Old-growth forests - 1

Running header: old-growth forests

Management polices of old-growth forests Timber harvest practices in the Pacific Northwest

Jenny PayneCleveland State University

December 9, 2008

Old-growth forests - 2

Introduction

Old growth forest are an important part of the American experience, once these majestic

spaces are gone they cannot be replaced. The object of this paper is to give a brief overview of

what old growth forests are as well as the biodiversity found in them. The focus of this paper is

to take a look at how logging practices have taken a toll on old growth forests and polices

protecting them. Several agencies that are charged with carrying out enforcement of polices will

be looked and whether they are doing a proper job enforcing those polices .

Description of old-growth forests

Forests that have a majority of trees over 150 years old can be consider old-growth

forests. Many of the trees are of varying ages, with some trees being much older than 150 years

old, and some of the trees being much younger. The best definition of old-growth forests comes

from Rapp, (2003) which defines them as “old-growth forests are ecosystems distinguished by

old trees and related structural attributes…that may include tree size, accumulations of large

dead woody material, number of canopy layers, species composition, and ecosystem function.”

Kaufmann (2007) states that old growth forests can take on various meanings depending on the

individual. Some believe old-growth forests are those that appear to be untouched by human

hands, for others old-growth forests are those where logging has not yet taken place. A majority

of old growth forests in the United States are found in the Pacific Northwest, ranging from

California up to Washington State.

Biodiversity found in old growth forests

Old-growth forests are important aspects as these forests are smaller ecosystems in a

much larger ecosystem. These forests support a wide range of biodiversity amongst plants and

animals, and if sustained properly then a unique ecosystem is formed. Biodiversity of old-

Old-growth forests - 3

growth forests can be quite subtle, not always obvious to the untrained eye. Examples of wildlife

found in old growth forests include black bears, Roosevelt elk, deer, raccoons, squirrels,

porcupines and martens. Marbled murrelet are also found in old growth forest, these birds

are currently on the endanger species list, on the verge of extinction (Coast Redwood,

2008). Bats fly high in amongst the tree tops of old growth forest, and in Oregon spotted owls

make their home in old growth forests. Many types of trees are found in old growth forests,

including the Douglas fir, western hemlock, white fir, red cedar, ponderosa pine, giant sequoias

and Sitka spruce; some of these trees can live up to 3,000 years old (Kaufmann, 2007).

Another aspect of old growth forests are carbon sinks, which can be found in old-growth

forest. Carbon sinks are areas which draw carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and absorb the

CO2 for storage, in old growth forest the carbon is absorbed into the soil. Between 15 to 30

percent of the five billion tons of CO2 Americans emit into the air goes in to carbon sinks around

the country (Ramanujan, 2002). Increased amounts of vegetation help boost CO2 sequestration

in carbon sinks around the United States. An interesting fact about carbon sinks is that during

the 1980’s absorption of CO2 in carbon sinks around the United States increased from 0.37 PgC.y

to 0.71 PgC.y per year (Hurtt, 2002). Carbon sinks are important as they take CO2 out of the air

and store the CO2, so as to allow breathable oxygen to remain.

Policies protecting old growth forests

There are several different polices in place protecting old-growth forests, mainly on

federal land. Thus section covers three of those acts. One act is the Wilderness Act of 1964,

which Congress passed to protect any wilderness area within the United States. Another act

passed by Congress was the National Forest Management Act of 1976, which exclusively

Old-growth forests - 4

protects national forests. A third act that Congress passed was the Forest and Rangeland

Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974.

The Wilderness Act of 1964 was passed to create a National Wilderness Preservation

system to protect parks for the good of society. The act defines what a wilderness area is and

provides clear guidelines on how such areas will be managed. A second aspect of the act goes

on to state which agencies have control over the management of the wilderness areas, as well as

who the agencies will answer to. Basically, the act was established to protect wilderness areas

for future generation’s enjoyment. Lastly, Congress needs to approve any addition of land to any

wilderness area located in the United States; any addition of land cannot exceed 5,000 acres

(United States Congress, 1964).

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires that the Forest Service provide

an environmental impact statement on how wildlife and the environment are protected. The

National Forest Service also has the obligation to regulate the timber companies who harvest

trees on national lands. As part of planning process under NEPA an environmental management

system (EMS) must be put into place. The aim of the EMS is improving how federal agencies,

such as the National Forest Service, perform on environmental issues. An EMS also provides a a

more uniform policy for all federal agencies. Some issues that an EMS deals with are continual

improvement and preventing pollution in national forests (Boling, 2005).

The Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 provides the

National Forest Service with the means to “protect, develop, and enhance the productivity … of

the Nation’s lands and resources and for other purposes” (United States Congress, 1974).

Congress realized the need for managing the intricate system of national forests around the

nation, as well as having policies in place to ensure preservation for the future. Regular

Old-growth forests - 5

assessments are required by the act so as to establish a strategy for continued renewal of old

growth forests.

The National Forest Management Act of 1976 was passed to provide clear guidelines as

to how national forests and rangelands would be managed on a Federal level. The act clearly

states that renewable resources are a high priority for the nation, and appointed the Forest

Service as the department with oversight in managing national forests. Reforestation, as

provided by the act, requires that agencies protecting the parks and forests must have a

renewable source of timber (United States Congress, 1976).

The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) was passed in order to gain greater

accountability in managing forests around the United States. The Forest Services record was

called into question by several in congress on their reliability to manage and protect forests.

Senator Humphrey stated, “the days have ended when the forest may be viewed only as trees and

trees viewed only as timber. The soil and the water, the grasses and the shrubs, the fish and the

wildlife, and the beauty that is the forest must become integral parts of resource managers’

thinking and actions” (Vosick, 2007).

Management Agencies for of old-growth forests

The U.S. Forest Service founded in 1905 as the agency that would protect national

forests. The Forest Service is under the Department of Agriculture and charged with protecting

timber. Currently, the Forest Service manages 186 million acres of forests in forty eight states

(not including Alaska and Hawaii). The Forest Service is also responsible for how wildlife in

National Forests is managed (Langston, 1995). The Forest Service, under the NFMA, must

devise a management plan for each of the 155 national forests in the United States. Management

Old-growth forests - 6

plans must be based on sound scientific study for each particular forest, environmental impact

statements must also be submitted as required by NEPA (Vaughn, 2007).

The National Park Service was founded in 1916 to protect the national parks in the

United States. The Park Service’s main objective is to enforce the existing polices in effect. The

National Park Service is one of several federal agencies in place to protect the forest, including

old-growth forest (Vaughn, 2007). Much like the Forest Service they must fill out environmental

impact statements as well as management plans stating how parks will be managed and

sustained.

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is also responsible for managing how timber

companies harvest trees on National Lands they manage. Currently, the BLM manages 412,600

acres worth of old-growth forests (Edelson, 1987). One concern of environmental groups is that

BLM is not strict enough in managing the land under their control when it comes to regulating

timber companies. According to Edelson (1987) the BLM is logging 15,000 acres annually.

Harvesting of timber in old-growth forest

While there are several threats to old growth forests, such as wild fires and visitors

enjoying the forested landscape, the most discussed threat to old growth forests is harvesting of

timber. Many of the policies discussed earlier were put into place to protect these fragile

ecosystems. Harvesting timber in old growth forests is meant to be strictly monitored, but often

the Forestry Department, and BLM, will allow certain areas to be logged despite the restrictions.

The timber industry is a massive enterprise in the Pacific Northwest, which means the timber

companies have quite a bit of say in how timber is harvested. Many towns are built around

harvesting of timber, accounting for 44 percent of jobs in Oregon and 28 percent of jobs in

Washington state alone (Vaughn, 2007).

Old-growth forests - 7

Several cases have been brought against the National Forest Service, stating that the

environmental impact statement did not meant the required standards for preservation of old

growth forests. One court case was National Wildlife Federation vs United States Forest

Service, in which the Federal District court ruled in National Wildlife’s favor. The ruling stated

that the Forest Service did not properly asses the impacts of logging on the fragile soil of the area

where the timber company wanted to perform logging. If timber companies were allowed to log

in this particular area there was a huge possibility of landslides occurring in the area. Mudslides

cause severe damage to property and other areas of the forest (Edelson,1987).

At one point several environmental groups filed an appeal confronting BLM’s practice of

harvesting timber in old-growth forests. These groups charged that BLM had violated three laws

while doing business with the timber companies. First, BLM did not fully consider the impacts

of logging on the fragile ecosystems of old growth forest, as required by NEPA. Logging in

certain parts of the old growth forests have impacted habitats of spotted owls. Secondly, the

appeal stated that BLM had policies allowing logging to be the dominant use of old growth

forests, and hindering any type of preservation of their lands. Lastly, the appeal stated that BLM

allowed the destruction of habitats for animals like the spotted owl (Edelson, 1987).

Redwood National Park

Redwood National Park is located in northern California near the Oregon border. Coastal

redwoods cover an area of 1.7 million acres in or near Redwood National Park. Of the

remaining 90,000 acres worth of old growth forests in northern California roughly 80,000 acres

are protected by the Federal government. Much of the old growth forests locate here and

throughout California had been harvested by the mid nineteenth century. During the twentieth

century the amount of harvested timber would only increase (Vaughn, 2007).

Old-growth forests - 8

Management of timber harvesting

Logging by timber companies on public lands is regulated under the National Forest

Management Act of 1976, where is it states, “(E) insure that timber will be harvested from

National Forest System lands only where – (i) soil, slope or other watershed conditions will not

… be irreversibly damaged; (ii) there is assurance that such lands can be adequately restocked

within five years after harvest;.” The Act of 1976 puts limits on how many trees timber

companies can be harvested on federal lands. Most of these limits control the amount of timber

harvest and sold from public lands, with annual reports being generated to state how

reforestation is taking place. Timber companies also have to obtain permits from the National

Forest Service in order to log on into federal lands (United States Congress, 1976).

In any management plan there are four main components, fire management, development

of old growth forests, planning and managing landscapes within the forest, and enforcing

protection polices (Rapp, 2003). Fire management includes planning the two main types of fires

high severity fires and smaller patch fires. Some fires happen near the ground, will other take

place near the crowns of the trees. Developing old growth forests ensures a more even growth

pattern throughout the forest, ensuring that the appropriate gaps exist within the forest to allow

for growth of new trees. At times human thinning of trees may become necessary when forests

do not naturally thin themselves. Managing landscapes aids in diversity of forest conditions,

allowing the ecosystem to flourish. Protecting old growth forests is important so that these

forests can remain sustainable in the future (Rapp, 2003).

Sustainability of old growth forest

Sustainability of the forest has been an issue for many over the years, with roots in

eighteenth century Europe. The United States began to realize the importance of preserving their

Old-growth forests - 9

forests in the mid nineteenth century. Harvesting trees without considering the consequences of

the future would have a detrimental effect on the new country. Leading to the creation of several

different agencies, such as the National Park Service. The National Park Service would in later

years have the clout to enforce the many new preservation acts and policies that Congress was

passing.

One group that is advocating better forestry practices is the Andrews group; they have

conducted studies focusing on forests as an ecosystem. After much study the Andrews group

determined that having trees of various ages contributed to the health of the forest, thus

managing how trees were cut down and where was a major issue (Franklin, 1989). Clear cutting

destroys the complex ecosystems destroying the natural flow of the forest. Where as natural

forest fires leaves in its path a richer ecosystem filled with organisms and improved structure.

New plans are being tested in which harvesting of timber is rotated with several larger trees

being left on site. By doing this fragile ecosystems are protected and trees are allowed to

regenerate (Franklin, 1989).

Why people should care

Old-growth forests support a wide range of biodiversity amongst plants and animals, and

if sustained properly then a unique ecosystem is formed. Once these old-growth forests are gone

their unique ecosystem is lost forever. Old-growth forests also absorb excess water from storms,

with much of the water being absorbed by tree roots. These forests provide a buffer zone tween

humans and animals. Life that continues to exist, such as bears, will migrate into areas where

humans live and do business. From all indications interactions between animals and humans

does not always go well. Once the old forests are gone biodiversity the old growth forests

supports will slowly cease to exist.

Old-growth forests - 10

Much can be learned about old growth forests just be visiting them either in national

forests or national parks. Being among the huge trees can bring a sense of peace that often

cannot be found in urban environments. Protecting old growth forests will allow animals to

remain in areas that are natural to them, thus interaction between humans and animals is

minimized. Trees have the ability to absorb huge amounts of water, as well as preventing soil

from forming into mudslides on steep hills. Mudslides have a huge impact on property located

near the base of hills or mountains. Old growth forests are irreplaceable parts of the American

experience.

Conclusion

Many battles between environmental groups and the timber industry have been waged in

the court room in order to protect what is left of old growth forests. Policies that are now in

place are effective, however better enforcement of these policies is crucial to preserve old growth

forests. Stricter requirements for obtaining permits to harvest timber on public lands should be

mandatory for timber companies. Permits should include stricter harvesting practices, mandating

a more selective approach to harvesting of timber in old growth forests. Typically timber

companies easily obtain the required permits to harvest timber on public lands. These permits

allow the timber companies’ liberal access to public lands, in some instances timber companies

will harvest all the tress in a given area.

Better timber practices, such as reforestation, are extremely important for the health of

old growth forests located in the United States. Instead of solely harvesting timber in old growth

forest planting tree farms would be a more sustainable practice for timber companies in the long

run. Tree farms have the potential to grow quickly and can be harvested for their wood at

varying times. One example would be bamboo, which has a short growth growing period of five

Old-growth forests - 11

years, and can grow in many warmer climates including the southwestern United States.

Meanwhile other trees can be planted with varying growing rates, having different growing rates

trees that grow quickly can be harvested while letting longer growing trees take more time to

mature.

Old growth forests are amazing ecosystems that supports many living creatures, animals

and plant life. Without this biodiversity the earth would have no way of reproducing O2, nor can

old growth forests be reproduced quickly. Old growth forests take thousands of years to grow

and mature, hence they are extremely hard to reforest. Hundreds of animals who call the old

growth forest home could become extinct in a short time. Other animals, such as bears, would

migrate to urban areas in order to search for food.

Much of the redwoods in California have disappeared due to an excessive timber

harvesting of the region before old growth forests were protected by law. Preservation of old

growth forests should become a high priority for governments and citizens alike to ensure that

old growth forests continue to exist for future generations to enjoy. Maintaining habitats for

animals that live in old growth forests is a vital part of preservation, as animals are a vital part of

old growth forests. Preservation would include selective timber harvesting, allowing other trees

space to continue growing.

Old-growth forests - 12

Reference

Boling, Edward A.(2005). Environmental management systems and NEPA: a framework for

productive Harmony. Environmental Law Institute, volume 35. Washington D.C.

Retrieved on September 30, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.eli.org

Carey, Eileen V., Sala, Anna, Keane, Robert, Callaway, Ragan M. (2001).Are old forests

underestimated as global carbon sinks? Global change biology, pp. 339 – 344. Blackwell

Science Ltd.

Coast Redwood (2008). Retrieved on December 6, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.

savetheredwoods.org/education/coastredwood.shtml

Franklin, Jerry. (1989). Toward a new forestry. American forests, volume 95, issue 11/12, pp. 37

– 44. Retrieved on September 30, 2008 from the World Wide Web:

Hurtt, G.C., Pacala, S.W, Moorcroft P. R., Caspersen, J., Shevliakova, E., Houghton, R. A, and

Moore III, B. (2002). Projecting the future of the U.S. carbon sink. Proceedings of the

National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), volume 99

number 3, pp. 1389. Retrieved on October 30, 2008 from the World Wide Web:

http://www.pnas.org/content/99/3/1389.full

Langston, Nancy. (1995). Forest dreams, forest nightmares: the paradox of old growth in the

inland west. University of Washington Press. Thompson Shore, Inc.

Ramanujan, Krishna. (2002). Rain helps carbon sinks. NASA. Retrieved on October 15, 2008

from the World Wide Web: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/ CarbonHydrology/

Rapp, Valerie. (2003). New findings about old-growth forests. Science update, issue 4. Pacific

Northwest research station, USDA forest service. Oregon. Retrieved on September 30,

2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw .

Old-growth forests - 13

Sequoia National Forest. (2008). Retrieved on October 28, 2008 from the World Wide Web:

http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/sequoia/

Redwood National Park. (2008). Retrieved on October 28, 2008 from the World Wide

Web:http://www.nps.gov/redw/historyculture/area-history.htm#CP_JUMP_66533

United States Congress (1964, September 3). The Wilderness Act. 16 U.S.C. 1131 – 1136

United States Congress (1974, August 24). Forest and rangeland renewable resources planning

Act of 1974. 16 USCS § 1611

United States Congress (1976, October 22). National Forest Management Act of 1976. 16 U.S.C.

1600.

Vaughn, Jacqueline. (2007). Conflicts over natural resources: a reference handbook. ABC CLIO,

Inc. California. Retrieved on September 30, 2008 from Ohio link: http://ebooks.

ohiolink.edu

Vosick, Diane, Ostergren, David M. and Murfitt, Lucy. (2007). Old growth policy. Ecology and

Society, volume 12, issue 2, article 19. Retrieved September 30, 2008 from the World

Wide Web: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art19/