion is by no means always taken up homogeneously. These deviations include the author's use o f coneepts, and the author's deparrure f rom the t ra in o f thought , thought strueture, and extent o f the conceptual association. These transcendencies are ofgreat significanee for determining the intention o f the text. T h e y may not, however, lead to the erroneous conclusion that au author could be total ly divorced f r o m h is /her o w n intellectual w o r l d and that only these new Statements are characteristic o f the author.

3. Dimens ion o f the Coneept LI is tory Approaeh

It has already become clear that coneept historical werk is completed in various degrees and dimensions. It can relate to an inêvidual conception, along with its pertment conceptual complex. It can also relate to the stock of traditional coneepts in a specific text Finally. coneept historical work can relate synthetieally to the Progression of tbeofog-icoi slreams and the coneepts characteristic forthose streams.

As already noted. comprehensive mquiries into the coneepts, conceptual com-plexes, and theological streams which transcend the specific text must remam specialized treatments. As a rule, the exegesis of a specific text can only investigate the assirmlation of a coneept in that specific text Nevertheless, the methodologica! framework of the entire approaeh is presented below in abbi'eviated fashion:

Commenta ry on the Approaeh and Me thod 133

a. investigating Individual Concepts

Investigating the history of individual concepts and their respective conceptuai com­plex is fundamental. This investigation transcends the specific text. One may speak of a concepts history when the same concept is found in literary utterances within tne Diblical realm in multipie instances from different time periods, but when no immediate literary dependeney is present. However; dynamic. historical transmission must be taken into ac­count asthe means ofmediahon (tradent, location).16 During this transmission. individual concepts, or individua! parts of a conceptuai complex, can change completely witnin the framework of their homogenous world (e.g. the notion of chaos within Jerusaiemae cult theology as a c'ragon oras"sea"). Even the language ofthe tradition is not stereotypical, uniform repetiüon. Rather; it is the expression of a livíng. intellectual process.

b. Investigating a Specific Text

The concept historical question can be directed meaningfully toward a specific text under the following condition: It must be based upon the background of investigations which transcend the specific text, and then it must evaluate the material these Investiga­tions provide. Their purpose is the more precise ordering of the fixed concepts and the conceptuai associations (traditions) appearing in the text. whclher explicit or implicit, and their deviations.

c. Theological Streams

The synthesis of concept historical work exists by üluminating the theological streams and the intellectual realms of biblical times. This synthesis is comparable to re­search into the history of theology: These intellect.ua! realms are generali)' charneterized by a fixed conceptuai complex which crystalliz.es the gciding coneeption of other theo­logical Statements and genres. Also these realms may connect other conceptuai com­plexes charactensticaily. The resulting entity can be calied the störe of concepts, and the realm of their transmission can be cailed the areno oftradiUon. Even if the research into the Illumination of these tradition arenas and theological streams Stands in the beginning stages, it still conlribules a great deai. It shows that the various theological streams are not only related to special carriergroups, but that they are also related to specific geographi­ca! realms in characteristic fashion (Northern Kingdom: covenant. people of God: the city of Jerusalem: cosmic coneeptionsjudean countryside). ! i , ;

λ7. T h e Trad i t ion His tor ica l Approach as His tor ica l Process

Tradition historical work does no t inquire in to characteristically shaped thoughts and their his tory by an abstraction of historio-social condit ions.

161 Example: The history of the Deuteronomistic statement about prophets, or relatedly, the entire Deutcronomis-tic view of history (for both, see Steck, Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten, especially p. 79f,193-195,278f, and 184-189,3120.

16- Cornpare my discussion above in fooüiote 154,

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Thus , i t does not present a process concerning the development o f ideas d i -vorced f r o m the course o f history. M o r e precisely, i t provides the disclosure of those processes wh ich enable the real historical mediation o f fixed con­tents. 1" 1 T h e t radi t ion historical approach thus asks the fo l lowing:

W h o are those responsible for t ransmi t t ing these thoughts? W h a t interest do they have in these thoughts? W h a t is the historical setting o f the carriers? W h a t experiential aspeets o f the w o r l d are characteristic for them?

T h e er i te r ion o f the real historical mediat ion generally proteets against too hastily recovering condit ions between die texts o f Anc ien t Israel and the his tory o f re l ig ion . T h e question o f the influence o f the history ofreligion on Ancien t Israels texts (essentially influence from die Anc ien t Near Eastern en-v i ronment ) is an impor tan t part o f t rad i t ion historical work . However, this work must be performed str ict ly according to tbe methodological viewpoints which are valid for this question.

V I . T h e Trad i t ion His tor ica l Approach and the H i s t o r y o f M o t i f s

T h e te rm "history o f motifs" appears in O l d Testament research w i t h "the t radi t ion historical approach," either used in association or synonymously w i t h i t . 1 6 4 T h e his tory o f motifs strives for the his tory o f the smallest thematic b u i l d i n g block i n the text. One should consider the f o l l o w i n g to understand the validi ty and value o l investigations o f tbe his tory ot mot i i s .

1) T h e his tory o f motifs is no t recommended as an independent method. I t always runs the danger o f correlat ing adopted themes w i t h diverse elements and w i d i historically unrelated elements. I n addit ion, i t tends to transcend the consti tutive context by inappropriately isolating m o t i f s . " ' As t rad i t ion his-

16i As already addressed above, p. 130f, this statement is especially true in view of concepts and conceptuai complexes. The perspectives on tbe concept historical analysis mentioned diere naturally presuppose conditions in the historical realm. It must be possible that the intellectual contents and thought movements were transmitted in that type of fixed and eonsistent form. One must consider, trom a broader perspective, whedier tbe socio-cultural conditions presumed by die con­cept historical phenomena were first present in the framewrork of a courtly/stately culrure wrhirh divides labor. One must also consider whether Sites arosc in which the contents and language of concepts were consistemly shaped and transmitted. Ιο prior times, die stote of these lashioncd concepts would have been considerably smaller. but one could especially imagine phrases from ritual proceedings and juridieal enlities.

lt>4 Kor example, cornpare. Führer, Exegese, ρ. 27 (Hoffmann), ρ. 102ÉF (Huber), ρ. 199ff. 1*5 This tendency is demonstrated by Fluber, in Fohrer. Exegese, p. 106f, when he uses die

designation of Y H W H as rock (sur) in Ps 2S:1; 31:3 as a motif. He then divorces the constitutive conrext of rhis conceptuai element trom Jerusalem cult theology (cf. Steck, Friedcnsvorstellungen, p. 37. footnote 87).

Commcnta ry on the Approaeh and Me thod 135

torical w o r k denionstrates, these smallest o f diematic b u i l d i n g blocks very frequendy represent fixed coneepts o r conceptual elements wh ich stand in inseparable relat ionship to larger conceptual contexts. They are t ransmit ted w i t h i n diis framework, and they receive characteristically formulated nieaning and contuur w i t h i n this association. W o r k on the his tory o f motifs fails at the unavoidable task of showing that the dynamic nature o f a m o r i f wh ich appears in different places, is historically mediated. Also, it fails at the task o f making that m o r i f understandable. Recourse to consistent struetures o f consciousness is a designarion o f the problem, but not a Solution.

2) The materini basis o f the his tory of motifs approaeh lies in the fact that specific conceptual elements can appear as such in new associations and con­texts. However, diis Isolat ion o f individual coneepts must be raised as a p rob­lem. One must ask to what degree its genuine conceptual context should st i l l be considered w i t h the specific coneept. F r o m that point , die m o t i f s expres-sion is used for fur ther nianifestarions, such as meaningful numbers o r spe-c i fy ing narrative topics (e.g. seleetion o f the man who is good for n o t h i n g as far as one can te l i ) . Precisely i n this last case, i t is often diff icul t to distinguish between motifs o f a genre and freely roaming motils."" 5

M l . Steps o f the Tradi t ion His tor ica l Investigation o f a Text

Conjìmtatwi oftbe Appivach: T h e tradi t ion historical approaeh puts forward that wh ich is prcm?rted Iry a

text based upon the text's intellectual surroundings. T h e t radi t ion historical ap­proaeh proeeeds to die degree that die presupposed uuiterial is no t a p re l i t -erary or l i terary developmental stage o f die text itself ( § § 4 - 6 ) , o r to the degree that l i terary reference or genre influence (§7) does not exist. Rather, the t radi ­t i o n historical approaeh is direeted toward elements oftbe intellectual world in which the author, and listener, o f each developmental stage o f the text move seli-evidently. These elements represent that which is l inguis t ical ly indicated but not expressly formulated. I t represents that wh ich is diought , mtcnded, o r necessarily associated along w i t h these elements. T h e manner in wh ich an author uses these elements (whether used consistently o r in topically deviated fashion) is fundamental to a relevant historical understanding o f the text's for­mula t ion .

However, the indkators o f these elements from the intellectual w o r l d ap­pear in a text's l inguist ic shape i n various degrecs and direetness. These indica-tors must be demonstrated by mul t ip le , l i terar i ly independent, oceurrences i n the O l d Testament (or the Anc ien t Near East).

T h i s recognir ion has implicat ions for the execution o f d ie specific steps. Simplif ied for practical reasons, the fo l l owing stand in die foreground:

lf>6 Cf. Koch. Tbe Grvxth ofBihliūtl'iraStmn, ρ. 56f.

U6 §8 T R A D Ī T T O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

Guiding Questions:

1. Thought Putterns Does die intended logic oi a scntence, paragraph, o r text demon-strate that a thought pattern wh ich is not expressiv formulated

Steetü' shapes the Statement?

For example: A consequence results from every deed. Deed and effect stand in (precise) relat ionship to one another. Especially for the beginner, the neces-sary means o f help is found in the secondary l i terature.

2. Fundamental Convictions D o the text's words demonstrate specific rel igious, theological convictions i n association w i t h die logic o l die immediate con-text? D o these fundamental convictions lie beneath the Statement inexplicably?

For example: b lood as the sett ing o f l i fe , seeing G o d is fatal, childlessness as shame. 'Ehe necessary means o f help is here theological dictionaries under the catch words and their synonyms,

Aßt A l l further steps must be executed w i t h coneordance work and theological dictionaries for the Old Testament because they are concerned w i d i fixed l inguis t ic worlds in die fo rmula t ion o f the text. T h e star t ing po in t is always the existing formula t ion in the text itself. A l o n g w i t h the f o r m u ­lations i n the context o f the text, die fo rmula t ion points to specific (!), parricular t radi t ion backgrounds about which one should inquire . By no means should the t radi t ion historical approaeh project the entire r ä n g e o f meaning for the words in to the formula t ion at hand!

5. Images, Phrases, etc. Are fixed images, comparisons, phrases, formulas, l inguis t ic and Conventions adopted i n die formulation? F r o m which arena o f use do they s tem? W h a t do they signify? W h a t do they intend?

4. Pregnant Meaning for Individua! Words D o individual words or w o r d associations in the text have a preg­nant meaning wh ich more precisely narrows die lexical breadth o f meaning in regard to the material context, Speaker, listener, or life Situation to wh ich the text relates?

5. Word Ensembles as Reference to Traditional Coneepts and Conceptual Contexts

W h a t does an investigation o f parallel exaniples provide for d i e word ensembles in the sentence, paragraph, and the text? I f these o n l y appear i n formulat ions o f the same author or i f they can be established as literary references on the author's part, then fur­ther t radi t ion influence on this fo rmula t ion cannot be established direedy.

Commenta ry on the Approach and M e t h o d 137

I n other cases, the parallel should be investigated more preeisely in the sense o f the questions i n I V 2, because they provide reason to believe that one encounters elements o f traditional concepts, con­ceptuai contexts, and even eonceptions. T h e contents, scope, and logic o f these elements resonates even though not expressiv stated. Even individual characteristic terms can be intended, and have impact, as associations o f a more comprehensive intellectual ere­ation. Here a series o f subsidiary questions present diemselves:

a. O r i g i n o f the word ensemble: E r o m whence does this w o r d ensemble derive? Tn w h i c h t rad i ­t ional text arena o f the O l d Testament (or ancient oriental eul-ture and religious history) does the concordance show examples w h i c h are l i te rar i ly independent, unehanged, and fu l ly aceu-mulated? Is one poin ted to fixed l inguist ic fields o f Anc ien t Is­rael (court, priesthood, legal entities, cult poetry, wisdom, D e u -te ronomic /Deuteronomis t ie t rad i t ion , prophet ic language)? Already the artieles i n theological dictionaries are sometimes arranged accordingly.

b. Shape o f the concept i n the t radi t ion H o w does the concept noted by the w o r d ensemble appear in the tradition? Does the parallel statement offer necessary ex-pansions which resonate in the text under investigation? Is one directed to a larger conceptuai context which Stands behind the text fo rmula t ion under investigation? H o w does diis concep­tuai context appear? To what does i t belong? W h a t does i t ac-complisb? W h a t is the setting o f the eoncept noted in the text?

e. Conten t and in ten t ion ot the concept W h a t does this concept in tend to signify i n its t radi t ional framework? W h a t does i t presuppose by way o f experienee, thought, and the his tory o f religion? W h a t view o f the experi-ential w o r l d does i t release? W h a t does i t exelude? W h a t logic, t ra in o f thought, and insight does it intend?

d. Concept his tory W h a t can one say about historical changes inside the intel lec­tual world?

Ehe means o f help i o r answering the subsidiary questions o f "a"-"d" may be gained f rom the l i terature references in footnote 154.

6. Tbe Use ofthe Traditional in the Text under Investigation W i t h diese findings o f traditional influences upon the text under investigation, one must finally re turn to this text itself and its use o f the tradit ional .

§8 T R A D I T I O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

a. W i t h thought patterns, basic convictions, images, phrases, etc.: I n l i gh t o f positive findings for steps " l " - " 3 , " one should now ask what the t rad i t ion background, now more clearly under­stood, aceomplishes for the content, perspective, and in t en t ion o f the formula t ion at hand. W h a t should one incorporate for the historical understanding o f the statement because i t was manifestly associated and bound to that fo rmula t ion by the au t í io r and the addressee? One should also expressiv inqui re whether the author's o w n accents are addcd to the existing for­mula t ion by adapting the t radi t ion by means of l inguistieally or materially shaping die statement, or even by using an ingenious language and conceptualization. W h a t should diese accents i n ­dicate? Agreements w i t h the audior's profile in o t í ie r places and differences in die language and the flow o f thoughts s temming from the t radi t ion can provide clues for the funct ion o f its for­mula t ion .

b . W T i t h the influence o f fixed l inguist ic fields: T h i s approach is more impor tan t when one reeeives positive findings for steps "4" and "5" because they p o i n t to the i n f l u ­ence o f fixed l inguis t ic fields. I n di is case, the entire text o f a developmental stage should be compared w i d i the mediated, traditiona] l inguis t ic field, o r even w i t h various, infiuential l i n ­guistic fields. As a resuh, various possibilities are eonceivable and should be probed:

a. The text conforming to tradition The author's expression comcides entirefy with tradition. This confor-mity is shown by the identical, corresponding, or related formulations, as weil as by agreements in the extent ofthe content and the train of thought. The confoimity is present even when the author only siiently presupposes individua! conceptuai references Inat are essential for the material logic, or when the author addresses these references oniy in abbreviated fashion, A tradition historical comparison of Ps 48 with Ps 46 or of Prov 7 with Prov 9 would lead to this result. The author of the text at hand is thus seen simultaneously as a representative of the tradition, such as the Jerusalemite cult theology or theological wisdom. Confimiation is also provided when the statement's seiected genre comes from the same arena according to §7. In this case, the tradition represents the intellectual framework during a specific historical phase. it also represents the background of the text at hand. For the author and hearer, the tradition establishes its plausi-bility. One should then pnmarily determine which detail and accentthe author particuiariy emphasizes, by the express formulation, from that which is possible for the tradition.

Commenta ry on the Approaeh and M e t h o d 139

ß. The text continuing tradition Tne author's expnession operates within the framework of tradition by drawing upon that tradition. Perhaps the tradition historical investigation indicates that the author even belongs to the same, or closely related tradition arena (wisdom /temple). However, the author may continue that tradition independently (for example, the Job dialogues or Qohelet contmues the wisdom tradition). Or the author may limit the tradition reflexively by another tradition arena (for example, post-exilic prayers limited by wisdom influence in the Psalms). Here one must distinguish that which is guided by tradition from that which transcends the tra­dition in concrete texts.

γ , The text changing tradition The author uses tradition when formulating, but no longer simply em-anates from this tradition arena. Rather. the author changes traditional coneepts or conceptual contexts by deviating from accents or formula­tions, or by changing the train of thought even to the point of reversing that tradition. This case appears especially in the statements of pro­phetic transmission which take up legal, cultic, and wisdom tradition, but transform this tradition into a new pnophetically topical statement. Here one must determine, as precisely as possible, why, on the one hand, tra­ditional matenal is taken up in the Service of new material statements. One must determine why traditional material is seleeted, thereby stimu-lating certain associations which, addrtionally, must be made audible to us as accompanying intellectual overtones, On the other hand, one must determine where the accents are rearranged, whe re they deviate, and where they aro transfigured in comparison to the tradition. This de-termination must be made for the ind>vidual statement as weli as for the entire text. For their part, even the transfonnations may draw from tra­dition, like prophetic tradition.

For example: The prophetic adaptation of the coneept of the heavenly court assembly of Yf-IWH, Why does the coneept appear in I Kgs 22:19-22 and Isa 6 as an event, but scarcely appears in Isa 40:1-1 I , and does not appear in Isa 42:1—1?Why are the acting pārticipants called špirit in I Kgs 22, seraphim in Isa 6. and voices in Isa 40?

The goal of this step when investigating an specific text is no t to t rače t radi t ion historical ancestors as an end in itself. Rather, one seeks to u n -derstand the text i n its peculiari ty. Here one seeks to understand the text i n the t radi t ion historical approaeh i n l i gh t o f the t r ad i t ion ineor-porated in to the text and ut i l ized by i t . T h i s or ien ta t ion o f the ap­proaeh upon the specific text is not designed to pay homage to ideals o f or iginal i ty , but i n order to makc clear the special features and pecul i ­ari ty o f this text!

T h e t radi t ion historical approaeh gradually makes possible a glance in to the intellectual processes w h i c h lie at the roo t o f this text's f o r m u -

140 §8 T R A D I T I O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

lat ion i f the texts provide the possibili ty o f p rominent data for insight in to the profile and in ten t ion o f the text!

A l i ot this proves that the t rad i t ion historical approach provides the most impor t an t p re l iminary work for de te rmin ing the contents and profi le o f the Statements o f the assigned text, as i t w i l l be undertaken in the interpreta­tion (§10) .

C. R E S U L T S

I . Comprehendmg the Text's Profile

A l inguist ic utterance can not be sufficiently understood by itself. I t must be understood in conjunetion w i t h the historical Situation i n which i t is made. 1 6 7

I t must be understood in the framework o f its socio-cultural conditions and re­al i t ies . k , B Last but no t least, the l inguist ic utterance must be observed f rom the background of tbe theological streant and ofthe intellectual realm i n wh ich i t Stands and operates. T h i s order ing according to specific concepts, theological coneeptions, and a fixed thought w o r l d is unavoidable i f the profi le o f a text is to become clear. T h i s o rder ing is unavoidable i f one is to comprehend how to conceive a l inguist ic utterance, or from w h i c h fixed perspective one should perceive the contents. I t is unavoidable i f one is to comprehend die lines along which the linguistic utterance argues, and i n which frame o f thought i t was un ­derstood by its hearers and readers. T h i s o rde r ing is also val id (and how!) i n diose places where tradi t ional elements have been changed and where i t can be determined where a l inguistic utterance transcends its tradit ional roots in to a speciaiized statement. T h e outermost tip o f this deviation then appears i f a text cri t ically takes up a tradit ional concept and reverses i t . 1 6 9 T h e understand­i n g o f this type o f text is unalterably bound to the fact that its polemieal point , and the critical de l imi ta t ion wh ich i t aceomplishes, are noted in the course o f the t radi t ion historical investigation.

I I . Ins ight in to Connections

Trad i t i on historical w o r k i n the comprehensive sense attenipts to i l l u m i -nate die theological streams and the intellectual realms o f die bibbcal time. Thus , i t aims toward a history of theology for Ancient Israel and early Judaism.

Ά? See below, §9. 168 Sce above, §7 Β V (ρ. 110ff) and %Ί C ΠΤ (p. 116). iw Example: Deviation of the concept of die battle of the nations in Isa 29:1-7 (in 29:l-5ba

Y H W I 1 artacks against Jerusalem while leading the nations).

Li te ra ture 141

W h e r e this research already has reached productive results i n some areas, i n ­formative connections have been found between texts and text groups wh ich had previously appcared unrelated. Or, these results have provided support-i n g arguments for the presupposition o f these connections which had been presupposed for other reasons. O n the one hand, this recogni t ion o f larger connections is advantageous to understanding the specific text. O n the other hand, i t is the start ing p o i n t for acquir ing the connection between the O l d Testament and the N e w Testament, thereby preparing a bibhcal theology i n a historically relevant manner.

D . L I T E R A T U R E

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D O V E R V I E W

G. Fohrcr. Exegese, § 8 (F. Huber). O .H. Steck. Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten. W M A N T 23.

Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1967. p. 18f (additional literature), and 107, footnote 4. . Theological Streams of Tradition, in: Tradition and Theology in the Old Tes­

tament. D A . Knight, ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. p. 183-214, especially 183-191.)

I I . EXPANSION A N D C R I T I C A L ALTERNATIVES

G. Fohrcr. Tradition und Interpretation im Alten Testament. Z A W 73 (1961): 1-30 (also in: Fohrer, Studien zur alttestamendichen Theologie und Geschichte 11949-1966). B Z A W 115. Berlin, 1969. p. 54-83.

H . Gese. Essavs on Biblical Theology. Minneapolis, 1981. O. Keel. 'The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography

and die Book of Psalms. New York, 1985. . Wirktnäehtige Siegeszeichen int Alten lestament. OBO 5. Freiburg (Swjt/.er-

land)—Göttingen, 1974. D.A. Knight. Rediscovering the Traditions of Israel. SBL Dissertation Series 9. Mis-

sonla, 1973. K. Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition, p. 70f; Fonngeschichte. p. .326-342 (not

in English translation). H.P. Nasuti. Tradition History and die Psalms of Asaph. SBL Dissertation Series 88.

Atlanta, 1988. G. Pfeifer. Denkfonnenanlyse als exegetische Methode. Z A W 88 (1976): 56-71. VV Richter. Exegese, p. 75f (footnote 11), 136f,153 -155,178,182f (concerning

»Motiv« and »Stoff«). Tradition and Theology in the Old Testament. D.A. Knight, ed. Philadelphia 1977. G. Wanke, Die Zionstheologie der Korachiten in ihrem traditionsgeschichtlichen

Zusammenhang. B Z A W 97. Berlin 1966. See especially p. 39f, 64ff, 109ff.

For literature on linguistic science and exegesis, see § 7 D I I .

142 §8 T R A D I T I O N A L H I S T O R I C A L A P P R O A C H

ΙΠ. EXEMPLARY E X E C U T I O N

M . E . Biddle. T h e Figure of Lady Jerusalem: Identification, Deificarion, and Personi-fieation of Cities in die Ancient Near Rast." In: The Biblical Canon in Compara-tive Perspective. K . L . Younger, Jr., W.W. Hallo, BF. Batto, eds. Lewiston, NY, 1991. p. 173-194.

K. Koch. Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament. Z T h K 52 (1955): 1-42. Also in: U m das Prinzip der Vergeltung in Religion und Recht des Alten Testa­ments, K. Koch, ed. p. 130-180. Darmstadt, 1972. (the question of a particular world view [cause am! effeet eonneeetion]).

I I . - . M . Lutz. Jahwe, Jerusalem und die Völker. VVMANΤ 27. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1968. p. 47-51,155-177. (Tradition historical investigation of a specific text [Isa 17:12-14]).

G. v. Rad. Wisdom in Israel. Nashville. 1972. W H . Schmidt. Königtum Gottes in Ugarit und Israel. B 2 A W 80. Berlin, Μ 966.

(Rebgio-historical .investigation) _ . The Faith of the Old Testament: Α History. Philadelphia, 1983. O H . Steck. Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten. (Tradition historical

investigation of a coneept and its association with other coneepts [Deuterono-mistic view of history]).

. Das Problem theologischer Strömungen in nachexilischer Zeit. EvTh 28 (1968): 445-458, especially 445-448. _. Friedensvorstellungen im alten Jerusalem. Psalmen-Jesaja-Deuterojesaja. ThSt(B) 111. Zürich, 1972. (Tradition historical investigation of a conception I Jerusalemitc Cult theology]).

. Der Schöpfungsbericht der Priestersehrift. F R L A N T 115. Göt t ingen , 21981. (Question of the knowlcdge and cducational condition)

H . W. W o l l t Hoseas geistige Heimat. T h L Z 81 (1956): 83-94. Also in: Wolff, Gesam­melte Studien zum Alten Testament. T b B 22. Munich, -T973. p. 232-250.

. Arnos' geistige Heimat. W M A N T 18. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1964.

Determining the Historical Setting

Α. T H E T A S K

O l d 'Testament texts confront us today as a col lect ion o f the faith trans­mission o f Anc ien t Israel. T h i s col lect ion belongs to the un i ty o f holy scrip-ture which becomes current again i n each generation. I n their o r ig in , however, O l d Testament texts were ali rooted in a partimlar historical Situation. T h e y are promnlgated i n a specific t ime, in a specific geographica! realm. T h e y have authors o f various social stations and various intcl lectual-theological shaping. T h e y speak to specific addressees, each w i t h their o w n particular experiential hor izon and w o r l d view. T h e y presuppose particular pol i t ical and social re­alities, incisive social changes, and formative historical events. Unders tanding these texts is impossible w i t h o u t a historical view o f the condit ions and c o m ­ponents which these texts inelude. T h e procedure o f the historical sett ing therefore has the task o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g ™ the given text's roots i n a specific historical setting, for every stage o f its development. ' 7 '

B . C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D M E T H O D

I . D a t i n g a Text

Da r ing a given text, o r the layer i n which i t appears, is fundamental for the procedural step o f the historical setting. W h i c h observations allow one to determine the text's time o f origin?

1 7 0 More than with any other procedural step, exegetical work must draw upon available re­search results (above all in the areas of "Old Testament Introduction" and the "History of Israel") and the corresponding literature (see above. §2 G, J -L) .

I 7 ' This statement results from the fact that the historical setting is very closely associated with the literary critical, transmission historical, and redaction historical approaches. See above, foornotes- 32, 6l>, and 7 l).

144 §9 D E T E R M I N 1 N G T U E H I S T O R I C A L S E T T L N G

Several reference points deserve ment ion here: 1 7 :

1. T h e p r e s u p p o s i t í o n , or m e n t í o n , o f contemporary evenLs or events

from the past, 1 7 5

2. Social, const i tut ional , o r cul tural reaJities which mark historical

boundaries. 1 7 4

3. Da r ing a specific t ex t ' 7 ' or the entire text complex to w h i c h i t be-

longs . 1 7 0 ( O f course, this must be cri t ical ly examined.)

4. T h e presupposit ion or t reatment o f other, datable texts f r o m the

O l d Testament. 1 7 7

5. T h e Classification o f the his tory o f a genre, 1 7" a coneept, or a theo­

logical stream. l 7 ' J

6. T h e relative relationship to the other transmission or redactional

layers f rom the same text complex. 1 8 "

TT T h e Contemporary H i s t o r y and Social Env i ronmen t o f a Text

Once the given text has been more or less precisely dated, then one

must more precisely determine die contemporary historical and the

social realities in the environment o f its o r ig in .

I"- Compare also the references from Fohrer, Exegese, p. 147fi. >"·* Exaniples: Lainentations looks back on the destruetion o f Jerusalem in the 6t h Century

B.u.E. (cf. l:3f,7; 2:5ff; 4:20-22; 5:18, etc.), and Stands relativcly elose to those events. Mjc 7:8-20 presnpposes, among other things, that the wall of Jerusalem lies in ruins (termimis ad quem: the reconstruedon of the M-all by Nchcmiah). In addition, compare footnote 25 above on the book of Isaiah. Evaluating the corresponding reference points requires one to consider the phenomenon of vaticininm ex eventu dīfferently.

Exaniples: Λ text refers to die contemporary kingdoiii in die coiuitry (cf. Isa 8:211). Α text presupposes die doiuestication of the camcl . iron fitted chartots, place natiics and their changes, designations ol peoples and counlries, etc.

Exaniples: Isa 14:28-32; Ezek 20. )"6 Exaniples: the superscriptions of many prophetic books (e.g. Isa 1:1; Arnos 1:1). Of

course, these can only be evaluated for anthentic words of the prophet. l " 7 Examples: The books of Chronicles use Gen-Kings as a sourec. Isa 2:2-4 presupposes

Deutcro-Isaiah. Confusing tradition historical dcpendcncc with literary or transmission historical de[)endence can only lead to talse conclusions at this point.

, 7 K Example: A saga style which is shorter (e.g. Gen 32:23-33) or more extensive (e.g. Gen 24). I lowever, ohserve die liiiiiuuon discussed above in $7 Β I I I 3 (p. 108).

I"" Example; The posilion of Deut 30:1-10 inside die history ol die Deuteronomistic model of history (for this, see ΟΤΙ. Steck, Israel und dm gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten, 1967, p. 140t. 185f).

ISO Example; The relative relationship of die various literary layers in Isa 10:5—27a to onc another (10:5-15,16-19,20-23,24-26,27a). For discussion, see H. Barth, Die Jemja-Worte in der Josiateit, 1977, ρ. 17ff.

Commentary on the Approach and M e t h o d 145

T h i s determinat ion occurs first i n cross section: F r o m which poli t ical Situation i n the Anc ien t Near Eastern realm does one proceed (e .g. the N e w Assyrian K i n g d o m as hegemony)? W h a t special relationships exist in Israel (e.g. Judah is st i l l independent whi le the N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m has been dissolved in to Assyrian provinees)? W h a t were the momentous contemporary events? By w h i c h social Orders , tensions, or upheavals was the socio-historical Si tuation o f Israel characterized at that t ime? 1 "

T h i s type o f cross-sectional investigation very quickly requires protracted sectioning through poli t ical h is tory and, as far as possible, th rough the social history o f Ancient Israel and the Anc ien t Or ien t . T h e particular realities o f a specific historical setting can only be imderstandable f rom die larger perspec­tive o f the previous and subsequent development.

Human expenences from this time should also be explored from a synthetic over­view of the realities of the intellectual world of the text which were amassed in §8, and from the text's external world in §9. These experiences may result from this synthesis, from the correspondence of the text's historical world (events, social conditionings, tra­dition historical guidan.ce, making oneself aware of this worid. and mastenng this world), and from the text itself In conjunction with this synthesis, one should also ask which Prob­lems existed then which were unavoidably manifested by the contemporary experience.

I I I . Iden t i fy ing the External Realities Men t ioned i n the Text

W i t h i n the framework o f this procedural step, die clarification of geo­graphica! and historical r/uestions, as well as other realities, ensues in the service o f die historical view o f the realities o f o r i g i n and o f a texts assertions. These realities were self-evident to author and addressee i n their time, but must be re-identified today.

By realities, as the meaning o f the w o r d indicates, one means conerete, visually experienced elements and conditions: for example, a mounta in , a people, wan-derings o f a people, buildings, elothes, animal and plant life, etc. C la r i fy ing these realities, however, cannot disregard their connection with specific inner pro­cess or religious manifestations oflife. A l so , one must delve in to other areas to the degree that they are contained in the t e r m "realities" in its genuine meaning. T h e reali ty "cul t stone" is perhaps associated w i t h the practice o f ineubation.

'Si Concerning the legiumate demanti for an inlensificauon of social history inve-stigations, one must not overlook the degree to which we can generally reconstruet the social history of An­cient Israel and the Ancient Near East from the transmitted texts (and archaeological findings). The relatively small number, to this point, of socio-historical works does not simply indicate a blindness to the problem. See above §2 K . L for literature on the social history of Israel and the Ancient Near East. G . Theißen, "Die sozialgeschichriicbe Auswertung religiöser Überlieferung, Í Û H V T O N F 17 (1975): 284-299, provides an important contribution to the mediodological problem of socio-historical evaiuationof religious transmission.

146 §9 D E T E R M I N 1 N G T H E H I S T O R I C A L S E T T I N G

T h e reali ty " throne" is associated w i t h certain religious coneepts o f power. Even here, one must again w o r k w i t h cross-sections and protracted sections. 1 8 2

A special problem presents itself w h e n the presenicuion of historical processes makes the author's own recent past or, especially; times from the more distant past, the. subject of an assertion in the text, rather than when an author addresses undisputable realities which are kn own to all, These processes must also be identified in this procedural Step. Determming what actuaily happened. compared with those presentations, is an un-avoidable presupposition, which enables one to recognize which attitudina) perspective the text provides (e.g. selective accentuation in the processes of the succession of David in the Succession History) oreven the deviating Interpretation of events which the text provides (e.g. danger to Abraham in Gerar as the danger to a prophet, Gen 20). On occasion, one may even recognize Interpretation which is based thoroughly on real historical experience from the interim period. In the framework of exegesis, one must naturally note the faeiiitating funetion of this historical identifìcation. The goal of exe­gesis is to State how the author has interpreted these events. Determining what actuaily happened has an .ndependent funetion in the framework of the discipline "history of Israel."

EV. D e t e r m i n i n g Au tho r and Addressee

Determining the author of a text aims less at identifying that person by name, which as a aile is seldom possible. Rather, it aims more toward srtuating the author in a specific religio-inceilectual and social setting,

Old Testament literature is largely anonymous literature, and in addition. in those places where names are mentioned, one offen deals with pseudepigraphic manifesta-tions (for example in numerous psalmic superscriptions or in Proverbs). Even in those places where we do encounter the name of an author or an authoria! group. the per-sons remain essentiaily :n the dark (e.g. in the case of Arnos, or even more with Micah, the Korahites, etc.). They retreat almost completely behind their statements. We are thus lefl with scattered. individual references in the text" ' ' And we are left with form oiticaf and tradition historical deduetions, not only from the specific text but a;so from the literary layer as a whole to which it belongs.

What can one recognize about the social position and funetion of the author based on tne life setting of the individual units. o r of the work as a whole, 1 8 4

and, as necessary, based on the style185? To which theological direction and stream does the author belong' *6

li*- Once again, compare specifically die reference in foouiote 170. 1S3 Example: Isaiah. Cf. 7:3; 8:2f.l6: 28:7b-22. '34 Compare for example die corresponding inquiry into Lev 1-7 and Deut 4:1-8 in Kaiser,

ExegeticttlMethod, ρ. 27-29. 185 Compare the references in Kaiser, Exegetical Method, ρ. 16-18. Uto Examples: the Deuteronomistir origin of a secondary literary layer in Arnos (especially

2:4f) and in Jeremiah(e.g. 11:1-14; 19:2h-9; 44:2-6).

Commenta ry on the Approach and M e t h o d 147

When determining the addressee, exegesis is also left with deductions from the text, except in a few exceptions in prophetic literature (e.g. 2 Kgs I ; Arnos 7; 10-17; Isa 7; jer 28). Again. one must especially evaluate the results ofthe life setting. 1 8 7

Recognizing the addressee provides essential clues for the particular problem, perspec­tive, and purpose of a statement. If conerete reference points for identifying the ad­dressee are lacking. then one can at least attempt to reconstruet imaginatively the ex-perientiai and expectational horizon of an addressee for the historical setting ofthe text,

VI Concerning Materialist ic His tor ica l In terpreta t ion of O l d Testament Texts

T h e employment o f biblical text material has brought the p rob lem o f materialistic historical in terpre ta t ion in to die current topical discussion (for example, through tbe particular manner in which the text is processed and i n ­terpreted as cur rent ly seen i n tbe works o f Erns t Bloch and Stefan H e y m ) . l 8 S

Judgment about this interpretat ional s tar t ing po in t depends essentially upon its def in i t ion . I f , by materialistic historical interpretat ion one means that the religious transmissions o f Ancient Israel must be explained strictly in tbe socio-historical context o f its o r ig in , and i f one means tbat the theological and social posi t ion o f an author influenees the tendency o f the content o f the author's Statements, then historical crit ical exegesis o f tbe O l d ' lestament can thor-oughly adopt this posi t ion. Indeed, historical cr i t ic ism has always performed diis task w i t h various degrees o f clari ty and decisiveness.1*''' Elowever, one must deeline materialistic historical in terpreta t ion i f i t wants to perceive O l d Tes­tament texts from their socio-historical sett ing as the fundamentally "def in-i n g moment(s) o f final authori ty" 1 * 0 for pereeiving the format ion o f thoughts and i f i t wants to determine the manner in which the interests and sett ing o f human speech are bound to the r u l i n g categories of explanation. 1" 1

187 Example: the participant in the sacrificial meal as one of the addressees in an individual song of thanlesgiving (see above in footnote 123 and the literature mentioned diere).

188 Cf. W. Dietrich, Wort und Wahrheit, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1976, especially p. 27ff where, on p. 35f, the references to the works of Bloch and Heyin appear.

i s y Cornpare die questions concerning die life setting (above p. 1 lOff), the real historical mediation of texts and traditions (problem of the tradent, see above 1 >if), and the historical set­ting. Further, comparc approaches analyzing tendencics such as A. Weiser, "Die Legitimation des Königs David," VT 16 (1966): 32S-.354, in light of the History of David's Ascendancy. Discussion of die agreement and difference between the David transmission and Heym's The King David Report (New York, 1973) is sadly lacking in Dietrieh's remarks about Heym's nove) (Wort und Wahrheit, p. 29).

190 This fonnuladon from Friedrich Engels (qtiotcd by Dietrich, Wort und Wahrheit, p. 29). l y l In this context, comparc the attempts which are exegeticailv and hermeneutieally prob-

ieinatic because ofthe primary theological intentions of reverse parronizarion. With the help of a

148 §9 D E T E R M I N I N G E H E H I S T O R I C A L S E T T I N G

V I . Overview o f the Approach to the His tor ica l Setting

W h e n de te rmin ing a texts historical setting, one must clarify the f o l ­l owing ehief problems:

1. Dating the text in all its developmental stages leading up to the final fo rm

2. T h e contemporary historical environment o f these datings in cross-sectional and protracted fo rm

3. T h e realities mentioned in die individual developmental stages o f the text

4. D e l i m i t i n g the author and addressee ( in correlat ion w i t h §§6 ,7 ,8 ) o f the developmental stage of the text

Various fields f rom the w o r l d o f the text's historical o r i g in come in to view according to the finding o f the text formula t ion:

1. T h e historical envi ronment o f the texts o r i g i n in respect to na­t ional , polit ical (foreign and domestic), and mi l i t a ry processes

2. To the degree that one is able, ascertaining the historical shape o f the historical inflvtences (intellectual, religious, theological, pietistic) o f the text (correlation w i t h §§7,8)

3. Cu l tu ra l backgrounds manifested in the text (every day w o r l d , morals, needs, e lo th ing, nourishinent, l i v i n g quarters, l ive l ihood, daily routine, ete.)

4. T h e socio-historical environment o f text formulat ions, author and addressee (settlement history, social groups, classes, economic rela­tionships, household, trade)

5. Geographica!, cl imatic, botanical, zoological manifestations in the text

6. Relevant archaeologieal and epigraphic informat ion for understand­i n g the text (e.g. l louse types, temple lay-out, gates, cul t Utensils, settlement history, deductions concerning socio-historical elements)

See above, §2 I - M , for helps in clar i fying details o f tbe text i n the sense o f the historical setting.

method uf materialis-ue exegesis they attempt to subjugate biblical texts to socio-revolufionary purposes. The freely undeniable social dimension of the biblical text is thereby caused damage if biblical water is simply conducted over ideological mills. Cornpare the bibliographic references above in §1 C V. M . Clévenoi, So keimen -wir die Bibel nicht, Munich, -'1980. For metbod and ex­amples, cornpare the considerations in W Schottroff and W. Stegemann, eds., God ofthe Londy, Part One: Old Testament. New York, 1984. Also Schottroff and Stegemann, Traditionen der Be­freiung, vol 1. .· Methodische Zugänge, Mimich, 1980. Cornpare also R. Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion, l.otiisville. 1994; N.K. GotTwald. The Hebrew Bible, Philadelphia, 1985; idem, The Hebrew Bible in Its Social World and in Ours, Atlanta, 1994; VV. TCnieggemann, Λ Social Reading ofthe Old Tes­tament, Minneapolis, 1994.

Litera ture 149

C. R E S U L T S

T h e historical setting places a text i n t o the effcctivc arena o f historical powers, social povvers and the forniative experiences i n w h i c h the text was fashioned, and therefore can only be appropriately interpreted historically. Ehe lt istorical perception o f the text's author, addressee, and developmental realm is the key to understanding the particular contour o f its statement, bu t also its l imi ts . W h i l e critical exegesis connects the text back to its original his­torical setting, i t thereby protects against too quickly extending the pres­ent in to completely differenr historical situations. Tt shows the necessityT o f a hermeneutically grounded mediat ion in the present.

D . L I T E R A T U R E

G. Führer. Exegese, § 9C. Ο. Kaiser. Exegetieal Method, ρ. 35—36. For additional literature, see § 2 I - M .

Part Three

Purpose

Interpretation as Determination of the Text's Historical Meaning

A . T H E T A S K

T h e goal o f all exegetical procedures , the historical exposition o f the text, is accomplished and presented i n a particular phase, that o f In terpre ta t ion , fo l lowing the individua! methodological procedures o f the investigation.

T h e task o f Interpretat ion is to determine, in a scientjfically documentable fo rm, wh ich historical intention and meaning of the statement should be noted i n the text 's concrete fo rm within the historical realm of otigin and i n the va r i ­ous stadia o f its O l d Testament development. In te rpre ta t ion as the de te rmi-nat ion o f the text's historical meaning seeks to acquire and to present the extent to wh ich the text's shape carries the meaning o f the statement's eontour in the text 's genuine historical environment . T h e f o l l o w i n g are all perceived as factors o f a dynamic ar t iculat ion o f meaning i n the historical S i tuat ion to wh ich they belong: historical and social realities, intel lectual predispositions, processed experience, effective impulses, the author's conceptual purpose, and the character o f the addressee. T h e y a l low one to see the ar t iculat ion o f mean­i n g i n a concrete text and a historical life process.

T h e Interpretat ion is directed toward the text in the historical course o f its productive format ion . For this reason, the Interpretat ion is pr incipal ly undertaken separately for each of the text's ascertained stages ofgrowth.

As necessary, one should attach an Interpretation of the text's Old Testament development as a movement of meaning, together w i t h rationale, to the deter-

154

mina t ion o f historical meaning for each o f the individual text stages. T h i s I n ­terpretat ion is attached in order to envision exegetically the text's productive transmission inside the O l d Testament.

Reflections can lead one to conelude how the text's perceived historical meaning should be presented in light oj οur present time.

T h e in terpre ta t ion leads one to at tempt an appropriate Engl i sh trans-lat ion o f the text based on the exegesis.

A series of l imitatons is presupposed when deTermining this task:

1. "Interpretation" is used here in place of the procedura! step which is offen called "in-divicluaì exegesis"1'7- and/or"contextua; exegesis." In order to avoid false associations, w e will refrain from these common des gnatlons. Above a;l, one should be wamed emphaticaliy against the misunderstanding that this procedural step is solely interesied in retrievingthe explanatlon of undecided detaiis in the text. Explaining details in the text is already unavoidable in lange measure, if not compietely; in the framework of the preceding methodoiogical procedures. Geographica! and historical explanations, as well as the explanafon of other realities must result m tne framework of the histori­cal setting (§9). ' ; ' Analysis of terms,1'"1 as well as other tradition historical and history of religions determinations based on individual statements, are achieved within the framework of tradition history (§8),'ς-5

2. The Interpretation seeks to determine historically the particular contour of mean­ing for the text. the material intention, which the text as text had in its time. The goal is thus not simply to determine the subjective intentions o\ the statements author, no matter how essential these are for the Interpretation.1'1" The Interpretation should first be direeted toward the authonal intentions which effectively shaped the text in light of specific addressees within a historical Situation. The Interpretation should trače the concrete shape of the text back to these intentions and thus perceive the text shape as a purposeful utterance of hfe. From that point. however the Interpreta­tion must observe that the t e x t mediates and actuaily attains a statement's content in a specific Situation. This content proeeeds beyond the originally intended historical horizon of the author (m contrast to that Isaiah's opinion, his arnouncemems of iudg-ment against Judah first come to fruition in 587 B . C . L . ) . Also, the content signifies more, or something other, than the author had intended (e.g. the evaluation of the ancient Elijah transmission first as an explanatlon of events in the subsequent period;

"2 Compare the dirertions of Fohrer (Exegese, p. 151 fT Hoffmann) and Kaiser (Exegetical Metbod, p. 3Off) respectfully who apply a particular procedural acciou for this aspect.

i«; See above, p, 1431". 1 ' w See above, p. 126.

See above, ρ. 1251Ϊ. l'"> Hoffmann, in Fohrer, Exegese, 152,155ff, exclusively addresses "comprehensive exegesis"

concerning the autliorial intention or, in the case of a text's development, the audiorial intentions. Still, one should note the critique of this subjeefive tenn of intention in the theoretical discussion. Cf. Gadamcr, Thitb and Method, 243ff; Pannenberg, Theolog)' and the Philosoph}' of Science, especially 2081T.

T h e Task 155

or the secondary association ofthe "servant songs" to Israel).w "Meaning" is thus a category of purpose for Interpretation which transcends authorial intention. Meaning also takes into account that a text can mean more than the author intended with given statements. even for the hearers in the original setting, but especially in the sub-sequent time (e.g. Jonah 3f:The meaning ofthe announcement of judgmcnt against Nineveh is different at the end than the original intention ofthe statement of Y H W H and Jonah). In this manner; experientia! constellations plav an essential role, even though they are different than those which the author included. Alongside and beyond the determination of a statement's contents. Interpretation seeks those ex-periential constellations which the author intended. It also attempts to understand a text's historical meaning beyond the subjective purpose of the author and beyond the subjective reception of the author's listener If it does so. then it inquires (histoncally!) into the appropnateness and the iiluminating power which a statement possesses ob-jectively m light ofthe contemponary realities and the statement's experiential reality,

This inquiry is especially appropriate for the reference and for the protection of the statements about God regarding the pertinent experiential reality. Such determinations constitute the theological ćore of historical interpretation, and pertain to importance, evaluation. and critique." 3 Micah took a critical position over against the jerusalemites' assertions about God (3:1 If) , which were considered orthodox in Jerusaiemite cult tradition, With reference to the depth ofthe given experiential reality ofthe time, Micah's critical position appears just as effectlvely grounded as the manner in which the productive Isaian transmission transcends the lsaiah words in light ofthe experi­ential reality of the Josianic period.'" By the same token, however, one can recognize the one-sidedness of Qohelet's statements about God by these same interpretive perspectives.200

l y7 Üne can only point to essential, sciendfically theoretical considerations for the differ-entiation between "subjective intention" and ''meaning.'' The text opens these considerations for (later) understanding. Cf. H.R. Jauß, Literaturgeschichte als Provokation, Suhrkamp edition 418, -1970: VV. Iser, Die Appelktruktttr der Texte. Unbestimmtheit ab Wirkungsbedingimg literarischer Prosa, Konstanzer Universitätsreden 28, 1971. Comparc in English: H.R. Jauß, Towards an Aes-ihetic of Reception, Minneapolis, 1982; VV. Iser, Tbe Act of Reading: A 'Tbeory ofAestbetie Response, New York, 1980; VV. Pannenberg, Tbeolngy and tbe Philosophy of Science, London, 1976, especially, p. 195ff,206ff.

" 8 In addition to the broadly oudined scientific theory ot Pannenberg, cornpare also Diet­rich, Wort und Wahrheit, p. 21 ft, whose critical evaluation of Old Testament texts by referring to the "center of the Old Testament" depends, however, upon whether onc considers such an inter­nal center of the Old Testament as given and dcterminablc. We doubt this. Wanke, in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 161 ff, seeks a path oriented toward linguistic science for a methodically deteiminable interpretation of die text's statements about God.

' w Cornpare die investigation of Bardi, mentioned above, p. 93. To uudertake die possibility ol Interpretation, importance, evaluation, and critique bv

conffoiiting the text's statement with die ex]>eriential reality of the tarne does not at all mean that the text's statement was itselt merely the articulation of widcly accessible experience. It does not mean that the text s statement simply camc into existence on tbe basis ofthe processing of diese ex­pericnces. Here one must rather maintain contingent factors. For example, these factors arc presented in Old Testament prophecy as the declaration of the Word of Y H W H (cf. Steck, KuD 15 [1969]: 281, footnote 1). Dcutcro-lsaiah's break through of pronounceinents ot salvation ran

156 §10 I N T E R P R E T A T I O N AS D E T E R M I N A T I O N

3. In. so doing. one conceives exegetical Interpretation as observing the articulation of the theological depth of meaning for the experiential realrty m the historical realm. If so, then onetakes up the text's claim in order lo make meaning accessible. The more that one Claims that the text does not wanl to be histcncally limited and transitory, but is instead extended to future times anci actuaily mcluoes our present time, then the less that the exegetical-historical discipline, as such, is capable of articuiatmg the demanding character ofthe text for todoy, relevantly and concrete!)', and the less it is ca­pable of legitimately expressing the relevance of the texts for the present Here, responsible, demonstrable theological discourse is essentiaily directed to the work of the other theologica* disciplines.^ By using one's imagmation to take up the text as a component ofthe modern world, '" however the exegete can and should confront the historically processed theological Interpretation ofthe text as a historiographical process for one's own life and our contemporary world. When considering this Inter­pretation, references are charactenzed, differences ascerta;ned, and possible Impulses are specified for the contemporary experience of seif, worid. and God.

4. Interpretation seeks to perceive the material intention ofthe text as the intention of the author: From that intention Interpretation seeks to deduce meaning from the experiential realrty of the text's forrnative time. Determining the. goa! of Interpretation should not mislead one to reduce its goal to the formulation of very general theo­logical sentences (oreven to the formulations of scope) which apparently consohdate the contents and direction of a text. The meaning ofthe text is given in a specific his­torical Situation in the concrete strueture of the text's Statement It thereby has concrete historical and linguistic shape from which it cannot be divorced exegetically. The Interpretation should thus sketch the train of thought and the shape ofthe entire text's statements. It should also sketch all ofthe texts components as a concrete lin-guistic-intellectual process which illuminates meaning.

B . R E L A T I O N S H I P T O T H E M E T H O D O L O G I C A L A P P R O A C H E S

As already ment ioned , 7 0 ' those metbodologicalSteps presented i n § § 3 - 9 are partial questions for historical understanding. T h e y are directed toward par-

directly counter to contemporary experience. Prophetic judgment Speeches do not simply diag-nose the impending crisis of the time. Isaiah was not just a better polirician. From these examples, it is eprite clear, even with the power and appropriateness of statements, that one cannot contest that they remain partialiy in the experiential world of dieir rime.

-Ol Compare Lehmann, Der hermeneutisebe Horizont; Pannenberg, Theology and the Pkilosophy of Science, p. 371 ff-, and §1A above. Tins does not exclude that the exegete must be exposed to the text's demanding character in die contemporary world even if the exegete cannot coinprehen-sivcly process the text within the framework of historical-exegerical investigations, Recently, P. Smhlmacher (Schriftamlcgmig; "Zum Thema: Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments," in K. Ilaacker, etc., Biblische Theologie heute, BThSt 1, 1977, p. 25-60, there p. 31 f.) and F. Hahn ("Problems of Historical Criticism"; Die neutestamendiche Wissenschaft," in W. Lohff/F. Hahn, eds., Wissentschaftliche Theologie im Uberblick, 1974, 20-38, there pages 28ff; and "Exegese, The­ologie und Kirche," ZTbK 74 (1977): 25 37, correctly mention this point. Compare also Dietrich, IVort und Wahrheit, p. 11,21 ff; Barth/Schramm, Selbsterfahntng, esp. p. 47f.,67ff,10!ff.

-'02 See above, §1 Β II 1 (p. 6f j . I i » See above. §1 C I (p. 14).

Relationship to die Mediodologica l Approaches 157

t icular aspeets o f the text and are n o t h i n g more than preparat ion for the inter­

pretation.1^ T h e procedures are in many respects interdependent and often

continuous. Text crir icism established the or iginal Hebrew text. L i t e ra ry c r i t i ­

cism, transmission history, and redaction cr i t ic ism i l lumina ted the develop­

ment o f the text and/or they out l ined the text's formative arenas wi th respeet

to influential contexts. Also , they made visible die process o f the text's trans­

mission to the po in t o f its current version. Finally, f o r m cr i t ic ism, t rad i t ion

history, and the historical setting have exposed the components o f the text i n

the text's o w n w o r l d i n various aspeets, whether articulated or unexpressed.

These components inelude historical , social, and l inguis t ic elements, the his­

to ry o f ideas, and the h is tory o f theology. T h e y also established those places

where die text transcends die pre-exist ing material . I f all o f di is has been ae-

complished, then the Interpretation now addresses the text in its entirety i n each

o f its productive formative arenas wh ich are manifested in the text's mediated

development. T h i s interpretat ion now determines the text's meaning as text. I t

determines how meaning is expressed i n each particular historical Situation

when adopt ing and transeending pre-exist ing elements. 2 0 5 For a demonstra-

t i o n , cornpare my exposition o f Gen 2-3 (below, p. 202).

-M Establishing that the procedures of §§3-9 function as preparation for the interpretation (§10) has validity on the level of tbeorctically defined cmnprehcnsicm of exegetical work.

Anorhcr level is the cmicrele flo~<i' of exegetical U'ork, as will be deiuonsüated in §11. By this flow, each person will have the experienee that die various procedures of §§3-9 , as we often stressed, not only siinultaneously speeify, limit, and even correct one another, but they also are already shaped by die goals of die Interpretation. Correspondingly, these procedures already process questions about the determination of historical meaning. 1 herelore, it frequcntly appears unclear what remains to be done in die procedural act oi the interpretation. However, this i m ­pression can be confronted by the specific determmations of the goal which we provide in §10. It is true diat the mediodological procedures are all directed toward the goal of the Interpretation, but each of these only clarifies partial aspeets and component questions. Bv contrast, the interpre­tation has its own approach which relates to the meaning and is therefore comprehensive. This comprehensiveness has cousequences for die tliird level oi exegetical work—the isrittenpresenta­tion ol the results ol the work.

One should note herc that when writing the paper, not all o f the results enter fully into the corresponding section w:hen presenting an exegetical procedure, even though diose results must be concretely processed in the framework of that procedure. Rather, one should proeeed in such a way that one limits oneself strictly to clarifying tbe respective component question and die aecompanying rationale. One should also reserve the specific Interpretation materials, which were processed during that procedure, for the pre­sentation of die determination of historical meaning.

-05 One should energetically guard against the vvidely held misimderstanding that, with re­speet to the intention of the Statements and the meaning of the text, only those text elements come into view in which the texts author says something "new" by transeending linguistic, form critical, and tradition historical pretexts. Those Strands in which the audior integrates the.se pre-texts mto a Statement, whedier verbalized or unexpressed, also belong to die statements intention and meaning. The newness and particulariiy are provided from die combination of traditional Cle­ments with elements transeending tradition in die particular Situation of the composition.

158 §10 I N T E R P R E T A T I O N AS D E T E R M I N A T I O N

C. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E E X E C U T I O N

I . In te rp re t ing the Text in Its O w n Formative Arena

1. W h a t Is the Subject of the Interpretation?

I n pr inciple . one should undertake die in terpre ta t ion for each devel­opmental phase w h i c h is recorded as a change in the text. T h e in ter­pretation should also treat the current state o f the text as a whole.

T h e subject o f the in terpreta t ion is thus the entire state ofthe text for each ofthe steps of its development, as analy tically mediated by die l i terary cri t ical and transmission historical approach. By no means is i t l i m i t e d to only those text elements w h i c h last entered the transmission process. Rather, i t is more i m ­por tant to show how the new elements change the current text in its entirety, and how they shift its meaning. 2 0 "

I n praetiee presenting the in terpre ta t ion is of course coneentrated, i n breaddi and fullness. on formative arenas which are materially prof i led and extend across the text. T h e other stages are arranged and subor-dinated i n the presentation. These stages can eidier be deduced only vaguely (e.g. a pre-Israelite site legend o f M a m r e in Gen 18) or they only s l ight ly modi fy the meaning o f die entire (!) text by smaller addi­tions (e.g. Isa 7:8b). These stages can be coordinated and subordinated i n such a way that specific interpretat ional elements already explieated need not be unnecessarily repeated for the more recent developmental stages. T h i s decision can be made on die basis o f findings already processed f rom the methodological de terminat ion o f the text devel­opment.

2. W h i c h Framing Condit ions Coniprise die Process o f Interpretation?

a. F rom the beginning and throughout the process, i t is fundamentally impor tan t that die exegete transplant onesclf i n to the historical Situ­ation ofthe origin i n which the text was forrned, and i n w h i c h the text

However, simply repeating tradirion in a hisrorically changed Situation can achieve that which is new and particular. Exegesis is die perception ol* meaning of a liiiguistically compressed, eompre-hensively historical lile process. By no means can i i be reduced to die elaboration of innovations in intellectual history!

J06 Thus tbe interpretation of Gen 22 can by no means be limited to tbe corresponding transmission stage of the theologically interpretive elements of 22:! a, 12b which entered the nar­rative last. These elements certainly want to show the existing narrative as a whole in a new light (a test of obedience before the divine promissory gift of the son). Likewise, one cannot interpret Gen 28:1 Off only with respect to this growth the transmission stage which added the promises of 28:13 15. It is the growth of a fully reeeived transmission which should now- be secn anew in its entirety. Also, one should obscrvc this aspect vigorously in prophetic transmission with its nu­merous later additions.

Comnienta ry on die Execut ion 159

was directed to concrete addressees as an expression o f meaning w i t h specific intentions.

Ehe exegete should thus construct a historical perspective of the realhies ofthe origin as one already attempted to do imaginatively p r io r to the methodological procedures (§1B) . N o w , however, this perspective should be explained, cor-rected, and made more precise by scientific determinations f rom the investigation o f die historical setring (§9) . T h e author (or authorial circle), the circle o f addressees, place, t ime, and concrete Situation shall then be disclosed to the exegete aeeording to the measure o f scientific clarity. D r a w i n g upon die results o f die investigation o f die intellectual preconditionings ( form cri t ic ism and t rad i t ion history, §§7 and 8) clarilies how b o d i author and addressee are directed by these t radi t ional pre-existing elements. D r a w i n g upon these re­sults also clarifies how their historical w o r l d , w i t h its demands, was then ex-perienced. T h i s historical perspective can thereby expose those necessities o f the concrete experiential wor ld by w h i c h the format ion and declaration o f the text wants to be encountered.

b. W i t h i n this framework o f historical perspective, the exegete now takes a position with the statement of the text itself. One attempts to sketch the statement as a l iv ing process o f the expression o f meaning i n die historical realm i n which i t belongs under strict observance o f its particular text fo rm.

In distinetion to the text itself and its original audience, the Interpretation can of course not be limited to the simple repetitíon of the text. Rather, it reaches the point of expressiv including the scientifìcally grounded modalities of meaning that were unquestion-ably self-evident with the origin of tne text, but which were no longer self-evident to all who came laten In addition to the perspectival actualizaiion of the realities of origin, this includes especially the endeavor of making more preose the form, contents, and in­tention of the text's expression of meaning. It thereby makes known the current historical understanding in the elaborated presentation of that which was connoted. intended, or even presupposed as self-evident in the given vocabulary of the text. It also enables materiaily proper understanding, One should particulaHy observe the historical appro-pnateness of the word associations in the vocabulary selected for the English version of the Interpretation,

3. H o w Does di is In terpreta t ion Process Proceed i n Deta i l lo r the Single Formative Text Arena (or for the Respective Text Arenas)? : < 1 7

a. Fo l lowing a historical I l lustrat ion o f the realities o f o r i g i n , one should next present findings concerning the major divisions, contour, and purposive direction ofthe entire text and its individual parts.

2<>7 In the presentation, the Interpretation can hegin aeeording to the didactic principlc by

moving from the whole to the paus and then proeeeding again to the whole. It can begin with a

160

T h i s presentation should correspond to the framework as i t was processed in f o r m cr i t ic i sm (§7) .

Knowledge of the genre and/or its genre elements provides the conerete movement of thought for the text. As necessary, rt ineludes (!) the author's conerete transcendence of the genre, This knowledge shows the appropnate crrangement of the text ' c s , the func-tional value (e.g. introduction, turning point. elimax. statement of purpose). and the context of the organizational pieces within the framework ofthe entire text. One should anfange the descriptive interpretation, not by verses or even by sentences, but by the organizational pieces peculiar to this text which nun alongside the line of thought of the text with its components/''-'' Knowledge of~ the genre and/or the author's transcendence ofthat genre simultaneously manifests the type and purposive direction of the emire text (narrative, legal saying, teaching, annals, cult song, communa! prayer of iamentation, wis­dom saying, prophetic pronouncement of juegment, etc.), and its organizational parts (narrative introduction, establishment ofthe legal case. lament, Dresentation of guift). Thus rt manifests the particular perspective of the expressed conditions as well as the effect which the text intends to elicit from the hearer or reader beyond the simple re­ception of its contents. If no genre influence is present, then the analysis of the linguis-tically demonstrated macrostrueture and micOstructure of the text (§7) exposes the Organization, intention, and perspective (cornpare also §8).

b. Thereafter, the interpretation ofthe individual organizational parts i n the text are each processed and presented.

I n do ing so, one should pay at tent ion to the fo l lowing :

a. Descr ib ing the eharacter, sectional funedon, and part ial purpose o f diis organizational section as a part o f the whole.

conccntratcd suhstantiation of the realities of origin and a presentation of the total eontour, pur-posive direction, and organizing sections of the text. Next one can add the interpretive processes for each individual organizational picee, and then return to the perspective of the entirety by an interpretation of tbe entire text layer.

21» Some cases indicate that the author of die text at hand concrctcly transcended the genre(s). In those cases dien one no longer simply identifies the anangement of the text with the parts of the employed genre(s). Also, the subject of the statement, the purposive direction, and the organizational sections of the text can change in respeet to the genre. Example: In the para-graph of Tsa 7: >—9, die threat of 7:9b offers an essential transcendence of die genre shaping 7:4 9a which forms the elimax of the statement. At the same time, this threat is of greatest siguilieance for arranging the section and decisively changes the rcsutrjng purpose of the genre which shapes 7:4-9 in die current text. Cf. O .H. Steck, Εν Tb 33 (1973): 77-90, there ρ. 82 (also = Wahrnehmungen, ρ. 176f).

209 Kaiser, Exegetical Method, p. 37ff, describes the process and presentation of the interpre­tation of the whole differendy. We do not aeeept the possibilities of clioice apparently opened by the interpretation any morc than wc adopt the theologically excessive demand to be an attorney of the present age in conffontation with the text.

Commentary on the Execution 161

β. Descr ibing the content of the statement present in this part o f the text aecording to the in ten t ion o f the author. T h i s content is described as a purposive b ü n d l e o f that which is stated expl ic i t ly as well as that which was also intended and heard. Eor this purpose, one must evaluate the fo l lowing: 1. T h e linguistic strueture. I t provides the view o f the expressed con-

di t ions (e.g. circumstances, action, t ime) and die intended reeep-t ion o f the hearer (e.g. to reeeive that which is communicated, or to consider something on the basis o f questions and references) aecording to the results o f form cri t ic ism (§7).

2. The explicit. content aecording to the fo rmula t ion o f the text. T h e text's unequivocal meaning, to the degree that i t can still be deter-mined today, is provided p r imar i ly f rom several elements: f rom the context at hand, f rom die lexical meaninir o f the words and their delineation and deepening by the immediate context, by re-vealing the t r ad i t ion historical precondi t ioning of the formula­tions (or their transcendence, see t radi t ion history, §8) . T h e texts unequivocal meaning may also be provided by observing its char­acter based on die topics o f the genre (or their transcendence, see fo rm cri t icism, §7), and by drawing upon parallel statements f rom the same author and/or the original context as ident ihed in trans­mission his tory (§4), l i terary cr i t ic ism (§3), and the historical set­ting (§9) . As necessary, unequivocal meaning is also provided by stylistic figures {parallelismitsmemborum) or images, comparisons, and metaphors offered in the text. Finally, meaning is provided by contrast ing statements wh ich would also be historical ly coneeiv-able or expected in this context but which are not offered.

3. T h e aspect directed by subject and audience f r o m wh ich the au­thor offers the expressed content, aecording to die conclusions o f fo rm cri t ic ism (§7), t radi t ion cr i t ic ism (§8), and the historical set­t i n g (§9) .

c. Af ter in te rpre t ing the individual organizational pieces, one should include an Interpretation ofthe entire text as a purposeful, meaningful un i ty w i t h i n the fraine o f a historical life process.

I n do ing so, one should pay particular attention to the fo l lowing:

α. Progression, contour, deliberated context, weight o f the material movement wh ich the author consummates when presenting the text and which the addressees allow to be consuminated.

β. A dynamic view o f the entire text as a life process on the part o f die author.

162 § 1 0 I N T E R P R E T A T I O N AS D E T E R M I N A T I O N

— W h a t occurrences and experiences does the author presuppose? W 7 hat necessities compel the author to f o r m the text? W h a t tra­d i t ion historical presuppositions are thereby activated and how are they reaccented? For what reasons are these presuppositions transcended by correction?

— W h a t is new in the statement f rom the perspective o f its Situation

and f rom the perspective o f the hearer? — W h a t does die author want to accomplish i n the historical setting

o f die author's hearers/readers? W h a t boundaries and decisions does die author address i n the framework o f the historical possi­bilities o f that time?

— W h a t is singular and what is common for this text i n l i gh t o f

other statements f rom the same author or authorial cirele? — W h a t experiential reali ty from the author's t ime does the author

want to clarify and influence? W h a t incontrovert ible experiences, intervenrjons, and perspectives o f reality o f that t ime does the author assoeiate w i t h statements about G o d in particular? W h a t atti tude does the author provide regarding humanity, Israel, or specific groups and persons from that t ime and world?

γ . A dynamic atti tude about die text on the part o f its hearers, i f the text offers start ing points for such.

— W h a t I n t e r v e n t i o n does the text undertake i n the w o r l d o f the hearer? W h a t effect d id the text actually have on them?

—Does the actual effect differ t r o m the Speakers intention? W h a t are the experiential reasons for this deviation?

δ . T h e historical meaning ofthe text beyond die mediated in t en t ion o f the author and the reception o f the hearers. D o the contents o f the text signify even more than the author "ob-jectively" intended i n l ight o f the experiential reali ty o f that time?

One can provide an answer to the question if one situates the text in the wider con­text ofthe author's time and experiential reality beyond the conerete horizon ofthe Situation and beyond the horizon of understanding of the author Also, one can provide an answer if one as<s what the text in this expanded framework contnbutes to the back­ground of the experiential reality which er.ables one to understand experiential reality more appnopriately, more comprehensively. or deeper. Thus, based on corresponding expressions from the background of 9th Century prophecy, the statements of Arnos which were publicly critical of society have the quafity of an entirely new type of criti­cal perception of Israe; in its social world ofthe monarchial period. They even have this new perspective f or Judah even though Arnos, in his time, intentionally addressed the Northern Kingdom and not Judah. Determining meaning and authorial intention occur separately if the contents ofthe text subsequently encountera different experiential hori­zon which the author never had in mind. When the original authorial intention is tran­scended, or even contradicted, a text's meaning can become visible pnecisely during the

Commentary on the Execut ion 163

text's productive transmission. The tradents of the exodus tradition have, for this trans­mission, inferred a meaning for the experiential reality of Israel by the saving God. This meaning reached far beyond the partial experience of the Moses group both chronologi-cally and spatially. This meaning cxplained the entire expenence of the pcop>e to that point their qualified rts future. Since the exilic period, the intention of the royal psaimsto qualify the power of the Davidides no longer had any experientially illuminating signifi-cance. Rather, it had to live on as the deepening of meaning for Persian power or as a proleptic meaning for a future, messianic time in the future. : o Shifts between punctiliar material intention and the meaning of a text can thus appear especially dunng the Old testament development of a text in the experiential framework of more recent tmes.

I L In te rpre t ing the Text in Tts O l d Testament Development

Suppose l i terary cr i t ic ism, n-ansmission history, and redaction his tory have demonstrated that the text has undergone a development. O r suppose they have demonstrated that, over the course o f t ime, the text was incorpo-rated in to a broader context. L i either (or both) case(s), one must discuss and interpre t the path o f the entire text's productive transmission w i t h i n die O l d Testament alongside the individual developmental stages.

Herc , the task is to determine the material movement w h i c h is ex­pressed i n the text's transmission process w i t h i n the O l d Testament.

Instead o f a superfhious summation o f the contents o f the individual trans­mission stages w h i c h have already been treated, one should consider their connection, wh ich now becomes the object o f the in terpre ta t i on .

•W h a t remains constant du r ing this development? W h a t is changed? A n d what shows the older State o f die text i n a new light?

A t this po in t , these are the elementary leading questions o f this procedural step, n a m e l y the Interpretat ion w h i c h i l luminates the material , theological result o f die synthetic transmission h i s tory and especially the resul t o f the. redact ion h i s tor ica l invest igat ion. Again, one should observe a series o f as-

pects for the effort:

21" For die changes in die movement o! meaning in Psalms transmission, compare, e.g. J. Beeker, Wege der Psahnenexegcse, 1975. For die changes in the transmission of the exodns event, see P. Weiinar/li. Zenger, Exodus, Geschichten und Geschichte der Befieiung Israels, 1975, especially p. llff,139ff,167ff.

G. von Rad often noted this very significant fact. He noted that this view was connected to the wider transmission of texts inside the Old Testament, texts which "could always have fresh meaning extracted from them." (OldTestament Theology, vol. 2, p. 45). Compare Part Three of Old Testament Theology, vol. 2 (p. 319ff), as well as the work, "Offene Fragen im Umkreis einer The­ologie des Alten Testaments" (1963), printed in G . von Rad, Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Tes­tament 11, 1973, p. 289ff.

164 §10 I N T E R P R E T A T I O N AS D E T E R M I N A T I O N

1. T h e task is presented i n a dual perspective:

I t the text has experienced productive growtb, then one must untierstand this process as the material change o f its content, whereby one must also consider the new contexts.

Example: The text of I Kgs 18:21 ff has grown as an individual narrative, which then be­comes a component of the Elijah cyde of I Kgs 17-19, and later becomes part of the deuteronomistic presentation of the monarcnial period, as weil as part of the priestly configured history of Gen i to 2 Kgs 25 from the post-exilic period.

Suppose the text nas not experienced a development but has been incorpo-rated into changing vansmissior. contexts as it is conveyed over time, If so. then one must determine the function changes within this context. With their respec-tive intentions as the subject. one makes this determination to the degree that one can recognize these intentions and to the degree that they provide a coher-ent material profile.

2. Above all, the synthetic insights of transmission history and redaction history, along with the literary critical and transmission historical analyses, offer the essential prepo.rüD'on to which this procedure should be affixed. If the emphasis rests upon the transmission process, rts means and motifs,

then it rests upon the matenal movement ofthe changing content of the text which corresponds to this transmission process.

3. One should inquire into this matenal movement interpretively with analogous means as with the Interpretation ofthe individual text arenas, Thus, rt should inquire into the following:

changes in the histoncal environment as the text is conveyed (time, place, persons responsible for transmission, Situation, experiential horizon, theo­logical conditionings) form critical expansion of the text or incorporation of the text as one genre element into a more comprehensive framing genre with new contours, turn-ing pomts, and purpose the contents of newly incorporated formulations and of the entire text within this changed framework the reason for abbreviating the text from eariier stages. etc.

Already the matenal movement inside the transmission of individua! Old Testament texts can be an example of the changes, or the deepening (or leveling) of the Israelite understanding o f Y H W H over the course of history m the face of changing experiential horizons. The material movement in the transmission of an individual text then par-ticipates m the ebb and flow ofthe eharacter of Israel's perception o f Y H W H as it has

Commentary on the Execution 165

Deen comprehensively deiermmed in the history of Israels religion and in Old Testa­ment theology. The msights of these two areas of work conversely demand the capacity of recognizing the movement of meaning from individual texts,

4. In particulat; one must observe

what meaning is designated in the text's transmission process. Thus, to what degree do the contents of the text change beyond the Intention of the first author and its meaning? To what degree does the content expose new. or even contrary, aspects? To what degree does the content operate as the αχρίκαϋοη and deepening ofebonged e.vpenentid reality?

Suppose one thereby sees the respective meaning o f the text already acquired in the individual transmission stages. Suppose one also notes the changes o f the Israelite experiential w o r l d wh ich are designated i n the transmission events o f the text. I f so. then a movement of meaning becomes visible whose flow, p ro ­file, and tendency one should observe. T h i s movement o f meaning i n the changing contents does not, by any means, necessarily progress continuously or even automarically. T h e movement o f meaning makes clear paradig-matically how the pereeption o f meaning in Israel at that t ime was shaped by the productive relat ionship between the experiential w o r l d and the transmis­sion. I n some cases, this shaping happened in different theological streams w i t h different results. T h e experiential w o r l d is clarified by the transmission and the meaning o f the transmission is transformed in l igh t o f changed expe-rience. For Israel, this Transformation is expressed in the fact that G o d is not a rigid principle and not the extrapolation o l fundamental values of this w o r l d , but the " L i v i n g G o d " . God's "being" is " i n becoming" as one can recognize from the connection to historically experienced changes. 2 1 1

An example is the movement of meaning in the transmission history of I Kgs I 8:2 Iff. Elijah hunself successfully sought to reclaim the territory of Carmei f o r Y H W H against Baal. The first transmitters ofthe Elijah transmission had shown the meaning by the termination ofthe events and the return of the rain. They also confrmed r.hat the land of Israel and rts fertility belongecl only to the one God, Y H W H . In this substance of the transmission, later transmitters saw legitimation forjehu's extermination ofthe Baal devotees. They perceived the meanmg of this grave process from their own experiential world so that the meaning of the transmission extended to topical political events. This pereeption was quite different from Hosea's (1:4) recollection of the kmgdom of his experiential world. Fmally, in the Deuteronomistic History, the transmission achieves meaning in light ofthe catastrophe experienced by Israel. It achieves meaning as a trans­mission related tc the people and all foundations of their well-being. Eiiiah was one of those who warned Israel, but who was not heard (2 Kgs 17:13). The fact that Y H W H was the exclusive God in the land of Israel has now been confinmed against Israel and it

E.JüngcI, Tht Doctrine of the Trinity: Codi Being Is in Btammg, Grand Rapids, 1976.

166

expialns the end of its kingdom. Thus. the transmission of I Kgs I 8:21 ff participated in the constitutive meaning and the changing actualization of the first commandment in Israel':-, history of faith.

D . C O N S I D E R I N G T H E T E X T ' S H I S T O R I C A L M E A N I N G I N L I G H T O F T H E P R E S E N T

I n concluding the process o f historical interpretat ion, one should at tempt to estahlish crisp, precise considcrations regarding how the results o f the de­terminat ion o f historical meaning can be presented i n our t ime. T i n s at tempt is performed to introduce tbe result o i the interpretive process into a theologi­cal procedure w h i c h is responsible to the his tor ic transmission, demonstrably refleetive for die sake o f our time, and no less impor tandy, for the exegete and our w o r l d i n order to adopt the compel l ing eharacter o f the text w h i c h is no t historically l imi t ed . T h e imaginings about the text as a component o f today's w o r l d that were acquired before enter ing the exegesis-'1* are diereby taken up. These imaginings are then taken fur ther according to die text's unequivocal historical meaning, at least as approximated.

One bas thus gained die fo l lowing essential insight: T h e text does not just represent an arsenal o f sentences r equ i r ing explanation. Rather, in its real i -zation, i t also represents a process o f l i le wh ich wants to open the processes o f life. Accordingly. one must look to the corresponding realities o f today: at the text's experiential foundations; at its historical , social, intel lectual , and theo­logical eonditionings; at the shape o f its statement; and at its contents. W h e r e have changes entered the historical realities or the experiential world? W h e r e is the theological foundation changed by the N e w Testament i n contrast to the historical profile so that i t necessary to shape the text statements fur ther in order to assimilate them as a process o f life today? O n the other hand, in spite of its historical condi t ioning, where does the text reveal deficits in our experi-ence o f the w o r l d and seif, in establishing value», or in ways o f acting? W h e r e could the historical meaning provide impulses for the present experience o f self, w o r l d , and God? A n d where can these impulses be conveyed fur ther i n die work o f a theolog} 7 related to the present t i m e ? : u

- ' i : Sce above, §1 Β 11 1 (ρ. 6f). See examples pertaining to how one acquires the stages of understanding and thought

movement« during Old Testament transmission by ineJuding the transmissions for mialifying this finding in view of our present time; In light of a specific text (Gen .'2:23-3 i) , see H J . Hermisson, "Jakobs Kampf am jabbok." ZTbK 71 (1974): 239-261. For the history of Old Testament concepts, see H . H . Schinid, "šutom. -'Frieden« im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament" 1971: J.Jeremias, Die Reue Gottes, 1975. O.H. Steck, "Zwanzig Thesen als alttestamentlicher Beitrag zum Thema: Die jüdisch-christliche Lehre von der Schöpfung in Beziehung zu Wissenschaft und Technik,"* KuD 2 3 (1977); 277-299. For an Old Testament tradition, see G. v. Rad. Wisdom in Israel, 1972. From the

Acquis i t ion and Presentation of die Interpreta t ion 167

Ε . S U G G E S T I O N F O R P R O C E E D I N G W I T H T H E A C Q U I S I T I O N A N D P R E S E N T A T I O N O F T H E

I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

T h e f o l l o w i n g Suggestion is offered to s t imulate the central task o f §10 , namely how one proeeeds concretely, and how this procedure can be recorded in the written presentation o f an exegesis paper.

I . T h e progression o f the w o r k begins by hinging to rnind die I m m i n g conditions based upon the results o f the methodological procedures:

1. T h e basis is the original text a ecord ing to text cri t icism (§3) . 2. W h a t are the text's developmental stages wh ich stand in succession

for Interpretat ion ( l i terary cr i t ic ism, transinission history, redac­tion history, aecording to § § 4 - 6 ) ? Compare § 1 0 C I L

3. W h a t are the historical realities of origin (expressed, intel lectual , author, addressee) for each developmental stage o f the text (his­torical setting aecording to §9 by resort ing to fo rm cri t ic ism [§7] and t rad i t ion his tory [§8])? Compare §10 C I 2.

Within the framework of the written presentation ofthe Interpretation it is not necessary to reformulate " I " ano "3". The results of §§3-9 have already been introduced to the reader in the framework of the preceding presentation of the procedural steps. By contrast when presenting the Interpretation of "2," it is recommended that one provide a bríef summation ofthe literary critical, trans­mission historical, and redaction historical procedures aecording to §§4-6.

To this presentation one adds the particular process o f Interpreta t ion wh ich is now presented in its ent i re ty i n w r i t t e n f o r m . T h e sequence o f the acquisition and presentation is suggested as follows:

I I . Interprcting each developmental stage o f the text. Here the ideal case is presented in which the various developmental stages are presented with the current extent of the text and the state­ments tangible profile. Compare, however; the practical remarks in §10 C M ,

1. T h e first developmental stage: a. Briefly restate its extent and the realities o f its o r i g in . (See

above, 1 " 1 " and "3".)

perspective of a contemporary problem, see O.H.. Steck, World und Environment. Bíblical E n -counter Serics, Nashville, 1980.

168

&**2 b. Br ie t ly restate its overall strueture, organizational t u r n i n g ^ l í ā points, and purpose ( form cr i t ic ism according to §7) . Cornpare

§10 C 13a. c, In terpre ta t ion o f the first organizational component . Corn­

pare §10 C Ī 3 h. aa. translation bb. eharacter, funct ion o f the part, the part ial purpose o f tbe

organizational component cc. Designation o f the contents o f the organizational compo­

nent l inguist ic strueture

— expressed circumstances — aspeets directed by the subject and addressees

&f^- d. Interpretat ion o f the remaining organizational components in the same manner as c..

e. Comprehensive in terpreta t ion o f the text o f the first develop­mental stage. Cf. §10 C I 3c.

"2 , " "3," "4 ," etc. as necessary: In terpre ta t ion o f the text for the remain ing stages analogous t o ' T . "

I I I . Interpreting the text i n its O l d Testament development. Cornpare §10 C I L

IV. Pointed considcrations o f the text's historical meaning in view of our present time. Cornpare §10 D .

These considerations are no t obl iga tory for an exegesis w i t h i n die academic discipline o f the O l d Testament.

V Translation of the whole text Cornpare §10 F. T h i s translation should be defini t ively formulated

ν«ήΚ, i n line w i th the interpretat ion. I t should not, however, be presented

•

i n this interpretat ion. Rather, i t should preeede the wr i t t en work as a whole. Developmental stages and Organizat ion can be typographi -

j | f .„1 cally demonstrated.

F. T R A N S L A T I O N O F T F I E T E X T

wġjt. O n l y alter concluding all exegetical procedures can the p re l imina ry

Β translation. undertaken at the beg inn ing o f the exegesis, be brought Ί i n t o an appropriate version based upon insights achieved since that

p o i n t . l u

-Ή Comparc, Kaiser, Exegetical Method, 37f. In disrinetion to Fohrer, Exegese, 180, and vis, Kaiser airangcs the final translation act between die individual exegesis and the Interpretation of

Litera ture 169

Even for today's reader to receive the creative impulse o f the historical ele­ments, the translation cannot be a moderniz.ing, actualizing rranslation which transcends the hermencuticaJ task. Rather, today i t must be just as readable as faithful to the word ing . A n d i t must be as precise as historically possible. T h e seleetion o f the English words is undertaken aecording to those words which , by their associations, lead the reader to the shape and contents o f the state­ment in the historically mediated sense.

Ci. L I T E R A T U R E

G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 10(11. W. Ilonmann) and § 11 (C. Wanke). Ο. Kaiser. F.xegetical Method, ρ. 36-41. \ \ : Richter. Exegese, ρ. 174-190.

Literature about the bermeneutical problem: R. Bultmann. Das Problem der Hermeneutik. Z T h K 47 (1950); 47-69 (also in: Bult­

mann, Glauben und Verstehen, vol. 2. Tübingen, '1968, p. 21 1-235. G. Ebeling. "Hermeneutik," RGG' ĪIT, col. 242-262. H . -G. Gadamer. Truth and Method. New York, '1991. W Joest. Fundamentaltheologie. Theologische Grundlagen- und Mediodenprobleme.

Theologische Wissenschaft, Vol. 11. Stut tgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz 21981, p. 59-72.174-212.

E. Krcntz. The Historical-Critica! Method. Guides to Biblieal Seholarship. Philadel­phia, 1975.

B. C. Lategan. "Ilcrmencutics." ABD, Vol. 3, p. 149-154. K. Lehmann. Der hermeneutische Horizont der historisch-kritischen Exegese, in:

Schreiner. Einführung, p. 40-80. W. Pannenberg. Theology and the Philosoph}' of Science. London, 1976.

Literature especially concerned with bermeneutia of the Ohl Testament: J. Goldingay. Models for Interpretation of Seripture. Grand Rapids, 1995. A . H J . Gunneweg. Understanding the Old Testament. O T L . Philadelphia, 1978. H . Seebass. Biblische Hermeneutik. Urban-Taschenbücher 199. Stuttgart—Berlin—

Köln—Mainz, 1974. L . Schmidt. Ar t . Hermeneutik I I . Altes Testament. T R E X V (1986). p. 137-143

(bibiliography). F. Wat.son. Text, Chureh, and World: Biblieal Interpretation in Theological Perspec­

tive. Grand Rapids, 1994. C. Wesiermann, ed. Probleme alttestamentliehcr Hermeneutik. Aufsatze zum Verste­

hen des Alten Testaments. ThB 11. .Munich Ί 9 6 8 .

the whole. However, even the Interpretation of the whole can still provide important insights for conveying the text in English.

Part Four

Illustration

§11 The Exegetical Process Using Gen 28:10-22 as Example

T h i s section w i l l i l lustrate, using Gen 28:10—22 as an example, how the process o f exegetical work can proceed w i t h a text using this workbook. Thus , die process o f exegetical work is presented, not the additional act o f the presen­tation based on this work . A n exegetical treatment o f this text is not attempted i n l igh t o f ali o f its difficult problems in current research. Ne i the r is an o r i g i ­nal con t r i budon attempted for the exegetical discussion o f this text. Rather, this section attempts more simply to il lustrate the course and the in te rcon-neetedness o f exegetical procedures. For reasons o f space, even this task can­not take place i n breadrh and completeness. T h e attempted purpose appears to us to be achievcd i f the reader can see the representative I l lus t ra t ion o f di is book for several procedural steps.

A . F I R S T P R O V T S I O N A L T R A N S L A T I O N O F T H E H E B R E W T E X T

Already die basic attitude w i t h wh ich one approaches die w o r k is i m p o r ­tant. One must treat a wel l k n o w n text, perhaps one wh ich has been famil iär since children's worship Services and elementary school. Appropria te ly , this att i tude appears in die expectatioii diat the text continues to deserve atten­t ion and every consideration. One expects that the text possibly shows mean­i n g wh ich one s t i l l does not know, and that i t exposes a biblical impulse tor

174 §11 T U E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

explaining our life i n our w o r l d . 2 1 5 T h i s antieipatory Submission to the text begins w i t h the first penetration in to its genuine l inguist ic w o r l d .

T h u s one begins w i t h the initial, yct entirely preliminary translation of tbe text with tbe help of dictionary and grammar. One becomes accustomed to u n -k n o w n words and grammaticai manifestations w i t h the effect that one is able to use the Hebrew text i n all subsequent procedures w i t h o u t difficulty. One thus has the text at one's disposal. A l l demonstrable exegetical observations and decisions can only be established by continually reading and considering die text in die original language.'"'

B . O B S E R V A T I O N S

I . Concept o f the Text as Component o f Today's W o r l d

Perhaps die fo l lowing impressions and eonsequences, among otliers, pre­sent themselves under the di rect ion o f the above mentioned determinations and questions. 2 1 7

The narrative is all too well known. In some circumstances it is known 'rom memo-ries of religious traming and pictures ofthe sleeping Jacob and tne heavenly ladder There is no evident reference to the life of one's current experiential world. Therefore, this cleariy iegendary story is materially neutral, although perhaps aesthetically pleasing. Upon doser examination there is much which is foreign (staircase to heaven with angeb'rnes-senger: a pillow of stone covered with oil; a place as the gate of heaven; givmg of a tithe), which, like Jacob and Bethel, is taken to be Iegendary colonng and thus, is of no interest upon closer inspection. The main point of the story, that God appears to jacoo with promises for him. is told with incomprehensible details (Goa at the top ofthe staircase to heaven; location of the gate of heaven: why the erection of a stone?), Well intentioned, engaged Bible readers will see dynamic contact to their experience in that they will see Jacob as an example o f how guidance and the protection of life is not at the disposal of humanity, but promised by God. But what about contradicto-'y expericnces?

These and other impressions and eonsequences ( in some cases they may be expanded in conversation w i t h others) remain, for now, collected and pre-served for action at the conelusion o f the exegesis. T h i s action takes in to con-sideration the text's historical meaning in l igh t o f the present time. T h e i m ­pressions and eonsequences are collected and preserved for further theological

215 Cornpare above §1 A, p. 3 f. "*'<> Comparc above, §1 13 I (p. 5, cf. Sff). 217 Comparc above, §1 Β II 1 (p. 6f).

Observations 175

work on the text f o l l o w i n g the exegesis, and for incorpora t ing the text in a sermon, lecture, or Christ ian lifestyle today. These observations are important for the exegetical work to the degree that here one becornes eognizant o f pre-suppositions about the character, meaning, and valne o f the text. Also , i n at-t empt ing to perceive the text in its historical self-understanding, these presup-positions must be kept in check.

Subsequently, one attempts a historical perspective f rom the text in its historical realm.- 1 8 W e recognize this perspective i n the f o l l o w i n g broader realm because i t is recent and especially impor t an t for exegetical direcrions.

Π . Coneept o f the Text as a Componcn t o f Its Histor ical W o r l d

T h e person responsible for the exegesis should be s trongly encouraged to dedicate sufficient t ime to this imaginative traversal o f the text before any methodological ly directed, scientific investigation, w i t h o u t d rawing upon commentarics, essays, or monographs. One should only rely upon the text o f the I l eb r ew Bible, a reference work such as a bible dictionary, and as necessary a coneordance. Also , one should again r e tu rn to this imaginative traversal o f the text alongside one's scientific procedural treatment o f the text. T h e exegete should employ his/her cu iTent knowledge about the O l d Testament (or quickly expand that knowledge concerning specific topics). T h e exegete should then look, look, and look again. One should make one's own observations and thus achieve a dynamic overall picture o f the historical understanding o f the text! T h e density and content o f scientiiic-exegetical questioning, and accordingly the density and contents o f the results, essentially depend upon this imagina­tive action. I t is thus o f m i n o r importance how defensible this image rcmains when tested by scientific procedures. T h i s picture w i l l tu rn ou t differently for a beginner than for one more experienced in exegetical exercise. Also educa-tjonal l imi ts and competence w i l l have an effect. T h e image of the text created f rom one's own observations (rather than merely arranging the secondary opinions one has read, cri t ically) w i l l benefit the understanding and the life o f the text. Fo l lowing the first historical impressions o f the text, one begins w i t h precise l inguist ic observations o f the I l e b r e w text (aecording to §1 Β I I 2). These observations prepare the l inguist ic ajialysis in conneetjon w i t h the fo rm crit ical approaches. T h e y have been omi t ted here for reasons o f space and o f the Hebrew pr inr ing , but compare Fohrer, Exegese, 186-195.

1. However, a seleetum of' additional aspeets of imaginatitm o f the basis o f l i n ­guistic observations are ment ioned below:

218 See above, §1 B U 2 ( p . 8ff).

176

• The text is not compiete by itself: The reason why Jacob is in Bethel on a trip from Beersheba to Haran (Gen 2.8:10: where are these places?) is no more stated than whether Jacob would be protected and return safeiy (28:20f; cf 28:15). The text is thus part of a larger narrative context.

• Where is this larger narrative context! What does Gen 28 presuppose as the context? In the preceding, it does not presuppose 28:1-9 (Jacob goes to Paddan-Aram to seek a bride mstead of Haran), but presupposes 27:4 1-45 (to Haran in 27:43. flee-ing from Esau). Afterward, it apparently presupposes the departure (29:1) on the lourney, staying in Haran with Laban, the return trip (29-34), and especially Gen 35 where Jacob is again in Bethel with dea<- reference to our text (appearance of God. protection on the journey, resoluticn of the vow in 35:1,3,7,14). Also, fiight from Esau mentioned in verscs 35:1,7 shows that the contextual connection of 28:1 Off with 27:4 Iff is correct. even though 28:1 Off does not explicitly mention the fiight from Esau. Even the excluded paragraph of 28:1-9 apparently continues in Gen 35, since 35:9 again mentions Paddan-Aram (support.ee by the corresponding promise between 28:3f and 35:1 I). Thus, the text is only a sliče from a larger narrative con­text. Gen 27:4! 45 precedes and following Gen 29-34, individual (but not all) statements in Gen 35 refer back to Gen 28:1 Off,

• Now return to the text again. The question ofthe dominating subject which the Organization determines has to be asked. Apparently: the dominating matenal asser-tion is the appearance of God in the dream (28:12-15) and the reactions of Jacob to that appearance in the morning (28:! 6-22). Confirmation is achieved in the fact that Gen 35:1.3,7,14 recapftulate this subject as the center of Gen 28. Gen 28:10-1 I are the introduction which establish the narrative context (journey Situation) and expound the Situation ofthe dream revelation (cvening, Jacob sponds the night, sleeps),

• The two parts of the dominating subjeets (28:12- 15+ 16-22) can be subdividcd again. One should pay attention to the explicitly changing references between the members. Within the appearance of God in the dream, 28:1 2 expounds the scene of revelation, while in 28:13-15 the appearance of God oceurs as divine speech. The reactions of Jacob are staggered. After awaking, jacob draws severai conclusions from the dream revelation: I) 28:16, without Jacob knowmg it, Y H W H was here, Verse 16 refecs back to 28:1 3. 2) In parallel fashion, 28:17 establishes Jacobs fear because the house of God and the gate of heaven are here, The last element appar­ently refers back to 28:12. 3) in 28:18, Jacob erects the stone that was under his head as a p:Har (massēbāhwhat is that?), which relates to 28:1 I aßb. 4) In 28:19 he names the place Bethel, meaning house of God, which relates to 28:17 and 28:1 I a (note the reference word mdqöro/place). 5) In a final reaction in 28:20-22, Jacob makes a vow for protection (28:20f related to 28:15) on the journey, related to 28:10. In so doing. the vow itself also indicates ercss references: the pillar which had been erected (28:18), the house of God (28:17,19[?]), Goes giving (perhaps 28:20).

• We may capture this insight about the text's Organization and internal references in a chartr?:

' ] p Of course, these insights into the construetion of the narrative have, in whole or in part, already been recognized in the research. This fact does not mean that they cannot be recognized independcmly by careful Observation of the text. Comparc W. Richter. "Das Gelübde als theolo-

Observations 177

10 Jacob on the jou'ney with the intention of returning (cf. 27:44f) 11 I le comes to a place. I I He spends the night in the open air, with a sione as ci prffow 12 He sees a staircose to heaven with messengers ot God 13-15 YHWH speaks to him and promises, among other thlngs,

protection on the way and return 16 YHWH is in this place -

/ 17 Here is the house of God, trte gote of heaven -— — -— ^ . 18 He erects the stone he had used υπ der his heod as a prlar ...

\ ; - 19 He names the p>ace Bethel (^ouse of God) Λ, 20 22 Vow concerning the journey

- — τ Air.ong other thlngs concerns divine proteaion and return - - - -V — The pillar shall be the house cf God

• Giving ofthe Tithe

In spite of the fact that the text presupposes a larger narrative context, the text is a unit by itself within that larger context. It is held together by a symmetrica! const.ru.c- tion of corresponding narrative elements. The symmetrica! axis lies between verses 15 and 16. The construction of (he unit can be described more specifically. In the upper portion of the symmetry, one finds all the threads of Jacobs Situation before ;he onset of the revelatory dream (28:1 Of) and the revelatory dream itself (28:1 2- I 5). In the lower portion, one finds that the narrative threads from above are taken up, in reverse orden in the form of Jacobs reactions to the revelatory dream. Indeea, they are taken up with respect to the dream itself (28:l6f) and Jacobs concrete Situation (28; 18—22). The two-fold division of the units which has been observed is thereby conftrmed again: the introductory exposition of Jacobs Situation (28: lOf) + the revelatory dream (28:12-15) and Jacobs reaction to his Situation (28:16-22). The central material movement ofthe unit is thus God's quali-fying and changing entry into a certain life Situation of Jacob which results in specific reactions of Jacob. Various Strands of this entry can thus be observed: the site of the event. the journey. Jacob after the return (land for him and his descendants, innu-merable descendants who expand spatially in every direetion. and the hoiizon of a positive relationship lo all persons in the inhabitable earth). One must ask the unavoidable question: Where. when. why, and from whom did such an artfuüy and thoughtfully shaped text ariše? The considerations which matenalize here, depend entirely upon the degree of Oid Testament knowledge which one al­ready possesses. Anyone with a basic knowledge of Genesis knows that the text takes piace in the patriarchal period, that it concerns Jacob, and that he represents a semi-nomadic group of people in Palestine who own herds. They also stand at the begmning of a sedentary and agriculture lifestyle. It is less likely that the text, as it lies before us, should be situated in the last third o f t h e second millenium, or that the text is the

gjsche Rahmung der Jakobsüberiieferungcn," BZ N F 11 (1967): 21-52; F.. Otto, "Jakob in Bediel," ZAWWi (1976): 165-190, especially 1721Ϊ.

178

narrative material of this Jacob group. The artistic construetion of the text is just as perplexing as the promises of 28:1 3 -14 which proeeed wel l beyond the experien­tial and expectational horizon of the patnarchal groups. preciseiy because of these promises one might think, at the earliest. ofthe end of the pre-state period, or the bitter experiences of the time of Sauf In Saul's time, these hopes had perspective and rationale, Or one could think of the eary monar-chial period, where the promises became reality, o r even later in the time of Josiah, or the exilic period, or even the post-exilic period where such promises strengthen the expectations. In any case, it was no longer Jacob and his patnarchal group who forrned the hoiizon ofthe text. Rathen it was Israel as a people whose existence, whether supposed or expressed, is grounded here in a divine promise to Jacob, the father of the twelve tribes. But, in these times would one have expressed these thoughts in the conerete form of Gen 28? At that point ('), wou'd one expect that the narrator would simultaneously want to explain ihe meaning of the name Bethel? Is the protection of Jacob on his journey still a problem? Are the notable conerete circumstances of the appearance of God in this place (staircase to heaven for the messengers oiGod, gate of heaven, stone pillar anointed with oil, and even the house of Gocl) still important in these later times? Since Ine time of Josiah and his concentraton ofthe cult in Jerusalem, Bethel as the nouse of God or pillars as cult objeets were out ofthe question! Why, analogously to the sketehier scene of Gen 12:1 4a, is a solemn promise to Jacob, as in 28:! 3 - i 5, not suftlcient for the experi­ential horizon and theological desire of these later times?

Such considerations are achieved through affiiiated knowledge from history and from the theological history of Israel, The exegete should become keenly attentive to peculiar threocfe which the text contains In spite of Its symmetrica!, artistic in-clusiveness. These threads become visible when one returns again to the text and peacefully conceptualizes, considers. and associates 'ts details. For instance: The text apparent!y has two assertiona! interests. On the one hand, it is concerned with Jacob, his trip, and with his (as well as his descendants) more distant future. On the other hand, it is concerned with the manner and provisions with which Bethel was recognized and named as the place of the presence of God. Were both asser­tiona! interests bound together from the beginning? It is also peculiar how the interesi in Bethel is presented in the text. At the stony place where Jacob spends the night, he sees in π dream what this place really (!) con­tains which he did not previousiy know. Α staircase to heaven is placed on the earth here. It is thus the place where God in heaven Visits with the earth through messen­gers. It is thus the gate of heaven. Somewhat hesitantly one can also bring the "house of God" into the picture. The place is the lower entrance to the dweliing of God. it reaches from the earth into the heavens where God lives. Perhaps one thinks of the tower of Babel which provokes one to seek more Information, which perhaps furnishes corresponding analogies (consurt e.g., Reallsxikon derAssyríoíogie. o r the Anđm ß'bfe Dictionary, vol. I , under Babel, vol. I , p. 561 f. for holy ftowse, hoiy gate, the tower of Etemenanki [»comers tone« of heaven and earth] which has Steps). However; how does one account for the fact that in 28:' 3, God vishts w i th Jacob without messengers as mediators7 How does one account for the fact that the stone erectec as a piilar has no evident association with the picture in 28:12,17 (at any rate. /Dfi, vol. .3, 816, shows temple pillars)? How does one account for the

Observations 179

híghly unusual statement in 28:22 that this stone pillar sha;l become a house of God (!) even though Bethel is already the house. of God before the erection of the pillar (28:17)? It $ no less unusual that Jacob is afraid after (I) the extremeiy gencrous promise is communicated to him. Anyone who recogmzes oracular language. or consults the coneordance under "fear" will see that the assertion of fear precedes the oracle (cf LXX to 28:13, one cannot recognize this in BUS, only in the i'-replace-able BHK). it is really puzzling that the text as a whole thinks of a place which is not known for its solitary, complete stones, and which necessrtates spendmg the night in the open. and yet aecording to 28:19, the place is already a city (7r)l Anyone who looks longer at the text comes upon acidiiional conspieuous elements. Many of the threads find no correspondence in reference to the narrative: the mes-sengers of God in 28:12 but not 28; I 3; the erection of the pillow-stone as pillar (28:1 1,18) also in 28:22, but witnout tne anomting ofthe stone (28:18, see however the reference in Gen 31:13 the anomting and the vovv in Gen 28. also Gen 35:14 [addition of drink offering]). Also noteworthy is the change in the designation for God:YHWH in 28:13,16 (cf. 28:21) but Elohim in 28:12,17,20.22 (cf. Beth-El in 28:19). Finally. if there is a difference in the tex t between the appearance of Y H W H and the appearance of the messengers, how does one reconcile that in 28:12 Jacobs dream is associated with the appearance ofthe messengers while Jacobs awaking in 28:16 is associated with the appearance ofYHWH? Must one thus correct the sym­metrica! Schema and relate the first three words of 28:1 6 (and then Jacob awoke from his sieep) to 28:12 (in addition to 28:17) and relate the remainmg statements of 28:16 to 28:13-15? Or, because ofthe disruption in the flow which then appears, does the symmetrica! Schema only belong to the current text in its final form? Also the context demonstrates unusual elements. Jacob names Bethel in 28:19, but again in 35:7 when he builds the altar after his return with reference to Gen 28. and fnally for the third time in 35; 15, apparently in the framework ofthe other contextua! Ime in which tak.es Jacob to Paddan-Aram (28:1-9: 35:9ff, especially verses 10.13.15 where God speaks ('rnr, dbr). Combmed, These peculiar threads make one wonder whe the r everything Stands in the tex t because of a unifying intentional shaping. The self-critical exegete should ask by way of fofow-up whether these threads are only peculiar because of the his­torical distance of our modern demands for a text's log>c and consistency. At any rate, the tex t contains problems which require clarification. One can no longcr answer so simply the questions about the realities of ongm. or questions about the intention, meaning, and effect of the text , as it was first attempted when fasonated by the discovery of the symmetrica! construction.

2. T h e beginner m i g h t cease the observations at this po in t and at tempt to clarify them by enter ing in to the methodological procedures and by f ind ing insight in secondary l i terature. T h e advanced student can attempt even more observations on die text based upon knowledge about the transmission history o f the patriarchal stories ( individual narratives, sagas about the establishment o f the cult, sagas about a place, patriarchal cycles, adoption in to classic penta-teuchal sources). A n advanced student can further investigate the l i terary c r i -tical and transmission historical poss ib i l iües f rom die text. W i t h o u t secondary

180 §11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS E S I N G G E N 28:10-2 2

l i terature, the exegete can b r i n g together observations w h i c h make the threads o f the text at hand understandable based on its history οf development. Examples includc:

Gen 28:1 3 16 (akvays without the first three words, demonstrated in the following with asterisks) speaks of Y H W H and ceates tensions over against its environment: Y H W H rather than Elohim;YHWH instead of the messengers; interesi in Jacob rather than the interest in Bethel; prcmissory speech; the vow as a reaction of the addressee following the admlsslon of a promise is quite singular (as an overvlew of the patriarchal narratives in Genesis shows). There are indeed problems: the re-iationship between 28:1 5 and 28:20 (aoes 28:15 presuppose 28:20 or the other way around?): further, the problem of fear foilowmg the promissory speech. One can offer the supposition that 28:1 3-* 16 entered the text later: Anyone for whom Gen 28; 14 recalis Gen I 2:3 as a characteristic image oftheYahwist will want to delve the question more precisely, because one must examine whether 28:13-* 16 consti-tutes an expansion ofthe text by theYahwistic pentateuchal source ( j ) . Orientation concerning the contents and method of J are required. If one Is already somcwhat familiär with the classic explanations regarclmg source analysis ofthe Pentateuch,-0 one should attempt to progress a little further. The tarv gible style of the Pnestly Writing :s not found in the text The observable alternation of the designation for God, between Y H W H and Elohim, prempts one to examine whether the text represents a conflation of theYahwistic and Elohistic pentateuchal sources. A coherent J section was already found (28:13-i 6*). What eise belongs with it? Gen 28:2 I b again has Y H W H , but the formulation is puzzling, In J, Y H W H has been honoreo since Gen 4- How then can J a'low Jacob to say that only if he returns safeiy will Y H W H become Jacobs God? Slnce the Y H W H cntenon is otherwise lacking, further assignations are difficult, Now for the countcr-.nquiry: What belongs to E? Gen 28; 12 offers Elohim, likewise 28: i 7. Gen 28:12 presupposes Jacobs sleeping, a :ong with the dream. Thus, 28:1 I (and the first three words of 28:16) belongs to E, and 28:18 refers το the sleep. Likewise, 28:20-22 (exduding 28:2 I b) are Elohistic because ofthe designation for God. Gen 28:1 9 remains, It is more difficult. but because of Beth-E/, the assignation to Ε is more likely. Finally, if 28:10 belongs with 28:20 22, as the text observations indicate, then it is Elohistic. However, 28: i 0 presupposes Gen 27:4 i-45 which in tum belongs to Gen 27:1 ff (a Yahwistic text as demonstrated by the designation of YHWH) . This is suspicious. With Gen 28:20-22. Ε presupposes a journey account, but 28:10 is Yahwistic. Has the E-version of the journey account been "broken off" by the meiding of the sources? Gen 28:1 I is also diffcult. Because of the dream in 28:12. as already noted. it belongs to E, but 28:16 belongs to j (Jacob awoke from sleep; this place) relates to 28:1 I . Is 28:1 I then "mixed" from both sources? One cannot however, achieve a division. Further, if J condudes with 28:16. then the place of this promis­sory speech wouid not even be identified in this source, even thoug'n it is expressly

:?0 Sce A. de Pury, "Yahwist ("J") Source, in ABD, vol. 6, p. 1012-1020; A.W. Jenks, "Elohist," in ABD, vol. 2, p. 478-482; and.l. Milgrom, -Pnestly ("Ρ") Source," in ABD, vol. 5, p. 454-461.

Observations 181

mentioned here (28:1 I ?, I 6) in distinction to the J source of Gen 12: i -3 (which is not sttuated). By way of summary: In this attempted explanation, J operates frag-mentarily. Is it likely that two sourres have been combmed into a single text when balanced by the manipulations one would then have to accept? Anyone who has doubt and yet has not sought help in the research may want to consider another way. As a model, one may consider older transmission taken up into a single source. For the moment, set aside 28:13-* 16 in the search for an older transmission, It seems to be a coherent ínsertíon. presumably of Yahwistic origin. The remaining text is also not without problems, above all as observed in 28:19b where the place is a city which was previously named L U Z . Insight from BHH, 23 i (for English. cf.ABD. vol, 1,71 I ; vol. 4, 420). shows that, prior to J, Bethel and the nearby city, Luz, were separated spatialiy and by name. Does 28:19b, which identifies the city; belong then to a text after J? A glance in the concordance under Luz provides the following: Josh 16:2 and 18:13 also separate Bethel and Luz. Judg 1:23 is like Gen 28:19. In the Jacob story, Gen 48:3 clearly relates to the context to which Gen 28; I Off does not belong (28: lff + 35:9ff), as well as 35:6 which. also belongs in this other context (cf. the land of Canaan as in 48:3). The statement in 35:7, which does belong with Gen 28:1 Off, speaks neither of a city, nor of Luz. Thus, perhaps 28:19b also enters the text. later It remains to be considered why, according to 28:1 7, the place of the appearance of God is the house of God, white in 28:22 the pillar will become a house of God only after Jacobs return. Did 28:12+17 and 28:22 originally exclude one another? If yes, which is older? In context of 28:1 1 + 18, the ereetion of the piliow-stone as a pillar in the morning would De entirely unmotivated without the appearance of God, By contrast, one can understand the vow as an expansion to the text, which attaches to 28:18 while the older text ends with 28:1 7- : 9a. The vow arises in a journey setting. and perhaps shifts the evertt so that the place will become a house of God oniy after the return. Does 28:20-22 then first enter when the event is sit-uated in the ''light from Esau? Do these verses, like the fiight journey in 28:10, thus belong to the more extensive Jacob narrative cycle? If so, then there was originally a Jacob story which ineluded 28:1 i -12, the beginning of 28:16, and 28:17-19a. It told how Jacob diseovered in a dream that the place where he spent the night was d holy plate, the house of God, and the gate of heaven, Yet he had not known it previously. It was ihus a story which let Jacob diseover the quality of the cult ste of Bethel and a story which traced the pillar there back to him. Attempting an expianation based upon these observations, one thus suggests In broad strokes three presumed developmental stages for the text:

1. The individual narrative of Jacobs diseovery of the cult site of Bethel. 2. The incorporation of this story into the Jacob cycle which provides the journey

setting and the vow, 3. The expansion ofYHWH's pnomissory speech togetherwith the limited reac-

tion of jacob,

Anyone possessing foreknowledge about the history of religion, or who is informed regarding the archaeological data of Bethel, will not stop with the presumed indi­vidual narrative about Jacob. According to both archaeology and the Old Testament, Bethel (íe>7 beitin) is a pre-Israelite setting. The religious concepnions in the individual

182 §11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S 1 N G G E N 28:10-22

narrative are not original components ofthe patriarchal religion. They are ancient oriental. Aecording to the place name, the divinity is El, which raises a question, Does a Canaanite narrative lie Dehind the Jacob narrative in which the cult site of Bethel was estabhshed by Canaanite worshippers even before the Jacob group?

T h i s is enough of the at tempt o f a historical perspective based upon as-pects o f individual I m a g i n a t i o n ! I t should be restated for encouragement that these aspeets, and others, are completed aecording to the measure o f O l d Tes­tament foreknovvledgc, and by the patienec o l persistent observations and i l lustrat ions. They are completed by w o r k i n g on the text w i t h the help o f a reference work and a coneordance. They make i t possible for the exegete to enter purposefully i n t o the scientific, exegetical, methodological proce­dures. Instead o f Consu l t ing secondary l i terature w i t h o u t one's o w n o p i n -ion , the exegete now approaches it w i t h one's o w n opinions, impressions, and observations. T h e exegete also cri t ically examines the exegete's own , as well as other, interpretations i n order to understand the text historically. I n so doing , however, the exegete continually gives way, i n the course o f the work , to imaginative phases o f historical ou t look based on newly emerging exegetical problems and insights.

C. M E T H O D O L O G I C A L L Y D I R E C T E D P R O C E D L J R E S

Between the previously operative Observation pliase and the phase ofthe method­ologically directed wesligation, the following prelimnary oaicns are suggested:

1. After one has achieved one's own observations on the grven section of the text, it is necessary to attam an. initial overview and an initial expianation of the wider terrain, which will subsequently be treated methodologically. This informative orientation results most readily by gaining insight from introduetory sections of commentaries or reference works. The guidmg question of this orientation is: In which literary, historical, and theological context does the given text stand? The question of the literary context seeks Information about the context in which the text Stands, about the content and development ofthe book in which the text is found, and, as necessary, about the layers of development of this boofc. The question about the historical context seeks onentation about the text's time of Development. Finaliy, the question of the theological context strives for knowledge about the theological conditioning and character of the author or the literary context

In our particular case it is recommended that one seek insight from the introduction to the Genesis commentary of H. Gunkel [HKI I) or G. v. Rad (071) or in the paragraphs on the pentateuch in an introduction to the Old Testament (or in AßD).

2. Assembbng secondary 'literaturo also belongs to the preparation. For this purpose, we referto the bibliographical helps mentioned in §2 A. For Gen 28:10-22, in addition to commentaries on Genesis, one should especially consuit more recent investigations of the text such as Fohren Exegese, 180-220; A. de Pury, Promesse d'Mne et legende cultueile dans »e cycle de Jacob: Genese 28 et /es traditions patriarchdes, MI. 1975; E. Otto, "Jakob in

Methodological ly Directed Procedures 183

Bethel," ZAW 88 (1976): 165-190, In the broader realm of new movements In penta-teuchal literary analysis, one should consult works like H.H. Schmid, Der sogenannte iohwist 1976, and R. RendtoiiT, The Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch '(see §4011). Receritly, Rendtorff, "JaKob in Bethel." ZAW 94 (1982): 5 I I 523: and very thoroughly, E. Blum, Die Komposition derVätergeschichie,VVMANT 57, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1984, 7-35, have treated this text from the perspective o f these new movements. The most recent contributions are: J. Van Seters, Prohgue to History:TheYahwisi as His­torien in Genesis, Louisviüe, I 992, 288-307: and S. McEvenue, "A Return to Sources in Gen 28:10-22?" ZAW ; 06 (1994): 375-389,

3, The fact that one now gathers secondary literature, by no means implies that one begins the various sections of the methodologically directed work with a review of that literature. The theses of this literature would too strongly predispose one's own judg-ment and hmder the development of one's own view. Rather, i l is emphatically recommended that one proeeed as follows: First, with the help of the methodological In­structions, the exegete attempts to produce the necessary clarifications. In a broader step, one then consuits literature on the respective methodological question, Finally, in a third step, one forms a reasoned judgment in light ofthe literature.

I . Text Cr i t i c i sm

According to the procedures which are given. above in §3 . " ' the process is evident and not difficult to perform in the case of our text. After confirming the condition of the transmitted text in ßHK, which only offers variants in non-Hebrew versions, examina­tion and decisions are easy. In light ofthe criteria mentioned, there is no cause to devi-ate from the MT Anyone using the BHS edition of Genesis, can certainly not create any greater picture of tne text transmission, and has nothing ιο decide text critically. The editor has decided for the exegete and not made known a Single variant! Instead, anyone who has a lot of time can decode the marginal notes ofthe masora which BHS offers in abundance, The exegete may want to discover the exegetical results for himself/herseif!

I I . T h e Question of* the Text's Development

T h e exegete is already driven to the question of the text's development i n the imaginative phase by one's o w n observations and attempts at clarifica-tion p r io r to entering the exegetical w o r k . 3 " T h e l i terary cri t ical , transmission historical , and redaction historical investigation belong to the question o f die text's development ." ' N o w i t is time, w i t h the aid o f methodological I n ­s t ruct ion in this area, to aequire a scientif ìcal ly grounded judgment , wh ich is demonstrable and achievable.

221 See above, page 41 ff. 222 See above, §11 Β Π (ρ. 175ff). 221 Comparc above. § 1 C II (p. 15) and §4 Λ I (ρ. 47ff).

184 §11 T U E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

1. L i t e r a ry Cr i t i c i sm in connection with ine above mentioned commentaries on approach and method,27*

one should begin with the question ofîhe literary integrity, and one should proceed through the text with the given series ol criteria. It appears that Gen 28:1 Off offers an übundance cf indicators of literary d-sunity:

a. Doublets (e.g. 28:16/17: recognition of the holiness of the place; 28; 12/13: two ap-pearances; 28:15/20Í: piomise/condftion of vow).

b. Double or multiple transmission η Genesis (e.g. the naming of Bethel in 28:19; 35:7; and 35:15),

c. Secondary parenthetical statements (e.g. 28:2 I b; equating Y H W H and Elohim; See "g" below).

d. Tensions in vocabulary (e.g. the end of 28:I 4: posibon; 28:2 Î b: position and context ofthe statement).

e. Differences in manner of speech and style (28:15: protection on principal; 28:20: protection on the way now, Gen 28:22b, 2ms address).

f. Differences of historical background (possibly: anointed pillar in 28:18 over against the religious qualilication of the site differentiated in 28:13,17, but one must exam­ine the contextual possibility religio-historically, based on bible dictionaries, en-cyclopedias, and concordances. etc.;YHWH speaks in 28:13, which is contrasted with God's appearance in 28; 12,17, etc.).

g. Elements specific to iayers or sourees (such as J's use o f Y H W H in 28:13,16; Elohim in 28:12,17,20,22 In the patriarchal time for Ρ [which is excluded here styüstically] or E; the dream in 28:12 for E; Haran in 28:10 according to the context of 27:4 I ff for J; 28:14 for J according to 12:3, etc.).

h. Tensions of content (e.g. Bethel is the house of God according to 28: Î 7f; but ac­cording to 28:22 the pillar will become the house of God after the return).

These indicators can be evalaated in the sense of literary disunity. They can also be presurnably substantiated at this point, first by the names of God. according to the usual pentateuchai hypothesis as portions of J anc E. This attempt was made already in the phase of historical outiook- , ? s Insight gleaned (Tom secondary literature shows that this kind of division of the text by J and Ε is hlghly debated today;

According to the //m;íoíions attached to §4 above,'2 6 it is actually doubtfu! whether aeeepting the conflation of two source texts in the present text provides a completely satisfâctory substantiation (cornpare especially limitations"c" and " f " ) . Above all, the his­torical outlook phase already demonstrated the fragmentary eharacter of the presumed J-version and the difficulty of coordinating the individual verses literary critically. If one is iTioved atall into the field of classical pentateuchai analysis (see also the advance ofRend-torff in light of Gen 28, In Tbe Problem vi Transmission, 57IT.68ff, 108ff, 140ff, and ZAW 94 [ 1982]: 5 I I 523; and Blum), then one must choose between a JE connection in Gen 28 or aeeeptance of a iiterariiy disunified base text which has been expanded by 28:13aß-15

See above, p. 5 3ff. ^ See above, ρ. 180ff. Ì26 See above, p. 55ff.

Methodologica l ly Direc ted Procedures 185

(Rendtorff, Blum) or by further addrtlons (Fohrer, Exegese, 182-185). This decision de-pends upon: I) which image one makes on the basls of methodological preconceptions about the literary development ofthe Pentateuch, 2) how, using traditionai pentateuchal source theory, one decides about the state, flow, and profile of J and/or E, wrth respect to the text of Gen 28: or 3) upon the transmission historical investigation vvhicn one must first undertake aecording to the limftations of c) and f) in §4 Β II 2 (p. 55ff.).

Because ofthe confusion which dominates current research regaraing point"!," one must abandon a really lustifìed literary categorization in the framework of an indi­vidual study of Gen 28:1 Off. Since tne recent investigations of Rendtorff and Blum establish a literary model ofthe Pentateuch without the traditional source writings, we will execute the Illustration in that which follows under the working hypothesis of clas­sic Pentateuchal anaiysis, without clainvng a decision.

A d d i t i o n for the A m e r i c a n / E n g l i s h Ed i t i on

It should be emphasized once again that § I I does not intend to present a new thesis about the origin of Gen 28:10-22. Rather § I I intends to illustrate an exegetical technique with fluid possibikties. A new thesis about. this text would have to consider tocay's more well known difficuties before one could find the classic Pentateuchal sources,Yahwist and Elohist, in this t ex t The reason is clear since the explanatory model executed ,rt §1 I shows that J has been reeeived only fragmentarily, while Ε dominates, which is an excep-tion to the rule (see below, ρ. 186). Α new investigation of the text might come to a simpler result without presuming the classic sources of the Pentateuch. I am indebted to my assistant, K, Schmid. for the comments which he provided: ( I ) The beginning of the text's development consists of an independent individua: narrative: 28:1 If, 16 (the first. three words). 17 19a. (2) This individual narrative was then adopted into the Jacob Cycie by 28:20-21 a,22a (28:21 b,22b are more recent expansions to the Jacob Cycle). (3) Later, in connection to a larger literary work (presentation ofthe ancestral period or the primal history + the ancestral penod, or lai"ger still?), a theological accentuation in the sense of Gen I 2:1-3; I 3:14-17 was undertaken by Gen 28:1 3- 15,16 (the remain-ing words).

2. An t i c ipa t ing the Transmission Historical Approaeh 2 - '

a. The Material

The literary critical investigation has not yet decided whether Gen 28:13 * I6 (henceforth called the J version) is pari of a Yahwistic version along with 28:1 1-12, the beginning of 16, 17 22 (henceforth prelimmarily called version A), For this reason, the transmission historical question should be addressed as necessary to both possibly lit-erarily independent versions. One must also consider the prophetic reference in Hos

I 2:5,7, as insight from secondary literature or coneordance work on Bethel or Jacob in-dicates. If Hos 12:5,7 ;s also literarüy independent of the Genesis account. then one finds three written references to the same event which are literarüy independent of one another They must go back to a common older transmission.

227 Secibovc, §4 (p . 55f).

186 §11 T I I E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

The next element is a comparison. All three references inelude the appearance of God to Jacob in Bethel white on a journey that necessitates a return. It is noteworthy, however, that God does not appear ;n version A. and says nothing, According to tne pro-ceedings in 28:12,17f. Jacob niakes a vow, and only there does it speak of protection on tne journey. In J, by contrast, the protection of Jacob whiie traveling is the subject of God's promissory speech. Is that an older thread? Everything depends upon Hos I 2:5.7. if one glances at the text commentaries, and secondary literature regarding the Jacob transmis­sion in Hosea?® shows a text critically problematic passage. In Hos 12:5, if one decides with many for the Solution, 'immö, then Hosea knows a version of the transmission in which God speaks with Jacob in Bethel, as with J. Indeed, the content would agree with J in the assurance that Jacob will surely return with the help of his God (I 2:7)1

/Λ Observations a?ui Initial Decisions-9

The question of how one should evakiate this agreement of J and Hos over against A depends on whether Hos 17:5,7 stems from Hosea (Northern Kingdom), and whether it is independent o i the J formulation. o r relatedly, independent from the current form of Gen 28:1 Off. An excursus into Hosea and the development ofthe book of Hosea is necessary for clarilication. if one decides for Hoseanic origin. then J and Hosea oller ein o/der thread of transmission with the promise of a return during the appearance of God. This thread is missmg in A. or relatedly. it appears in the vow. What did this transmission thread bok like prior to the written versions? Again, individual comparison is necessary. All versions, induding the vow in A, have " r e tu rn " (šûb), but they differentiate the goal. J hds" : n this land" (28:15, cf 28:13). A has To the house of my fathe<""(28:2l).j and Λ also share promises of assistance and protection (28:15,20), whereby I is formulated more ba-sically ("wherever you go"). Is this formulation also an older thread? In deciding, two Problems come together:

1. Is J formulated on the basis of A? Is it thus. as supposed, an expansion, apart from the promise of the return? If one seeks parallel references to the individual promissory elements in 28:13-15 with the help of concordance wor*. and then arranges these liter­ary critically and redaction critically according to the source profile, then one discovers extensive J images with the expansive horizon, To this search, one adds simuitaneously tne literat agreements η the formulations of 28:20· 22. unoer expansion (fand instead of father's house) and generalization ("wherever you go"; reason in 28:1 5b). This Observa­tion can suggest the decision that there was not an independent J version. Rather, J presupposes A and eniarges it wi th I 3-* 16. However, one must add the limtation that J also found a divine speech in A, which has now been subsumed in I 3 * I 6, and at any rate. A contained a promise of return. Or was there still more?

2. Is J dependent upon A? If so, then the promise of assistance and protection for the return is only given in the reference of 28:20 (A). The problem now is: Did ] adopt this promise f rom version A in 28:20 or did version A already contain this promise in the

--8 Cornpare. e.g. J . Jeremias. Der Prophet Hosea, A T D , Göttingen, 1983, p. 148,154; Blum, Die Komposition der Vätergeschichte, p. 18,161 ff; H.D. Neef, Die Heilstraditionen Is­raels in der Verkündigung des Propheten Hosea, B Z A W 169, Berlin, 1987.

See above, §4 (p. 55f).

Methodological ly Di rec ted Procedures 187

divine speech which is now subsumed under 28 :13 15? That means: Can the divine speech in vers ion A have contained both the promise of retum, assistance, and protec­tion which is present in the appearance of God as weil as the formulation ofthe vow? Here literary criticism and transmission history must incorporate form criticism as a check/''" What eise do the formulations of the vow presuppose? The result (cf. Otto, "jakob in Bethel." 170ff, with literature): By genre, Gen 28:20-21 a,22 is a thoroughgoing vow formulation. However, in parallel instances (e.g, Judg 11:1 Sam 1: 2 Sam i 5 ) , this genre does not presuppose a promise that was taken up in the vow. Thus, version A cannot have contained the divine promise together with the v o w in 2 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 . The pos-sibility of both is excluded! If J only expanded A, then J wouid have taken the parallel promise from 28 :20-22 . and arnved at a thread (divine speech with promise) by üterary means which is also independently attested in Hosea. That scenario Is highly unlikely!

T h e explanatory attempts employed thus far must be correctcd to the degree that one agrees w i t h die expressed understanding o f Hos 12:5-7. Since J and Hosea, independently reflect a promissory divine speech to Jacob in Bethel, i t must be an older thread which A expunged in favor of the secondary formulat ion o f a vow. That means:) does not depend on the A version. Rather, J processes an older Transmission independently, even i l one can only recognize this transmission as J h i n g behind 28:10,13—*16 i n the present text . Aecord ing to Hosea, the older transmission contains die promise o f r e tu rn and (because o f the independence o f A and J ) i t also contains the promise o f assistance and p ro ­tection. However, this promise was not expanded and generalized as w i t h J, but was related explici t ly to the journey as s t i l l present in As secondary version o f the vow.

3. Re turn to the L i t e ra ry Cr i t ica l Approaeh

O n the basis of the transmission historical work. the reiationship of both versions in Gen 28:1 Off can now be deaded. Expectations that J only expanded an older version rnust be corrected. Both versions are iiterarily independent of one another:

The idenîificarjon of these versions, as expounded at the conclusion of " I " . de-pends upon preiiminary decisions. If one uses the classic pentateuchal analysss as the basis, which admittedly is not an easy task today, then one must certify the condition, the course (the pillar shall become the house of God in 28 :22 [E] which antieipates 35:7 [E]), and the profile of J and E. That certification determmes that version A belongs to the Elohistic source, and that version J belongs to theYahwistic source which is here incorporated fragmentarily into the text of Gen 28. The accusation that the assignation ol 28:1 3 and 2 8 ; * 16 to J was produced formally and preüminarily, based solely on the enterion of the divine name, can be rejected by additional data in the text. One can be ofthe opinion that. on the one hand, the appearance o f Y H W H speaking m 28; 12-17 excludes the conceptualization of the heavenly ladder with messengers on the other

-Ό See above, §4, p, 55f.

188 §11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

hand. Either Y H W H encounters Jacob directly or the encounter results indirectly through God's messengers at the gate of heaven. However then the thesis of Blum (ρ.

I I) becomes doubtful, namely that 28:12+13 are formulated as the content of the dream and form a indivisible climax (heavenly Hadder, messenger YHWH's presence. and the same chiastically in 28:i6f). Furthc; the numinous quality ofthe location was dis-covered by Jacob. That discovery was reported twice, in 28; 16 and 28; I 7. Once it was a surprising discovery of Jacob, the second t m e it was a frightening discovery. Is that a climax (Rendtorff Blum)? it is much more likely a doublet.

This conc!us:on can be strengthened by incorporating investigations from tne sec­ondary literature for the written sources. In so doing. one asks to what degree the ver­sions in Gen 28 agree with the tendencies of the sources stykstically (cf. Fohren Exegese, 186ff). form criticaliy (note the orade style of 28; I 3- 15), regarding the tradition histori­cal background, and in respect to the means of processmg a transmission and particular tendencies (j expands and generali7.es considerably in 28: i 3-151). Also, research results concerning the status ofthe historical Identification of the sources should be considered.

4. Transmission His tor ical Analysis Ehe work has established, however, using vaci l la t ing l i te rary criticaJ pre-

mises, that one should proceed from three l i t e r a rüy independent witnesses to the transmission: version J, version E, Hosea 12 . ' " T h e f o l l o w i n g decisions have been necessary:

• T h e older transmission also offered a divine speech w i t h i n the framework o f an appearance o f G o d . E's e l imina t ion of the appearance in lavor o f the formulat ion o f a vow is secondary.

• T h i s divine speech is not identical w i t h 28:13-15 where one encounters J's o w n fo rmula t ion (compare, e.g. O t t o , "Jakob i n Bethel ," 178). T h e pre-l i terary content o f the transmission only included the promise o f a r e tu rn ( J ,E , Hosea) and the promise o f assistance and protect ion ( J+E) .

Ehe subscquent transmission historical questions should at least be sketched. T h e chief problem is: W h a t d id the pre- l i terary transmission o f the divine speech look like?

The j fragment and Hosea offer no further evidence beyond the journey setting and Bethel as the place ofthe event. One should note that ali three literarily independent ex-amples (Hosea, j , and also Ε) situate the event in a journey setting for Jacob. This thread must belong to the pnefterary stage. From ths Observation one deduces that the preiit-erary transmission, "Jacob in Bethel" was not an isolated narrative when rt entered the wntfen examples. Rather. it was part of a larger narrative enuty, a Station in the presenta­tion of Jacobs joumey: Even this larger entity must be ascertained more closely, psMnclpally

' J 1 One should of course include Gen 35 in die transmission historical analysis. Compare, de Purv. Promesse divine, 528fif; Otto, "Jakob in Bethel," p. 179ff; Blum, Die Komposition der Väter-ef schiebte, p. 7 ff, 3 5 ff. We cannot treat this problem for reasons of spare.

Methodologica l ly Direc ted Procedures 189

by companng the jacoD transmission appertaining to the sources (j. E, R Hosea) as a whole as well as the analyt'c and synthetic determination of their pre-literary transmis­sion, In practical terms, one would meorporate a crrtical consideration ofthe existing research results. One would move toward a pre-literary Jacob-Esau-Laban cycle to which the pre-Israelite transmission of Gen 28 belonged prior to the transcription in sources, or its adoption in a prophetic speech (cornpare Noth, PentateuchalTraditions. 79ff;de Pury; Otto, "Jakob in Bethel," 182ff: but also the first major section of Blum, Die KomposiVon der Vätergeszhichte). The divine speech, wrth its promises regarding the Situation, is apparently connected witn this transmission layer and its setting in Jacobs journey.'3'

Is the oldest transmission stage thus attained? Has this Jacob-Bethel transmission behind Gen 28 thus always been a component of this cycle (so de Pury;though a glance through the literature shows most rescarehers dilTer)?The fact that the text then has two goals (the justfication ofthe holiness and the naming of Bethel as well as the protection of Jacob on his journey) is puzzling, Nevertheless, the answer to this question essentially depends upon whether one can detect the shape of an even older individual story which was independent pnor to the ineorporation into the cycle. Since j and Hosea offer no additional evidence, one can only concentrate upon the Ε version in the transmission his­torical shape for this eariier story. Only a comprehension ofthe form critical approach can take us further at this essential point It must provide Information as to whether the contour ofthe genre of an individual narrative is víslbíe. : í i

5. An t i c ipa t i ng the Fo rm Cri t ica l Quest ion regarding the Pre- l i terary Shape o f the Transmission o f Gen 28:1 Off

The subject ofthe inquiry is the transmission historical form of Gen 28 within the cycle, as ascertainec to this point the Situation of Jacobs jouTey + 28:1 1 1 2 + the divine promise + 28:17-19a. Whether the journey setting and the promise related to it belong to an older isoiated narrative is questionable since they presuppose the cyc'e.

If one does not simply inferthe answer from secondary literature, the question re­garding the shaping genre of the individual narrative can be purposefully placed by observmg the shape of the designated contents in some circumstances. Thus, one fmds: naaative, patriareha: hero, material center In a location which was diseovered by the pa-triarch as a place of divine presence: indicators ofthe presence (28:12+17); cultic fixtures (pillar); therefore the. naming (28:19a). Bible knowledge or concordance work (looking under holy places m Old "testament narrative books) leads to parallel references. Basic knowledge of the Old Testament md'cates that these elements concern etiologically shaped sagas about cult establishment. Cornpare Gunkel, Einleitung, §2; Fohrer, introduc­tion. § I2,6;W.H. Schmidt. 7he Faith ofthe Old Testament, ρ. 22T, etc.

If one determines the genre at this point by the helps p r w d e d above in §77 M which cannot be done here for reasons of space. then a comparison with other place name eti-ologies and cult diseovery sagas from the early period of Israel shows the following: In the cycle form of Gen 28, the genre of an individua! saga is mdeed foundational. Its focal

2i2 The Inversion ot the promise into a vow in 28:20-22 is first situated in die transmission stage before F. or in Ε itself. Cornpare Ottos discussion.

253 Comparc §7 above. 2 Η See above, ρ. 106ff.

190 §11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

points unfold in the appearance of God to the founder ofthe cuit at a supposedly pro­fane iocation (28: i I-Í 2), and the founder's reaction and establishment ofthe cuit (28: 17-18), and the logica! naming ofthe hoiy iocation (28:19a). Thus, we encounter here an older individua! narrative associated with Jacob.

6. Re turn to the Transmission His tor ica l Analysis T h e fo rm cri t ical explorat ion has provided evidence that t l ie cycle

adopted an oldcr individual rratrative w h i c h to ld how Jacob unexpectedly expe­rienced the appearance o f G o d (28:12) in Bethel (28:11), how he recognized the quali ty o f the site (28:17), ereeted the pi l lar (28:18), and nameti the Io ­cation the "house o f G o d " / B e t h e l because o f the appearance (28:19). T h e relationships to a jourrvey setting, and perhaps the divine speech associated w i t h the journey setting as wel l , probably d id no t belong to this individual nar­ra t ive . ' ' 5

Has the tronsmtsikm historical statüng point of Gen 28:1 Off now been reached? The exegete would perhaps answerthe question affirrriatively. However, if one re-

calis the presuppositions from the histonca! overview, and if one resolved the question in the procedura! step of the historical setting (§9), then the exegete knows that Bethel was a pre-lsraelite sanetuary and already existed in the patriarchal period. If one ad-dressed tradition history (§8) to this individual narrative, tnen on the basis of the his­tory of religion, one is compelled to conciude that 28:1 1-12, 28:17-18, and no less so the name Beth-el (= house of El) contain pre-lsraelite coneepts from the ancient orien-tal Canaanite realm. The only (proto-)lsraelite element in the individuai narrative appears in the form of Jacob and perhaps the manner of reference to Elohim instead of Fl. These observations suggest the conelusion that the origin of the individual narrative was initiolly the Concicnite cuit etioiogy for the Canaanite sanetuary of Bethel.

This narrative may be the transmission historical beginning. However, observations from the history of religion in the framework of §8 allow one to consider, along with many researehers.2-5 whether there is yet or, older coneept associated with Bethel at work in the transmission. Tension between statements about the pillar and 28:1 2+ 17, as well as 28:22, imply the divmity of the place was not thought to dwell in heaven. like the Canaanite deity, but in the pillar of Bethel. Gen 28:22 then contained an older reference adopted secondanly into the vow.

7. T h e Transmission His tor ica l Synthesis O u t l i n i n g the work for the individual transmission stages, aecording to

the Instructions i n § 5 : 1 ? and the corresponding procedural step i n the h i s to r i ­cal setting, provides the fo l lowing:

2W For the question of the transmission historical relationship to Gen 35. see the literature mentioned above in toomote 231.

Cf. VAlaag: "Der Hieros Logos V O D Bcth-El" (1951), in Maag, Kninu; Kukurkontakt und Religion, Göttingen, 1980. ρ. 29-37; V Maag. "Syrien-Palästina," in Kulturgeschichte des Alten Ori­ents. H . Schmökei, ed, Stuttgart, 1961, p. 448-605 (especially 563ff); H. Donner, "Zu Gen 28,22." 7AW 74 (1962): 68-70; W.H. Schmidt, Faitb ofthe Old 'íesumient, ρ. 24.

- '}" See above, p. 69ff.

Methodologica l ly Directed Procedures 191

a. The oldest traces ofthe transmission o f Gen 28:1 Off possibly poin t in to the pre-Canaanite megalitbic culture o f Palestine ( V Maag). These traces teli about die d iv in i ty which was worshipped in Bediel at that time. I t was ineorporated in the pi l la r wh ich was ereeted by an apparently giant person (cornpare Gen 6:1-4, etc.). One should inelude In format ion about the pre-Canaanite inhabi-tants o f Palestine and their megali thic cul ture (catchwords: pillars, dolmen, "giants," inhabitants o f Palestine).

b. T h e narrative attains its first tangible transmission form when the sanetu-ary of Bethel beeaine cult site ofthe Canaanites, who worshipped F.l o f heaven there. T h e y saw in Bethel the place o f the association wi th his messengers for his work on earth. They saw Bethel as the house o f E l and the gate o f heaven. Narra t ive thrcads associated w i t h the place f rom die pre-Canaanite per iod became integrated. One should inelude In format ion about the Canaanite set­t lement o f Palestine and about die conceptualizations o f Canaanite re l ig ion .

c. W i t h its strides in to the land west o f die Jordan (cornpare the historical analysis o f die Jacob transmission in the secondary l i terature) , die proto-Israelite Jacob group also adapted die sanetuary o f Be the l . ' ' 3 T h e y ident i l ied E l , who was worshipped there, w i t h their own ancestral god. T h e y ineorporated die const i tut ing patriarch o f their group as the one who established the cult. I n this sense they took over the Canaanite cult et iology as the isolated narrative o f Jacob. As a check, one should examine analogous transmission historical p ro ­cesses elsewhere in the Jacob and patnarchal transmissions.

d. Accord ing to the examined analysis, the next transmission stage is the further development until the point of adoption ir/toj, E. and Hosen.

First, one must determine the shape, position, and function of the individual narrative in the Jacob-Esau-Laban Cycle, which itself reeeived various influences over the course of t ime, ' 3 9 This determination is necessary especially since, according to the normal analysis of the Pentateuch, this cycle first entered into complete association with the patriarchal transmissions. With those patriarchal transmissions it also entered into complete association with the transmissions directed to Israel from the patriarchal period to the conquest. In a different form, rt was then taken up by J and later E. Wi th consider-able certainty, it was during this process that the journey setting čame into the narrative, and perhaps also the journey promise in the divine speech, The focal point changes from Bethel to Jacob. and indeed progressively to Jacob as a member of the mcreasingly nar-rated salvific history of Israel. It is still another problem whetnerthe replacement ofthe divine speech by the vow was aecomplished in this Strand ofthe transmission process or by E.2 4 D It is only possible to make this very difficult area more precise, o r t o reach one's own responsible and considered conclusions, by means of tedious and extensive invesli-gations of the entire jacob transmission, the transmission history of the Pentateuch, and

238 The historical interpretation of the transmission historical relationship to Gen 55 allows one to make these perceprions more precise. See Otto.

- · * ' Cornpare the extensive iiivcstigations of de Pury and Otto about this problem. -'*> Sce above, footnote 132.

192 § 11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

the history of Israel. A s a rule, the exegete must rely entirely upon the results of sec­ondary literature, and make a reasoned choice when possible. From the most recent literature, one would place de Pury, Otto and McEvenue on one side and B'um, Rend-torff, and Van Seters on the other side.

8. T h e Redaction His tor ica l Approach I f one directs the synthetic perspective o f the development o f the trans­

mission onto the realm o f w r i t t e n conveyance, then one asks the redaction historical q u e s ü o n ( § 6 ) . 2 4 1 Accord ing to the l i terary cri t ical results already as­certained, one should treat the fo l l owing (under the w o r k i n g hypothesis o f classic Pentateuchal Sources). O n the one hand, one should treat the adoption o f the Jacob-Bethel transmission w i t h i n the Jacob cycle or even w i t h i n the larger context o f the patriarchal per iod to the conquest in J and E. O n the other hand, one should achieve redaction historical aspeets for Gen 28 f rom the subsequent redactional layers o f die l i te rary development o f the Pentateuch ( J E , J E J , r , JEP), and also situate the additions o f 28:19b and 28 :2 lb .

The task appears extensive, but it is considerably reduced in practical terms since this expanded problem would have to take up explanations ;n ihe secondary literature. However, widely accepted explanations do not exist. Already with the transmission realm between ihe individual narrative and the written source. the exegete of the text entered largely uncertaln terrain. In the redaction historical realm everything related to Ε is widely debated. The normal dating (H.H. Schmid,'Van Seters) and existence (Rend-torff. Blum) of J has been called into question. Moreover virtually nothing Is known about the material profile and the treatment of the subsequent redactional stages.

The adoption into Ε can only be distinguished with difficulty from the state of the ex­isting transmission available to E. And the research produces very different attempts regarding the flow ofthe context, the profile ofthe context. and especially the assigna-tion of the vow in 28:20-22. : ' u As a resuit, the adoption into j should be particularly investigated. If one adheres to this written source in the usuai manner in spite of the cur­rent discussion,''1' then one shows that J indicatcs a framing function in his nairative text of the jacob-Bethei scene.3'1'1 Above ali, the existing divine premise to jacob yields Infor­mation- about the great promissory orade of 28:13 15 in light of rts strueture. Namely; ali of the essential promises to this point in J's presentation of the patriarchal period are here concentrated on jacob, the father ofthe twelve tribes, the father of Israel. Ffere the in­teresi :n the sanetuary of Bethel has been completely displaced by a continumg interest: presentingYHWH's designation of Israel. J makes this designation using promissory ora-cles in the patriarchal story; Ali of these promissory oraeles pregress toward 28:13-' 5 as

241 Sec above, pp. 7 5 ff. 242 Regarding the Jacob story in F., cornpare the discussions in the recent works of de Pury,

Ptvmesse divine, p. 51W, and Otto, "Jakob in Bethel,'' ρ. 182ff. 245 Cornpare Old Testament introduetioas. Rendtorff arrives at different determinations for

the promises of 28:13-15 on the basis of his new methodological thrust. Likewise, Blum does tbe same.

244 Cornpare Otto, "Jakob in Bediel." ρ. I82i"f.

Methodological ly Directed Procedures 193

the climax ofthe patriarchal promises ;n j : the promise of land for Jacob and his descen­dants (cf. 12:1; I 3; I 5);the promise of mcrease (cf. 12:2; I 3:1 6);the promise ofthe means of blessmg for all nations (cf. I 2:3).M The fragmentary condition of J in 28:1 Off only allows one to offer supposrtons about the complete form of the transmission Dased upon 28:13-* 16 and 28:10/'^

The Yehowistic (JE) redaction would have been an important redaction critical process which decisively shaped the existing form of Gen 28:10-22. In this case. it essen-tiaily transmitted the Ε version (because it was more concrete?). From j , theYahwistic redaction only included the following: 28:10 as the introduction because ofthe j context which served as tne fou.ndation;the promissory speech which was missing in E; and in 28:16. The fact that these sections were incorporated organically without a violent tech-nique appears to be a process which was historically possible.2^7

T h e illustrative text o f Gen 28:10-22 at this po in t requires that one be satisfied w i t h suggestions, and causes one to give way to excerpted use of the leading questions developed i n §6 . T h e reason: one must have clari ty regard-i n g the larger l i terary context and especially regarding the pre-l i terary and the l i terary history o f development of the Pentateuch. l n the concrete case o f a work on this text, one must make a pre l iminary decision between various models.

Ι Π . T h e Question o f the Presuppositions o f the Stages o f Gen 28:10-22

Tn §1 i t w-as demonstra ted 2 4 8 that this related area o f questions included three fields o f investigation: fo rm cr i t ic ism (§ 7), t rad i t ion his tory (§8) , and the historical setting (§9) . Because these procedures presuppose considerably detailed study, the exegete must already f o r m one's own observations and i m -pressions in the imaginative phase at the beginning o f one's work , even though less extensively than w i t h the l inguis t ic observations o f the text. These ques­tions must be asked for each o f the text's developmental stages wh ich have been ascertained, to the degree that they are visible i n the text. W e must here l i m i t ourselves to an illustrative problem for each approaeh wh ich can demonstrate the procedure.

245 One must here excludc the particular problem which the unusual portion of 28:14a pre-sents for transmission history and redaction history.

246 De Pury, Promesst divine, p. 87-344,5 lVff, offers a diorough investigation oi the outline of the Yahwistic transmission.

-+7 The Observation of die synmieuical conespondence of dre narrative elements is appar-ently important for the growtli of die transmission of Gen 28, as already demonstrated iu the historical overview (see the ehart above, p. 177). This principle of symmetrical shaping, which organically ineorporates the changes to the transmission in our case, appears to have been widely praedced in Ancient Israel. For example, it is used in Gen 1 and Isa 1:21-26, texts which are liter­arüy and transmission historically unítìed,

24» See above, §1 C (ρ. 14f;'ef. 95 ff. 121).

194 §11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

1. T h e F o r m Cri t ica l Approaeh I f one looks back at the development o f Gen 28:1 Off, then the individual

story may have already had a fixed l inguis t ic shape that w o u l d also have re-mained fixed i n the subsequent stages. Elements f rom the h is tory o f r e l i g ion and t rad i t ion his tory be longing to this early phase suggest as much . I f so, i n ­vestigation o f the linguistic shape o f the individual transmission stages, the first component question o f fo rm cri t ic ism ( § 7 ) , : 4 9 must already begin in the realm o f oral transmission.

T h e determination of the gcnre2i0 for each o f those transmission stages wh ich were added du r ing the w o r k was already indicated above for the Ca­naanite narrative and for the individual Jacob narra t ive . 2 , 1 T h e fo rm cri t ical investigation o f the subsequent transmission stages should note that the o r i g i ­nal dominant genre, "etiological saga o f the founding o f a cui t , " is on ly just a component genre i n the con t inu ing transmission. T h i s ehange corresponds to a displacement in the life setting. Because i t entered the Jacob cycle, the i n ­dependent cui t narrative became part o f a larger narrative en t i ty w h i c h now forms the framing genre. Accordingly , the life set t ing is no longer a circle o f worshippers and the cuit i n Bethel. Rather, i n g r o w i n g measure, the l i i e -setting is Israel w h i c h reaffirms itself f rom its own his tory and w i t h i n this his­to ry by the transmission o f the patriarch Jacob i n Bethel. Correspondingly, the transmission o f Jacob in Bethel , w h i c h is thus incorporated and evidenced, could be expanded bv additional component genres. J does so by the oracle o f 2 8 : 1 3 - 1 . V , J while Ε does so th rough the vow (28:20,2la,22).

This vow can serve as an example of form critica! investigation. Transmission history demonstrated that this passage joined the older transmission form and changed it. It is thus an expansion text which presupposed the preceding narrative of Jacob in Bethel.2 5 3

in spite of this insight into the limits, the text materiaily represents a self-enclosed process, which for its part, demands, however, that fulfiilment of the vow also be nar-raled t i the tontinuation. This recognition conlirms the transmission historical fmding that the passage belongs with the narrative contexts beyond the isolated story.^ One can clearly recognize three parts regarding the question of the süuetute αικί (he struc-turai components: an introduction which the subsequent process qualifies as a vow (28;20a); a direct speech which the formulation of the vow offers literally in two parts. The first part is a conditional clause with an imperfect verb introduced with 'im. It names the condrtions for redemption (28:20b.2la), The second part is a vow promise (28:21) introduced with wehöyüh atthe beginning of 28:21b.

249 See above, p. 102ff. Extensive invcsrieations of the linguistic shape of Gen 28:10-22 are fonnd in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 1 Soff.

250 See above, p. 106ff. 251 See above, p. 188f. 252 Regarding the genre, see H. -M. Dion, "The Patriarchal Traditions and die Literary form

of the »Oracle of Salvaüon«," CBQ 29 (1967): 198-206; de Pury, Prvmesse divim; 209ff. 253 See above, p. 189, footnote 232, and p. 190f. 2H See above, p. 190f.

Methodologica l ly Di rec ted Procedures 195

A certain perspective on the subject is thereby given. The subject is Jacobs future founding of the sanctuary and practice of tithing. It does not concentrate on the details of the preparation. nor on the immediate circumstances. Rather. it is an important promise associated with a stipulation. The significance of this stipulation underscorcs tne journey of Jacob as the primary Interest ofthe person speaking. Even this journey, however is not seen comprehensively in all possible aspeets (trave! route, encounters and adventures on the journey). Rather, the journey is seen from the perspective ofthe time m sojourn which conceals dangers within It. Therefore. the time of sojourn should be a time of the safekeeping of life and of return: protection, sustenance, clothing.

Is a genre. present? In this instance, the procedure is simple. The formulation ofthe introduction of 28:20a shows that one should inquire about vows. Genre parallels are not dfficult to find using the concordance under ndr/nēder (e.g. judg 11:30 3 I ; I Sam 1:11; 2 Sam I5:7f), They confirm that the observed compositional elements compnse ele­ments ofthe genre "vow," 2 5 5 The stylistic feature of the etymological figure in the in­troduction is firmly attached to this genre. The genre thus has its lifè setting (cornpare ref­erence works under "vow") at hoíy (I Sam I) or at profane (2 Sam 15) locations in the mouth of individuals who are m a threatening or dangerous Situation. In 28:20 22, the genre is thus used consistently with rts life setting. It is also demonstratecî that the vow itseh' belongs with a setting of the exposition of a threatening Situation. Thus, jacob's threatening journey must also have been narrated with the images of 28:20- 22, On the other hand, as already evaluated with the approach to the development of Gen 28, it cannot already have had an oracular promise for the same Situation.7"0

An investigation of the genre history in 28:20-22 could also bring insight into the age of the transmission historical change.

2. T h e Trad i t ion His tor ical Approach

The question of the intellectual world of Gen 28:1 Off mvolves a seines of aspeets, as developed m §8 above.2"'7 One should ask about the following for each of the text's developmental stages. One should ask about participation in the particular world view with its thought pattern, and, as necessary. where the text. currently deviates and tran­scends that world view. One should ask about the religious and theological convictions; about the processed store of knowledge, awareness, and material; about tne mpact of terms; and finally about fixed themes and concepts whch are adopted. A transmission like Gen 28 which has such a long history of growth certainly also refleets considerable changes in the intellectual world.

Even an in i t ia l sweeping overview makes such changes in world virw and re­ligious convictions quite apparent w i t h perspectives f rom the history o f re l ig ion and theology. These perspectives inelude: a comprehensively simple hor izon o f the d iv in i t y in the holy stone o f Bethel; then Bethel as the locat ion o f a

255 Richter demonstraled tliis in his investigation mentioned in footnote 219. 256 See above, p. Iii5ff. 25" See above, p. Ii55ff.

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divine palače related to a G o d o f heaven and earth; God's dwel l ing i n heaven and the mediat ion o f God's work on earth whose background presupposes a comprehensive perspective on the w o r l d as well as an arehiteetural standard o f diverse temple and palače construet ion. Further, the perspectives inelude die more l imi t ed relationship o f this perspective to the Jacob group. T h e y inelude the tribes o f Israel whose experience o f G o d is simultaneously changing and deepening i n the realm o f historical experience as typif ied for Israel by the an-cestral re l ig ion (signiheance o f G o d in Bethel for the group and the t ravel ing protec t ion for Jacob). Finally, these perspectives inelude the universal h i s to r i ­cal perspective wh ich the divine assertions o f J compel . One can recognize these changes in a number o f fixed contents i n Gen 28, to the degree that one inquires in to die co-existing viewpoints, processes, convictions, and conceptu-alizations, and to the degree that one situates these contents i n Israel mate-rially, chronologically, and geographically. 2 5 8

A specific example: "House of God" in 28; 17 may illustrate the procedure in several outlines of investigations with respect to the history o f the term and the concept. A glance in lexica (HAU THAT, T D O T ) provides a wide speetrum of meaning for boyil Nevertheless, the text reference is limited to a place and to the associate with God. By referringto parallels, one limits this speetrum to dwellings. a temple ora palače (ifthe di-vlnrty is presented as a royal god). Parallels also show that these dwellings can l;e entirely ;n heaven (Ps 36:9) . They do not have to be visible as a building, but stil! may be, as even Gen 28:1 Off presupposes, since Jacob mternalized the. holiness of Bethel by diseovering this quality in the place.

Bethel thus means house, dwelling, temple, or even palače of god. Which is meant more specifically? What cid Canaanite narrators conceptualize who brought this term into the text? And what did they intend as self-evident? O n e should proceed from the constellations of the text and inquire into them purposefully.

It speaks of the "house" of Elohim. Elohim is not very suggestive as the abundance of examples in the concordance demonstrates, but in the context, according to 28:19, the place is named Beth-el, that is house ofthe God El! If one searehes the concordance for parallels to this v iew under Bethel, then one is driven to the more striking reference to "El-Beth-El" in 35:7, which means the god Ei from Bethel! What concepts are associated with the god Ei as the god of a Palestinian sanetuary? Consulting Old Testament parallels with the help of the concordance under 'ēi leads to El as the Canaanite god. By investi­gating the history of religion ones attains clear precision about the place, dwelling. lordship, court, worship, and the relationship to the locai Elim of the god El which were apparently intended as seif-evident in the Canaanite cult etioiogy of Bethel/" Even !imi-

25S Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 199ff, treats the "the iixed Syndrome of significance" in more detail. The Ε version has: fear in the face of the nearness of the divine (28:17), and the ereetion of die pillar (28:18). T h e J version has the self-presentation o f Y H W H f l am Y H W H " in 28:13a), the different promises and the naming of the location in 28:19. One should also inves t íga te the "gate of the temple" (28:17) and "all die tribes of die eardi" (28:14) instead of "all nations."

W Cornpare, for example, T H A T and T D O T under 'el; Wörterbuch der Mythologie (see above, ρ. 32); Maag. "Syrien-Palästina," (see fooüiote 236), p. 563ff,570ff; H . Gese, Die Religionen

Methodologica l ly Direc ted Procedures 197

tations become dear. Nothing is adopted for the development of the cuit etlology of Bethel from the complicated pantheon of Ugarit or from the problem of the relation­ship to Baal. Perhaps the El religion still had a simpler form here. In any case. it concerns a religiosity which coalesces with the sedentary. socio-historicaliy different Canaanite cul-ture: Bethel as sanetuary ofthe neighboring urban culture ofthe Canaanite city Luz.

What conceptualizations are associated with the house of El? Again, one must pro-ceed with the realities presumed in the text. The house Is not simply rem ove d into the heavens, but the house is at the cuit site of Bethel (28:19). On the other hand, El is not on the earth, he is 'nstead m the heavens (28; i 2). He acts on the earth through messengers who enter earth from the heavens at the site of Bethel by a giant ladder, and then return, The sanetuary of Bethel is thus the earthly exit of a building conceptualized as extra-ordinarily high, which reaches into the heavens. The house of El is in this extension of the entire earth and heaven. 'Thus one conceptualizes that Bethel Stands at that spot on the earth where the house of El towers high into the heavens. Bethel Stands at the prominent point where the work of El on the ear th through his messengers begins. From whence does this coneept come? How is it contoured? How is it shaped for the Canaanite cuit etlology? The exegete achieves a precise answer by incorporating corresponding texts and meanings (ineluding pictorial representations) in the presentation of Canaanite reli­gion together with its ancient oriental infiuences (especially those from Mesopotamia). This precision is attamed by informing one's seif from dictionaries and reference works in the fields of the history of religion and Old Testament theology, looking under El, bayit, and temple. If the exegete is familiär with the essay from C. Houtman, "What Did Jacob See in His Dream?" (VT 27 [ 1977]; 337-35 I), then the necessity of re-examining the tra­dition historical and the religio-historical background of the text's assertions about the strueture becomes clear.

3. D e t e r m i n i n g the His tor ica l Setting I f t radi t ion his tory treats the intellectual w o r l d o f the text i n its history,

then the historical setting (§9) treats the text's historical w o r l d by its realities, its social conditions and the experiences o f persons i n i t . T h e historical set­t i ng treats these experiences to the degree that one can observe and master the correlat ion to the historical w o r l d w i t h its events, social condi t ion ing , t radi t ion historical guidelines, and to the degree that the texts themselves ten-tatively allow one to determine. T h e question must be asked for each o f the ascertained text stages separately. However, historically broad questions are de-manded i n some c i r c u m s t a n c e s . : 6 ° Examples o f the sequence o f the procedure are suggested briefly.

In the historically broad perspective one should perhaps treat the following: Where is Bethel (ancient site)? What are the archaeological realities and conclusions about Bethel? What does one know about the history ofthe sanetuary of Bethel? To which po-

Altsvriens (see above, p. 32); F. Stolz, Strukturen und Figuren im Kult von Jerusalem, BZAW 118, Berlin, 1970, esp. p. 149ff; Schmidt, Fatrh oftbe Ohl Testament, p, 138ff. Regarding Bethel in par-ticular, see O. Kißfeldt, "Der Gott Bethel," in Kleine Schriften, vol. 1, 1962, p. 206-233,

26« See above, p. 144ff.

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iitical territory die it belong over the course of the history of Israel? What larger politica! processes could be important for the honzon of the transmission process? (This question is of significance in light ofthe long extensive development of the text which reaches into the post-exilic period.) What processes are associated with the place (pre-lsraelite. con-quest, jeroboam I. Arnos , josiah)? What socio-historical changes can one note for the sanctuary's cirele of worshippers? What (everexpanding) g'"oup of persons re;ates itself to Jacob over the course of time? What is the history of the Institution of the v o w and the tithe, as well as the cuttic object of the pillar (appearance. worship, customs. function)? Relatedly. is it plausible after the time of josiah that Bethel would have been a cultic center with a pillar (cf. the Ρ version of Gen 35)? Examples for specific clarification:the path from Beersheba to Haran via Bethel (Situation ofthe place, old routes); clarification of suliām (iadcler, steps, rarnp); is the stonc pillar as something to lay under a person's head histori­cal understandable as a custom?

A n example for the historical setting o f a specific transmission stage: W e take the J version contained in 28:10,1 3-* 16.

First, one should collect Information about the time, setting, and author ofthe given transmission stage, which in this case is J. As a rule, this Information can be gathered from reference works and Old Testament introduetions, which can then be deepened by Con­sulting the corresponding presentations of the time period In text books or monographs about the history of Israel. This consultation is performeo in order to attain tne most dy-namic perspective possible of the time. If one places J in the Davidic-Solomonic period, as was common eaníer, then the pertinent historical transmission realm is the foriunate formation cif the kingdom from the tribal terrrtories which occurred almost overnight. Characteristics of this historical arena induded: the formation of the territorial state threatening the federation oflsrael;the enormous social and cultural historical upheavals; mastering the problems of this new entity by connection with the transmission, which lead to unrest and rebellicn even in the time of David: the expanded geographica! hori­zon which was observable at that point; the phenomenon of ruling non-lsraelfte areas and people withm one «ingdom, In addition, the older transmissions, which were on!y oriented toward the lane of Israel, offered no extensive clarification for this Situation.

This entire evervt could be experienced as inconceivably fortunate. From the rela­tionship of the leadmg traditions to that point, one would have experienced the unfore-seen reality before one's eyes, but aiso the tension and imtation of that which is new. Questions of the identity of Israel, in the face of the new elements, vjere certamly not lust theoretical. They were problems unavoldably necessitated by the experience of the time.

If one sees the Yahwistic accents in 28 :13-15 f rom this dynamic background, then one can gain intentions related to that time and a profile of the goa.ls of j toward the hearer/reader Experiencing the present as being a large (meaning powerful) people as the descendants of Jacob ·η one's own Sand is not. some unintelligibie, profane-political effect. Rathen it is the redemption of a promise to the ancestors denving from the trust -worthy God, YHWH, This promise was given particularly to Jacob, the progenitor of the people ofthe twelve tribes. Israel had its identity f rom this promise. The generalized promise m 28:1 5b leads mto the present and, for Israel, quaüfied the time between jacob and the great kingdom before them as the eminent confirmalion of the power of

Lnterpreting the His tor ica l ly Determined M e a n i n g o f Gen 28:10—22 199

Y H W H in history. The new perspective of other nations inside and outside the kmgdom is expiained in the promise as the mediation of blessing. Also, the new perspective is g';ven as a value for understanding their history and for orienting political action. When expanded and justifiec m more detail, these suggested profiles demonstrate the funetion of determining the historical setting. Still, they belong already to the. Interpretation.

D . I N T E R P R E T I N G T H E H I S T O R I C A L L Y D E T E R M I N E D M E A N I N G O F G E N 28:10-22 I N I T S V A R I O U S S T A G E S

O F G R O W T H

Of course. the complete explication ofthe content presupposes that ali the pro­cedures are also carried out, in contrast to the necessarily illustrative sketehes m the preceding. This expectation and reasons of space. necessitate that we contmue this type of work for §10 only in areas which illustrate its usage: its procedure, its functional con-neetion to the events from the individual methodological procedures, and the direetions of its inquiry/ 6 As presented, tne Interpretation should primarily be performed by taking up the impressions from the imaginative phase for each transmission stage sepa­rater/."" Next. one should extend the Interpretation to the entire Old testament development. Then, one should add considerations regarding the meaning crthe text in light of our present time. Finally, the entire exegetical work climaxes in an aopropnate English translation of tihe text. We must be satisfied with catchwords. We will note the sections ofthe workbook in parentheses whose approaches provide the acquisition of those results reached.

I . T h e Individual Transmission Stages

T h e formative Canaanite transmission stage belongs to the area o f Canaan­ite settlers i n M i d d l e Palestine (c i ty o f Luz.), perhaps i n the middle o f the second m i l l e n i u m (§§7,8 ,9) . T h e y adopt the existing stone sanetuary at Bethel for the (ehief) god, E l . T h e y establish this process by taking up older narrative threads concerning this sanetuary. T h e y establish the place name Bethel in a cultic etiology. For the worshippers, this narrative clarified the quali ty and the equipment o f the sanetuary (§7) as the preeminent place which E l ehose as the place o f his work in the earthly realm (§8) . T h e event fundamentally val i -dat ing the quality o f Bethel was narrated as the ini t ial event, as the discovery o f the holiness o f the place and as the founding o f the cuit . T h e Strands o f E l , w h i c h were universal and concretely significant for the circle o f worshippers, expanded the pre-Canaanite coneept o f G o d on the stone o f Bethel, These threads artieulate the highest quality* o f the presence o f EJ, l ike other E l sanc-tuaries i n Palestine, each for their respeetive region. T h e y thereby artieulate

2(>l See above., p. 158ff. 2Λ2 See above, p. 175ff.

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the cult ic accessibility o f the highest divine guarantor o f ali endur ing areas o f life, perhaps the essential agrarian areas o f life, at the holy place (§8).

T h e Canaanite cultic etiology was (also) taken over by Jacob group who adapted the Bethel sanetuary (§5) . T h i s adaptation happened, however, i n a changed experiential environment . A previously Seminomad ic group now became a sedentary group who identif ied their leading aneestral god w i t h the Canaanite E l o f that place. By in t roduc ing their ancestor Jacob as the diseov-erer and founder o f tbe cult , they strengthened themselves and legi t imated their claims (§9) . T h e experience o f G o d i n Bethel changed. E l o f Bethel was c o n r ī r m e d as the leading god o f the Jacob group, to w h o m they owed their eonquest. T h e universal implieat ions o f 28:12 could be Condensed, and i n some cases reduced, in to die group (§8).

T h e ineorporat ion o f die individual Jacob story in to a Jacob cycle could provide conf i rmat ion o f this change i n the experience o f god at Bediel (§§4 , 5,7). I t could provide conf i rmat ion as to how large the Israelite cirele o f w o r -shippers m i g h t have been who increasingly traced themselves to Jacob. T h e holiness o f the place Bethel and the power o f the god be ing worshipped ( Y H W H ) is no longer established by the quality o f the place itself ment ioned i n 28:12,17. Rather, the hobness is provided by the promise f rom G o d o f p ro ­tect ion (§§4 ,5 ,7 ) which Jacob reeeived at this place. By this time, the scene is now a meaningful deepening o f the experience that all descendants o f Jacob owe tbc i r existence and their condi t ion to the fulfiUment o f this promise to Jacob. T h e experience o i the aceompanjment and the leading of their own god reaching in to the present t ime had proven Got i to be an effectively sympa-thetic god i n Bethel (§§8 ,9) . Even in diese contingencies, this G o d had been proven by die gif t o f experienced realities in their o w n life conditions.

W e must skip over historical backgrounds and reflections o f the experi­ence o f G o d i n die various shapes o f the Jacob cycle, inc lud ing the ineorpo­ra t ion in to the salvation his tory presentation for all Israel, and for E . S t i l l , we w i l l čast a glance at the Yahwist. As 28:13-* 16 demonstrates, die transmission here attains considerably more and new accentuation f rom the background o f the realities o f the historical locat ion (§9) . bistead o f G o d making h imsel f k n o w n at die unknown place, result ing i n the holiness o f Bediel , Bethel is now just the place where the l ong recognized Y H W H appears. I n the patriarchal per iod, Y H W H here concentrates promises for Israel on Jacob, the father o f the twelve tribes o f Israel. I t is essential for Israel, i n reference to its own experiential reality, that Y H W H unexpectedly appeared to Jacob (28:16). Above all, i t is essential to k n o w what Y H W H promises, w i t h qualifications and stipulations, for the present experience o f Israel i n the eircle o f nations, expanded and made problematic by the new Situation o f the monarehy. 2 6 '

26} See above, p. 192ff.

In t c rp re t ing the His tor ica l ly Deterni ined M e a n i n g o f Gen 28:10-22 201

T h e Interpretation o f the redactional stages o f transmission (§6) must again be by-passed. : M

I I . T h e O l d Testament Development

A n overvievv o f the O l d Testament development shows that the or iginal meaning o f the transmission (establishing a cult ic site i n one's own region as the holy place bestowing god's presence) does not continue. T h e experience of the presence from the cuit site o f Bethel is shifted to the historical condit ion o f Israel by the adoption o f the proto-Israeli te and the Tsraelite transmission. T h r o u g h alternating and internal ly changing horizons, Gen 28 deepens the current experiential w o r l d o f Israel as the place o f divine closeness. I t deepens the event o f divine g i f t and leadership f rom the small radius o f the Jacob group to Israel and its land in the circle o f ali nations.

Even in times o f deprivat ion, the entire state o f the promise i n Gen 28 established expectations and legit imated hopes in JE. This expectarion and lc-g i t ima t ion occurred, for example, i n the t ime o f Josiah and since the t ime o f the exile, i n complete contrast to the opposite experience w h i c h existed. T h e meaning was no longer mastered inside the narrative o f Gen 28 alone, but by its inclusion i n t o the great historical works w i t h the deuteronomist ic and priestly accents that reached f rom the creation to the exile. L i ali o f these transmission stages, the empbasis providing meaning to the text lies i n the promises (or for a t ime i n a tangential l i ne, the vow). F r o m these promises, later Israel has inferred meaning for establishing its identity, for i tself and for Y H W H in the experiential realm o f Israel.

ΓΠ. Consider ing the Text's Movement o f Mean ing i n L i g h t o f O u r Present T i m e

Also here just a tew remarks. T h a t which in many respeets appears ob ruše and s t r ä n g e to the m o d e m reader. does not prove to be s imply as naive in the historical i l l umina t i o n o f the o r ig in and transmission o f the text in the O l d Testament . : w Rather, i t should be perceived as the art iculat ion o f meaning for an experiential wor ld . T h e claim o f the statement, the particular existence, the particular area o f life, even the polir ical dimension o f life and the historical C o m m u n i t y life o f the people should not be perceived as something which is unquestionably aecepted. I t should be perceived as the gif t o f the benevolently g iv ing G o d vvorking in the present. T h r o u g h the story one gleans the amazing feature f rom the miraele, w h i c h is not even surrendered in times o f depriva­t i o n . G o d turns to the earth, a l lows h imself to be found, and actively sustains

264 However, see "The Old Testament Development" in the following section. 265 See above, §11 131 (p. 174f).

202 §11 T H E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

existence. Today, the thoughdessly self-serving aceeptance o f life and the given w o r l d appear i n die m i r r o r o f this text. Likewisc , the text i l luminates how the f i igh t i n to Surrogate areas w h i c h replace the holy, now as b e t ö r e , requires places o f assurance and encounter. T h e text shows how Gen 28 i n its transmis­s ion path protects one from perceiving god as the extrapolation o f wor ld ly values. T h e transmission tendency o f displacing the Canaanite direads o f the narrative i n favor o f the historical experiential realni o f G o d , requires no one to adopt these historically condi t ioned elements no matter how pervasive and powerful their assertions m i g h t be as images. Rather, i t teaches one to see die dcptb of meaning of Gen 28. For the Chr is t ian , this depth is shown i n Chr is t . G e n 28 w o u l d teaeh the Chris t ian to widerstand Chr i s t as the holy place o f God's t u r n i n g to the wor ld ; to understand Chr is t as a person, as a guarantee o f the promise o f God's aceompaniment and sustenance o f life; to understand Chr i s t as die release o f meaning for conquer ingcont rad ic to ry experiences i n the sin, suffering, and death o f the individual , and tbe wor ldwide threat against humani ty; to understand Chr is t as the guide on a path wh ich does not end in ideals w h i c h are realized i n an earthly nat ion, but wh ich lead to G o d over ali the dangerous padis o f human existence. "Jesus speaks to Nathan ie l : 'T ru ly , t ru ly , I say to you, you w i l l see the heavens opened and the angels o f G o d as-cending and descending on die son o f A l a n . ' " ( J o h n 1:51)

A P P E N D I X : L I T E R A T U R E 1 L L U S T R A T 1 N G E H E E X E G E T I C A L T R E A T M E N T O F A T E X T

H.W. Wölff. Der große Jesrccltag (Hosea 2, 1-3). Methodologische Erwägungen zur Auslegung einer alttestamentlichen Perikope. EvTh 12 (1952/53): 78-104 (also in: Wolff, Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testament. ThB 22. Munich, -1973. p. 151-181.

K . Koch. The Growth of die Biblical Tradition. Part 11: Sclcctcd Examples, p. 111-220.

O . l l . Steck. Die Paradieserzählung. Eine Auslegung von Genesis 2,4b-3,24. BSt 60. Neukirchen-Muyn 1970 (=Steck, Wahrnehmungen Gottes, p. 9-116).

E. Zenger. Ein Beispiel exegetischer Methoden aus dem Alten Testament (Ri 9). In: Schreiner. Einführung, p. 97-148.

G. Fohrer. Exegese. § 12 (Gen 28:10201-22).